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C H A P T E R 9

Augustus and theJulio-Claudians

F O C U S Q U E S T I O N S

1 What are the main sources for Augustus andthe Julio-Claudians?

2 How did Octavian come to power in Rome,and how did he come to be called Augustus?

3 What is meant by the term ‘principate’?

4 What changes did Augustus make to Romeand the empire?

5 Why was Augustus such an important figure inRoman history?

6 Who were the Julio-Claudians?

7 What were the circumstances in which eachruler came to power?

8 What were the notable aspects of each ruler’sreign?

9 What role did women play in the time ofAugustus and the Julio-Claudians?

INTRODUCTION

The period from 28 BC to AD 68 is a complex one,rich in political intrigue, family feuds, murder, may-hem and madness. It also saw the extensive growth ofthe Roman Empire and the vast bureaucracy neededto control it. The main focus here is on the individualrulers whose personalities made an indelible impres-sion. The young man Octavian went to Rome suppos-edly to take up his family inheritance, but by the endof his lifetime he had irrevocably changed the Romanpolitical system, creating a dynasty, reviving Romanreligion and traditional values, bringing peace to theworld after years of civil war and changing the waythat Romans regarded their rulers. Augustus realisedthe importance of ‘image’, and his successors also hadto deal with this issue.

There is a wealth of archaeological and written evi-dence for this period, though students need to beaware of the bias of the writers and of the nature of thetimes in which they wrote. Written sources include:l Res Gestae Divi Augusti, a primary source written

by Augustus with specific purposes in mind, that is,to justify his actions and to ensure that the Romanpeople understood the image that he had created.

However, Augustus had put the state in order not by making himself a king or dictator but bycreating the Principate. The empire’s frontiers were on the ocean, or distance rivers. Armies,

provinces, fleets, the whole system was interrelated. Roman citizens were protected by the law.Provincials were decently treated. Rome itself had been lavishly beautified.

Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, I, 8

2 6 9

2 7 0 H I S T O R I C A L P E R I O D S

l Tacitus was a senator and historian who wrote TheAnnals of Imperial Rome at the end of the first cen-tury AD. The Annals is a year-by-year account ofthe reigns of the Julio-Claudians, describing eventsin Rome and the provinces. Tacitus is an importantsource for this period, though very biased in somerespects.

l Suetonius was a Roman biographer who wrote inthe second century AD about the lives of great menand Roman rulers from Caesar to Domitian. He isregarded by some as the ‘gutter press’ of theancient world because he delights in relating scur-rilous anecdotes and describing the sexual habitsof the Romans. Nevertheless, Suetonius does pro-vide some valuable information.

l Cassius Dio was a historian from Bithynia in theeastern part of the Roman Empire who wrote in thelate second and early third century AD. Much ofhis History of Rome is lost, though the text coveringthe years 68 BC to AD 47 has survived. Dio isimportant because, of the ancient writers, his workis the only comprehensive and continuous narrativeof the Augustan principate.

l Velleius Paterculus wrote a History of Rome, onlyfragments of which survive. He was a friend andcontemporary of the emperor Tiberius and greatlyadmired the new regime.

l Other useful sources include Appian, Nicolaus ofDamascus, Josephus, Pliny the Younger, Strabo andSeneca. Horace, Virgil and Ovid were literary fig-ures of the Augustan age and owed much toAugustus’ patronage (some useful insights into thisperiod can be gleaned from their poetry).

Archaeological sources for this period include:l large areas of the city of Rome e.g. The Forum of

Augustus, baths, temples, palaces, circuses, aque-ducts, sewers, villas and mausoleums.

l statuary and portraitsl coins (numismatic evidence)l inscriptions (epigraphic evidence)l the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace).

For a complete understanding of Augustus and theJulio-Claudians it would be useful to read sections ofthe chapter on Roman society and the chapter onAgrippina.

OCTAVIAN

Julius Caesar was assassinated in March 44 BC. Inhis will he nominated his great nephew, Octavian(later to be called Augustus), as his chief heir andadopted son. The eighteen-year-old Octavian went toRome to claim his inheritance and avenge the familymurder. He showed political astuteness even at this

early age, for en-route to Rome he presented himselfto Caesar’s veterans in Italy and assured himself oftheir support by giving them large donations and tak-ing the name of Caesar. On arrival in Rome he foundthat Mark Antony (Caesar’s second in command) hadseized Caesar’s property and assumed leadership ofthe Caesarian party. Octavian responded to this byraising a private army from amongst Caesar’s veterans.He defeated Antony at Mutina in 43 BC.

Antony then fled to Lepidus, the governor of Gaul,and the two men prepared to march on Rome to seizepower. Meeting with Octavian, they reached a settle-ment. Instead of prosecuting a civil war, they formed alegally sanctioned alliance called a triumvirate.They used their dictatorial powers to rid themselves ofpolitical opponents and avenge Caesar’s murder.Treating the Roman world as their personal property,they divided the empire into three parts:l Octavian received Italy as well as Africa, Sicily,

Sardinial Lepidus controlled Narbonese Gaul and Spainl Antony gained Transalpine and Cisalpine Gaul.

In 42 BC the triumvirs successfully defeatedBrutus and Cassius, the main instigators of Caesar’smurder. After this, they further divided the empire:l Lepidus received only a part of Africa because he

was suspected of intriguing with Sextus Pompey(pirate leader who controlled Sicily)

l Octavian ruled the western part of theMediterranean

l Antony kept watch on Italy by his control ofTransalpine and Cisalpine Gaul. Additionally, heproceeded to the East to raise money for theParthian campaign and settle the eastern provinces.In 40 BC Antony married Octavian’s sister,

Octavia, to strengthen the triumviral alliance. WhileAntony was in the East, he began a relationship withQueen Cleopatra VII of Egypt. He needed her militaryand financial support in his campaign against theParthians. Rome was still the centre of power, andAntony’s absence lost him the political initiative inthe East. By 36 BC, Octavian had defeated the pirateleader Sextus Pompey and eliminated Lepidus fromthe triumvirate (on the charge that he tried to under-mine Octavian’s legions). Lepidus was stripped of hispower and was installed as pontifex maximus,finally dying in 13 BC.

Antony fathered a number of children by Cleopatraand married her (while still married to Octavia). Hewas seduced by the power and the wealth of the East.A magnificent Roman triumph was held inAlexandria for Antony’s Armenian victories, at whichoccasion he styled himself as an Eastern king. Antonyformally recognised Caesarion (Cleopatra’s son by

A U G U S T U S A N D T H E J U L I O - C L A U D I A N S 2 7 1

Timeline: Augustus and the Julio-Claudians

AUGUSTUS

63 BC Birth of Gaius Octavius

46 BC Accompanied his great uncle Julius Caesar in his

triumph through Rome

44 BC Caesar assassinated; Octavian nominated as

Caesar’s son

43 BC Given rank of senator and propraetor to engage

Antony at battle of Mutina

Formed Second Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus

for five years

40 BC Married Scribonia (relative of Sextus Pompey)

Treaty of Brundisium with Antony, who marries

Octavia

39 BC Divorced Scribonia to marry Livia early in 38

38 BC War with Sextus Pompey

37 BC Treaty of Tarentum—triumvirs extend their

powers for five years

36 BC Sextus Pompey defeated; Lepidus no longer a triumvir

32 BC Antony divorced Octavia; Octavian declared war on Cleopatra

31 BC Battle of Actium

31–23 BC Consul

30 BC Death of Antony and Cleopatra; Octavian took control of Egypt and its

treasure

Tribunician power

29 BC Celebrated triumph; closed temple of Janus

28 BC Held census; reduced the Senate to 800; became princeps senatus; created

Praetorian Guard; reduced number of legions from 60–28

27 BC 13 January—transferred state to the Senate and people of Rome

16 January—the Senate gave him the title ‘Augustus’; month of Sextilis renamed

August

Given control of Spain, Gaul and Syria for ten years

Formed the Praetorian Guard

27–25 BC Campaigned; organised Spain and Gaul

Augustus

Julius Caesar) as the legitimate heir of Caesar and theco-ruler of Egypt. This was a direct threat toOctavian’s position.

Octavian cleverly used Antony’s behaviour to swaypublic opinion in Rome. He published Antony’s will,which left parts of the empire to Cleopatra and theirchildren. In 32 BC the alliance between Antony andOctavian completely broke down when Antony for-mally renounced his marriage to Octavia. The Senatestripped Antony of his powers and declared waragainst Cleopatra.

The forces of Antony and Cleopatra were defeatedat the battle of Actium in Greece in 31 BC, andAntony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Octavianwas now the supreme ruler of the Roman world.

For discussionu How did Antony’s behaviour undermine his

position at Rome? How was Octavian able to usethis to his advantage?

u How did Octavian ultimately succeed?


25 BC Critically ill

23 BC Critically ill, resigned consulship

The Senate gave him maius imperium proconsulare, tribunicia potestas, right of

veto, control of the Senate

23-22 BC? Conspiracy of Murena

22 BC Charge of corn supply

21 BC Daughter Julia married Agrippa (Augustus’ friend)

22–19 BC In the East

19 BC Received imperium consulare

18–17 BC Second purge of the Senate,

Moral and religious reforms

17 BC Officially adopted his grandsons Gaius and Lucius Caesar as sons

15–13 BC Resided in province of Gaul

13 BC Powers of Augustus and Agrippa extended for five years

12 BC Became pontifex maximus after death of Lepidus

Death of Agrippa

11 BC Third purge of Senate

Step-son Tiberius married Julia (Augustus’ daughter)

9 BC Dedicated Ara Pacis

8 BC Powers extended for ten years

Second census

6 BC Tiberius given tribunicia potestas

5 BC Gaius Caesar given title ‘prince of youth’

2 BC Given title pater patriae

Banished his daughter Julia for improper behaviour

Lucius Caesar made a ‘prince of youth’

AD 1 Gaius Caesar consul

AD 2 Death of Lucius Caesar

AD 3 Given another ten years of rule

AD 4 Death of Gaius Caesar

Fourth purge of the Senate

Tiberius given tribunician power for ten years

AD 6 Created military treasury

AD 9 Social and marriage laws

AD 13 Deposited will with the Vestal Virgins

Renewed tribunician power of Tiberius

AD 14 Third census

Death of Augustus

TIBERIUS

42 BC Birth of Tiberius Claudius Nero

38 BC Mother and father divorced so that Livia Drusilla (mother) could marry Octavian

33 BC Delivered funeral oration for his father

? Married Vipsania Agrippina (daughter of Marcus Agrippa)

20 BC Received the standards lost by Crassus

Restored Tigranes to Armenian throne


12 BC Forced to divorce Vipsania to marry Agrippa’s

widow, Julia (Augustus’ daughter)

12–9 BC Reduced Pannonia

9 BC His beloved brother Drusus died on campaign

9–7 BC Campaigned in Germania

6 BC Augustus gave him tribunician power for

five years, retired to Rhodes

AD 2 Returned to Rome

AD 4 Formally adopted by Augustus and recognised

as Augustus’ successor

Forced to adopt his nephew Germanicus

AD 4–6 Given tribunician power for ten years and imperium

proconsulare

Dealt with revolt in Germany

AD 6–9 Dealt with Pannonian revolt

AD 13 Tribunician power renewed for ten years

AD 14 Became ruler on Augustus’ death

AD 17 Germanicus given a triumph maius imperium

AD 18 Held a consulship with Germanicus

AD 19 Sudden death of Germanicus

AD 21 Sejanus, prefect of the Praetorian Guard, became Tiberius’ trusted aide

Held consulship with son Drusus

AD 23 Death of his son Drusus

AD 26 Retired to Villa Jovis on Capri

AD 29 Agrippina (Germanicus’ widow) and son Nero arrested

Death of his mother Livia

AD 30 Germanicus’ son Drusus arrested

AD 31 Held consulship with Sejanus

Sejanus killed

AD 37 Death of Tiberius

GAIUS

AD 12 Birth of Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus

AD 14–19 Travelled to Germany and the East with parents

AD 19 Death of his father Germanicus

AD 20–28 Lived with his mother in Rome

AD 29 Death of his mother Agrippina

AD 31 Death of his brother Nero

Elected as pontifex

AD 32–37 Lived with Tiberius on Capri

AD 33 Quaestor

Death of his brother Drusus

AD 35 Married to Junia Claudilla

AD 37 Became ruler on Tiberius’ death, supported by the Praetorian prefect Macro

Declared Tiberius’ will invalid

Tiberius


Shared the consulship with his uncle Claudius

Serious illness in October

AD 38 Death of Tiberius Gemellus (Tiberius’ grandson)

and Macro

Death of his sister Drusilla, whom he made a god-

dess

Married Lollia Paulina

AD 39 Second consulship; quarrelled with the Senate;

deposed the consuls

Married Milonia Caesonia, birth of daughter Drusilla

Conspiracy against him

AD 40 Spent time in Gaul and on the Rhine

Sole consul

Conspiracies against him

AD 41 Fourth consulship

Murdered on 24 January

CLAUDIUS

10 BC Birth of Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus

Physical infirmity kept him out of public office

Held an augurate at some time during Augustus’ reign

9 BC His father Nero Drusus died in Germany

AD 37 Consul with Gaius

Death of his mother Antonia

AD 39 Married to Valeria Messalina

AD 41 Became ruler with the help of the Praetorian Guard;

poor relations with the Senate throughout reign

because of this

Exiles returned to Rome

Son Britannicus born

AD 42 Given title pater patriae

Unsuccessful revolt by Scribonianus—200

equestrians and thirty-five senators killed

Daughter Octavia born

Consul

AD 43 Reorganised the imperial fleet, allowed legionaries to

marry

Consul

Conquest of Britain

AD 44 Returned from Britain to celebrate triumph

Reorganised praetors and quaestors

AD 47 Celebrated Secular Games

Consul

AD 47–8 Used power of censor to curtail the Senate

AD 48 Messalina ‘married’ C. Silius and was executed with her followers

Claudius

Gaius


AD 49 Married his niece Agrippina

AD 50 Claudius adopts Agrippina’s son, Nero

AD 51 Afranius Burrus became commander of the Praetorian Guard

Consul

Grain shortage at Rome

AD 52 Fucine tunnel opened

AD 54 Death of Claudius (from mushroom poisoning?)

NERO

AD 37 Birth of Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus

AD 39 Mother Agrippina exiled

Lived with his aunt Domitia Lepida

AD 40 Death of father

AD 41 Agrippina recalled from exile

AD 49 Claudius married Agrippina

Seneca selected as his tutor

Betrothed to Claudius’ daughter Octavia

AD 50 Adopted as Claudius’ son

AD 51 Assumed toga virilis (a sign of adulthood)

AD 53 Married Octavia

First public speech

AD 54 Became the ruler after Claudius’ death

AD 55 Death of Claudius’ son Britannicus

Agrippina removed from power

AD 59 Death of Agrippina

Celebrated Youth Games

AD 60 Celebrated Neronian Games

AD 62 Death of Burrus

Tigellinus and Faenius Rufus became the commanders of the Guard

Divorced and killed Octavia

Married Poppaea Sabina

AD 63 Birth and death of daughter, Claudia

AD 64 Great Fire at Rome—persecution of the Christians

Began work on the Domus Aurea (Golden House)

AD 65 Conspiracy of Piso

Deaths of Seneca and the poet Lucan

Death of Poppaea

AD 66 Married Statilia Messalina

Deaths of Petronius, Thrasea Paetus and Barea Soranus

Tiridates of Armenia visited Rome

Tour of Greece

AD 67 Death of Corbulo

Declared the liberation of Greece and celebrated the Greek Games

AD 68 Vindex revolted against Nero but is defeated

Galba, governor of Spain, successfully revolted against Nero

Death of Nero

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Understanding and usingthe sourcesRefer to the timeline for Augustus. What actions didAugustus take between 31 and 27 BC?

ROMAN GOVERNMENT

Up to the time of Julius Caesar, the Romans had arepublican form of government. Res publica means‘public things’; to the Romans, the republic meant ‘thestate’. In this period the state was governed by:l the people: Roman citizens who met in various

assemblies to elect magistrates and officialsl the magistrates: elected by the people to carry out

specific dutiesl the Senate: mainly drawn from the aristocratic

classes of Rome and from ex-magistrates. By thelate republic the Senate numbered 900. Initially, anadvisory body, during the republic it became themost powerful institution, wielding legislative, eco-nomic, social and executive authority. A decree ofthe Senate was known as a ‘senatus consultum’,which, though framed as advice, was accepted aslaw. The senior member of the Senate was honouredwith the title of princeps senatus, or first statesman.

The cursus honorumThe holding of political office was vitally important toRoman men. A Roman was judged a success by thepolitical heights he had reached. There was a strict

JULIUS CAESAR = Cornelia M. Atius Balbus = Julia I

Mucia = Pompey = Julia II

Sextus Pompeius

C. Octavius = Atia

Scribonia = AUGUSTUS = Livia = Tiberius Claudius Nero Octavia = Antony

M. Agrippa = Julia III = TIBERIUS = Vipsania, daughter of Agrippa (and Pomponia) Drusus Sen. = Antonia

Agrippa Postumus

Lucius Caesar

Gaius Caesar

Julia IV the

Younger

Agrippina = Germanicus the Elder

Drusus jun. = Julia Livilla the Elder

Tiberius GemellusLivia Julia

Julia Livilla the Younger

Drusilla GAIUS (Caligula)

Drusus Caesar

Nero Caesar

AGRIPPINA THE YOUNGER

CLAUDIUS = Messalina

NERO = Octavia Britannicus

Gn. Domitius Ahenobarbus

= =

=

=

marriage children

figure 9.3 The cursus honorum

figure 9.2 Genealogical table of the Julian family

CENSOR: held census regulated membership of the Senate supervised moral conduct

CONSUL: chief executive commanded the army

AEDILE: responsible for corn supply, public order, roads, games and buildings

PRAETOR: responsible for judicial matters

QUAESTOR: responsible for financial matters

ARMY SERVICE: a young man usually began his ten years of military service at age seventeen

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THE TRIBUNE OF THE PEOPLE: Held tribunicia potestas Had power of veto over the magistrates Could summon the Senate and introduce legislation


order of offices and magistracies that men wereexpected to undertake. This was called the ‘cursushonorum’. Magistrates were elected, and they pro-gressed in order up this ‘ladder’ of offices, holdingeach position for one year only. The pinnacle of aman’s career was the office of consul. The numbers ofthese magistrates changed throughout the late repub-lic. ‘Potestas’ is the general term for the power held bymagistrates. This potestas gave them legal power tocarry out defined tasks.

The higher-order magistrates—praetors, consuls,military tribunes and dictators—held supreme admin-istrative power called ‘imperium’, which gave the hold-ers authority on such matters as law, militarycommand, policy making, life and death. After theirterm as consuls and praetors, men were sent to governthe provinces and were called ‘proconsuls’ and‘propraetors’.

Tribune of the peopleIn the early republic, this office represented the needsof the ordinary people of Rome (the plebeians) againstthe autocratic power of the consuls. The tribunes’ rightof veto meant that they could challenge any official.Their power was called the ‘tribunicia potestas’, andcould be used only in the city of Rome. Part of theirofficial function was to summon the Senate and intro-duce legislation.

The ‘First Settlement’ of 27 BCTechnically, the triumvirate ceased when Lepidus wasousted in 36 BC. After this the two most powerful mencompeted for control of the Roman world. Antony’sdefeat at Actium ensured Octavian’s supremacy, whoruled through his triumviral powers and the consul-ship. It was important that Octavian legitimise hispolitical position; therefore, in 27 BC he handed backhis powers to the Senate and people of Rome. Bruntand Moore suggest that he held ‘extraordinary, dictato-rial powers’, which he then relinquished.1 In chapter34 of the Res Gestae, Augustus himself wrote:

In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I hadextinguished civil wars, and at a time when withuniversal consent I was in complete control of affairs, Itransferred the republic from my power to the dominionof the Senate and people of Rome.

An excerpt of Augustus’ speech to the Senate followsin Source 9.1.

S O U R C E 9 . 1

‘Yet for all that, I shall lead you no longer, and nobodywill be able to say that all the actions of my career todate have been undertaken for the sake of winningsupreme power. On the contrary, I lay down my office inits entirety and return to you all authority absolutely—authority over the army, the laws and the provinces—notonly those territories which you entrusted to me, butthose which I later secured for you. Thus my deeds inthemselves shall also bear witness to the fact that fromthe very beginning I had no desire to rule . . .’

In this way Octavian’ s leadership was confirmedboth by the Senate and by the people. Even so, he stillwished to be regarded as a representative of the people,and hence while he undertook the whole care andsupervision of public business on the ground that itdemanded a special degree of attention, he announcedthat he would not personally govern all the provinces,and that those which he did take on, he would notcontinue to govern permanently . . .

When Octavian had finally put his plans into effect,the name Augustus was conferred on him by the Senateand the people . . .

Through this process the power both of the people andof the Senate was wholly transferred into the hands ofAugustus, and it was from this time that a monarchy,strictly speaking, was established. It would certainly bemost truthful to describe it as a monarchy, even if at alater date two or three men held the supreme power atthe same time. It is true that the Romans hated theactual name of monarch so vehemently that they did notrefer to their emperors either as dictators or kings oranything similar.

Cassius Dio, Roman History, trans. by I. Scott-Kilvert, pp. 129, 135, 140

In 27 BC, the Senate voted that Octavian shouldreceive, for a period of ten years, the command andadministration of the provinces of Spain, Gaul andSyria. Egypt had been under his control since 30 BCand he continued to administer it. He was allowed toguide the administration of the senatorial provincesthrough his auctoritas. This is a vital term for theunderstanding of Augustus’ power. Not easily defined,it is often translated as ‘influence’ and ‘prestige’. Inthe Res Gestae, chapter 34, Augustus distinguishesbetween power and auctoritas. He wanted the Romansto believe that he did not rule through power or force,but rather that his every word was obeyed because ofthe authority that he possessed.

He was given the title ‘Augustus’. This title borereligious overtones, suggesting someone who wassacred and holy, and ‘symbolised both the gratitudefelt towards him as the saviour for the state and the

1P. A. Brunt & J. M. Moore (eds), Res Gestae Divi Augusti,Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1988, p. 9.


pre-eminence of his position’.2 Octavian was pleasedwith this title, and from 27 BC, he took it as his name.The title ‘imperator’ (military general) had been givento him in 43 BC after the victory at Mutina, but it nowbecame part of his name, constituting an expression ofunlimited imperium. He also received the civic crownthat was given for saving the lives of citizens in battleand the symbolic golden shield.

Understanding and usingthe sourcesu Why did Augustus take this action in 27 BC?u How did the Senate and people of Rome respond?u How did Augustus wish to be regarded?u What was Augustus’ political position after 27 BC?

For discussionCassius Dio refers to Augustan rule as a ‘monarchy’.Do you agree? Consult other sources.

The ‘Second Settlement’ of 23 BCAugustus spent time in the provinces between 27 and23 BC, and resigned the consulship upon recovery.The consulship had been held successively by variouspolitical leaders, but a perpetual tenure of this officecompletely violated republican precedent. Augustus’ongoing tenure of consular office created some ill feel-ing among the nobles, who felt that their politicalcareers were being curtailed. Augustus became awareof the nobles’ hostility on this issue and decided todeal with the matter by resigning. It is important tounderstand that Augustus relinquished only the con-sulship in 23 BC—he retained the imperium that hehad received in 27 BC and therefore did not surrendermilitary control.

Because Augustus had resigned his consulship, theSenate passed a number of decrees that gave himextra compensatory powers. As a patrician he couldnot be a tribune, so he received the power of the tri-bunate. The tribunate had been a constant source oftrouble in the late republic, so by separating the powerfrom the office Augustus ensured that no one wouldwant to use the tribunate for championing populistcauses. This was the one constitutional base that couldnot be fully justified because no other leader had heldthe tribunate for life. The tribunician power gave him:l personal inviolabilityl the right to give aidl the right to veto decisions of the Senate and

magistrates

l the right to introduce measures into the Senatel the right to intercedel the right to summon the assemblyl the right to compel reluctant citizens to obey l the right to speak first in the Senate.

He used the tribunician power to date the years ofhis reign because of its popular appeal rather than itspracticality. He used it to disguise the reality of power,which depended on imperium.

The resignation of the consulship meant thatAugustus no longer held any imperium within theboundary, or pomerium, of Rome. The Senate accordedAugustus a special exemption, whereby he did not for-feit his imperium when he entered the city of Rome.The Senate defined his powers as ‘imperium maiusproconsulare’, giving him superior imperium to othermagistrates. This meant, in effect, that other procon-suls were subject to his orders. Every five years thisimperium was renewed, so that Augustus held thisoffice for life. The effect of this power was thatAugustus could interfere in any province anywhere inthe Roman world. It is important to note that Augustusmakes no mention of this power in the Res Gestae.

For discussionWhy do you think Augustus deliberately avoids anymention of his maius imperium?

S O U R C E 9 . 2

But after recovering from his illness he brought his willinto the Senate, intending to read it out to prove he hadappointed no successor to his power. But he did not readit, since no one allowed it . . . Augustus . . . then resignedhis consulship. From the time public affairs hadstabilised, he himself and most of his colleagues hadheld their consulships for a full year, and he wished tostop this practice, so that as many as possible might beconsuls . . . he won praise by resigning . . . The Senatethen voted that Augustus should be tribune for life withthe right to bring one motion before the Senate at everymeeting on any subject, even when he was not consul,and allowed him to have proconsular power once and for all, so that he did not give it up by crossing thepomerium into the city, and need not renew it, andmade this power greater than the power of each governorin every province. From this time on, Augustus and theemperors after him have used not only the other powersbut tribunician powers too, as a legal right, but neitherAugustus nor any other emperor has held the actual titleof tribune.

Cassius Dio, Roman History, cited inC. Ehrhardt, Classical Studies for Schools, pp. 18–19

2Ibid., p. 10.


Understanding and usingthe sourcesu According to Cassius Dio, why did Augustus resign

the consulship in 23 BC?

u What powers did the Senate give him in return?

u How important was tribunician power to Augustus?

u What other powers was he given?

Overview of the powers and titlesof Augustusl In 22 BC Augustus was offered even more power by

the Senate and people of Rome, but he refused it.In 23/22 BC, there had been a serious conspiracyagainst him led by Murena and a severe grainshortage in Rome. The Romans believed that onlyAugustus could save them in their hour of peril,and offered him the dictatorship and the consulshipfor life. Augustus refused these offers of power, butsuccessfully intervened to supervise the grain sup-ply. Cassius Dio tells us that he understood thehatred these titles would bring. It is interesting tonote that in Chapter 5 of the Res Gestae, Augustusmentions the powers that he refused, but makes noreference to the maius imperium, which heaccepted.

l Dio tells us that in 19 BC Augustus received theimperium of the consuls for life, the right to sitbetween the two consuls and the right to use thefasces, the symbols of power associated with themagistrates. Augustus used his consular prerogativewhen he received the names of candidates for theconsular and praetorian elections.

l In 28 BC he became princeps senatus, which gavehim the right to speak first in the Senate. Augustuschose the name ‘princeps civitatis’, first citizen inthe Roman state, to describe his pre-eminent posi-tion. This title was merely a courtesy, expressing nodefined functions. However, it cleverly impliedsupremacy, authority and also some form of equal-ity. As princeps, Augustus was regarded as a superpatron of the Roman state. Using this title,Augustus, for example, recommended prominentequestrians to the Senate.

l In 28 BC Augustus conducted a census withAgrippa as his colleague. The censor was an impor-tant Roman magistrate, without imperium, whoseresponsibility was to revise the citizen andSenatorial rolls. Augustus was asked in 19 BC to bethe sole supervisor of laws and morals. As he notesin the Res Gestae, he refused to take this office withsupreme power, for this would imply a dictatorship,and he was always careful to avoid any hint ofdictatorial power. He did, however, take the censo-rial power with a colleague on at least three otheroccasions.

l Augustus attained the office of pontifex maximus in12 BC when Lepidus died. Using this office, hestimulated a revival of the public religion andrebuilt Roman temples.

l In 2 BC he received the crowning honour when theSenate conferred on him the title of pater patriae, or‘father of his country’. Augustus concludes hisaccount of his lifelong achievements with details ofthis honour.

Activity: researchu What was the paterfamilias? What was the

importance of the father in Roman society?

u What was the significance of the title pater patriaefor Augustus?

Augustus’ constitutional position was novel in thathe held tribunician power, and was proconsul, impera-tor, consul and later pontifex maximus. He had noclearly defined title; instead, he had a variety of titles,which he used to great effect.

Activity: researchDraw up a chart titled ‘Augustus’ powers and hon-ours’. In the first column, list these titles/powers:Augustus, pontifex maximus, pater patriae, consul-ships, tribunicia potestas, maius imperium, princeps,imperator. Then complete the chart as shown onp. 281.

figure 9.4 The fasces—axes and rods thatsymbolised the power of magistrates who had imperium


Will the real Augustus please stand up?You can read Suetonius’ description of Augustus’physical appearance in his Life of Augustus, Chapters79–81. Augustus had a few physical defects, but hispublic image suppressed these. An important aspectof Augustus’ leadership was this public image, whichis reflected in the Res Gestae and in Augustan litera-ture and monuments (buildings, statues).

When Augustus came to power in 27 BC he realisedthat because of actions in his early career—the forma-tion of the triumvirate with Antony, the proscrip-tions, his lacklustre performance in battle, histreachery towards friends—he had to cultivate hispublic image carefully. Augustus tried to change his image from that of tyrant to that of father of hiscountry. He wished to be remembered as:l a triumphant generall a saviour of citizens’ livesl a bringer of peacel a religious leaderl a conservative traditionalistl the saviour of the city of Rome.

As early as 36 BC, Augustus insisted that hisspeeches be written down. In 13 BC, he listed hisachievements thus far, and read them to the Senate.The very first sentence of the Res Gestae shows thisnew image of Augustus:

At the age of nineteen, on my own responsibility and atmy expense, I raised an army, with which I successfullychampioned the liberty of the republic when it wasoppressed by the tyranny of a faction.

Here he is trying to portray himself as a private citizenwho had taken on the whole burden of government. Helists games and circuses and the money that he spenton Rome because he wished to prove that he was achampion of the common people.

He recognised that there were different types ofpropaganda for different types of people:l art and architecture would appeal to everyonel slogans on coins and visual representations would

impress the massesl poetry and history would influence the literate

upper classes.Augustus was also very aware of criticism, and used

every means to overcome it.

S O U R C E 9 . 3

The real significance of Augustus’ greatest honour, theconferral of his new title, was clear from the start. Theyoung Octavian had once thought of having himselfcalled Romulus, but by 27 BC this would not have suitedhis new image, since it smacked of kingship. Augustuswas an adjective with a broad range of meanings,including ‘stately’, ‘dignified’ and ‘holy’. It could also beconnected with the verb augere. (to increase) After, all,had he not made the Empire grow? . . . As an honorifictitle, Augustus was a brilliant choice, for even as heofficially relinquished power, it surrounded him with aspecial aura, ‘as if the name alone had alreadyconferred divinity upon him’ (Florus, II, 34, 66). TheSenate also wanted to rename the month Sextilis andcall it Augustus, an honour which he did eventuallyaccept. His title was thus immortalised in the Romancalendar. A new portrait of Caesar Augustus (as he wasnow commonly known) must have been created aboutthis time . . . The face is now characterised by a calm,elevated expression and the spontaneous turn of the headin the youthful portrait has given way to a timeless andremote dignity. Instead of the tousled hair over theforehead, each lock has been carefully arrangedaccording to classical principles of symmetry . . . It wasreproduced in every part of the empire and fixed thevisual image of Augustus for all time, although it hadlittle to do with his actual appearance . . . The newportrait type is indeed the visual equivalent of the title‘Augustus’ and exploits all the best possible associationsof the name. Augustus’ extraordinary position in theRoman state is here defined in art.

P. Zanker, The Power of Images in the Age ofAugustus, pp. 98–9

Augustus was always portrayed in traditional ways,wearing either the toga, a military uniform or the garbof the pontifex maximus.

Title When For Meaning Explanationdid he how of title of power/gain this? long? title

Augustus

figure 9.5 Thenew image ofAugustus


P R O F I L ET H E P R I M A P O R TA S TAT U E

This is a famous and important statue showingAugustus’ military image. It celebrates Augustus asthe mighty conqueror of the Parthians and showsthe recovery of the standards captured by theParthians at the battle of Carrhae in 53 BC (it mayalso have represented auctoritas). It was placed inLivia’s villa at Prima Porta (hence the name), andwas probably commissioned by the Senate or some-body close to the princeps. It depicts Augustusdressed as a general; wearing a cuirass (or breast-plate) and ceremonial cloak; holding a spear; wear-ing footwear associated with heroes and gods, notmortals.

The statue also shows Eros (the god of love) rid-ing a dolphin at Augustus’ feet—this is believed torepresent a link with Venus Genetrix, the patron ofthe Julian family. The central feature of the cuirassdepicts a Parthian king handing back the insigniaof the Roman legions to a military figure. Not onlydid the statue celebrate a victory over the Parthiansbut it symbolised the perfect world order broughtabout by Augustus who appears as ‘father of theworld’.

S O U R C E 9 . 4

Although more than 200 ancient sculptural portraitsof the emperor Augustus still exist, we do not knowwhat the man really looked like. The emperorAugustus, it seems, had trouble with his image—andhe fixed it just as many a politician would today:with good public relations . . . In the sculptures of thePrima Porta type, the features are so unrealistic as toconstitute an ‘artificial face’, according to ProfessorPaul Zanker, director of the University of Munich’sInstitute of Classical Archaeology. The emperor’smotives for having his face idealised have been afocus of scholarly attention. Zanker, in a recentinterview in Munich, said: ‘One should not think inthe categories of modern advertising . . . It was notadvertising to be elected, or anything like that . . .Augustus had the power already, and theself-representation did not serve directly to help retainit . . . the portrait was supposed to show that he hadideal human qualities and, at the same time, that hestood for a culture that combined the best traditions.’Another specialist, John Pollini of Johns HopkinsUniversity Department of Classics, said [the PrimaPorta] ‘was part of a representational program whichgave Romans hope for the future under Augustus, asa divinely inspired leader. He claimed to be acting asthe agent of the gods on earth.’

Sydney Morning Herald, 1988

Understanding and usingthe sourcesu What image was Augustus trying to promote?

figure 9.6 The Prima Porta statue of Augustus


CoinsAugustus used coins as a concentrated propagandatool. He used coins to promote his main themes suchas:l peacel victory and military successesl his family and the establishment of the dynastyl his titles and honoursl his great generosity.

Augustan literatureIt was during the age of Augustus that some of thegreatest works of Latin literature were produced. Thiswas the ‘golden age’ of literature. To be a writer was aprecarious occupation, and to earn a living it was nec-essary to have a patron—such as Augustus himself, orMaecenas, Marcus Agrippa, Asinius Pollio or MarcusValerius Messalla. As patrons, Maecenas andAugustus actively encouraged the poets of the time,bestowing estates and riches upon them. In return, thepoets Virgil, Horace and Ovid, in particular, wereexpected to celebrate Augustus’ heroic military deeds.Moreover, as clients of the state, these poets wereexpected to publicise government policies and pro-mote a positive image.

Maecenas (Gaius Maecenas 74 or 64–8 BC)l friend and adviser of Augustus (unofficial minister

for propaganda)l greatest literary patron of the agel friend and patron of Horace, Virgil and Propertius.

Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus 65–8 BC)l one of the most famous Latin poetsl through Maecenas, offered the post of secretary to

Augustusl his works include Epodes, Satires, Odes, Epistles

and Ars Poetical his ode Carmen Saeculare of 17 BC honours his

imperial patron, Augustus.

Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro 70–19 BC)l considered to be the greatest of all Roman poetsl client of Asinius Pollio, and came under the patron-

age of Maecenasl friend of the poet Horacel enjoyed imperial patronage from 29 BC until his

deathl his most famous works are the Bucolics, Georgics,

and the Aeneidl His work is regarded as the epitome of the golden

age of literature.

Propertius (50–15 BC)l client of Maecenasl wrote elegies and erotic poetry.

Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso 43 BC–AD 17 or 18)l successful poet with a vast body of workl his main patron was Augustusl exiled in AD 8—possibly because his Ars Amatoria

(Art of Love) offended Augustusl his pleas for forgiveness were ignored and he died

in exilel his main works include Amores, Ars Amatoria,

Metamorphoses and Epistulae Heroidum Fasti.

Tibullus (Albius 54–19 BC)l client of Messallal friend of Horace and Ovidl wrote mainly elegies and panegyrics.

Livy (Titus Livius 64 or 59 BC–AD 12 or 17)l Roman historianl enjoyed the patronage of Augustusl his main work was the history of Rome called Ab

Urbe Conditi (From the Foundation of the City), anarrative of the period from Rome’s earliest days tothe death of Drusus in 9 BC (142 books in all).

figure 9.7 An Augustan coin—Gaius and LuciusCaesar (Augustus’ grandsons) depicted standing,shields and spears between them


S O U R C E 9 . 5

Upon this shield the fire-god, with knowledge of thingsto come, Being versed in the prophets, had wrought events fromItalian historyAnd Roman triumphs . . .Centrally were displayed two fleets of bronze, engaged inThe battle of Actium; all about Cape Leucas you sawBrisk movement of naval formations; the sea was a blazeof gold.On one side Augustus Caesar, high up on the poop, isleadingThe Italians into battle, the Senate and people with him,His home-gods and the great gods: two flames shoot upfrom his helmetIn jubilant light, and his father’s star dawns over itscrest.Elsewhere in the scene is Agrippa—the gods and thewinds fight for him.

Virgil, Aeneid, cited in K. Chisholm &J. Ferguson, Rome: The Augustan Age (eds),

pp. 222–3

Understanding and usingthe sourcesu What is the impression of Augustus given in Source

9.5?

u Can you remember when he was given the titleAugustus? Does this create a problem for Virgil?

Activity: researchu Find out about Agrippa’s role in the battle of

Actium.

u How did Maecenas contribute to Augustus’ success.

For discussionThe Augustan poets have been called ‘purchased pro-pagandists’. Do you agree with this comment?

The Augustan building programAugustus maintained a major building programthroughout his rule. This gave his reign an aura ofrespectability, promoted his image and connected himwith the heroes of the past. He built or renovated tem-ples, the Forum Augustum, porticoes, arches, parksand gardens, baths, theatres, a great library, markets,granaries, and docks and warehouses.

S O U R C E 9 . 6

Augustus was notable for his avoidance of luxury. ‘Hisnew house’, writes Suetonius, ‘stood out neither for sizenor for elegance. It had only short colonnades withcolumns of Alban stone and its rooms had neithermarble decorations nor handsome pavements. For morethan forty years, too, he used the same bedroom forwinter and summer.’ The details of this description arehighly significant. The pillars of Augustus’ house werenot of exotic imported marble but of local Italian stone.His colonnades did not stretch for miles. The interiordecoration was modest—here, too, no marble was used. Augustus did not pursue novelty in his livingarrangements but was content with the same ones forforty years.

C. Edwards, ‘At Home with Augustus’, Omnibus,24 September 1992, pp. 2–3

Understanding and usingthe sourcesu Read Res Gestae, Chapters 12, 19–21 and

Suetonius, Life of Augustus, Chapters 28–29.Compile a list of Augustus’ buildings andrestoration works.

u What can be learnt from these sources aboutAugustus’ wealth?

u How did the building program enhance Augustus’image?

u How does this contrast with Source 9.6?

For further investigationEither in groups or individually, investigate otherexamples of the Augustan building program in Romeand the provinces. Find a variety of sources in yourschool and local library. You might like to present thisas a lecturette or a collage or a series of posters.

MoneyHow could Augustus afford such an extensive buildingprogram? Augustus was personally wealthy, receivingmoney from the inheritance of his father, the proscrip-tions in 42 BC, war booty, the treasury of Egypt. Itbecame a feature of Roman life that wealthy Romanswould leave in their wills a significant portion of theirestate to Augustus. In the last twenty years of his lifehe received 1400 million sesterces from legacies.Augustus not only used this money to beautify Rome,but he also spent lavishly on:l dedications to temples


l the armyl buying land for veteransl the corn dole and handouts of money for the urban

poorl circuses and shows for the entertainment of the

people of Romel donations to the treasury of Rome (aerarium), on

numerous occasions when it was bankrupt.For more details on Augustus’ expenditure, read

Res Gestae, Chapters 15–23.

Augustus’ financial measuresl In 15 BC Augustus established an imperial mint for

gold and silver coinage at Lugdunum in Gaull the Senate minted bronze and copper coinagel Augustus exercised control over both the imperial

and senatorial coin types

l Augustus wielded great influence over publicfinances as the state depended on his generosity

l In AD 6 Augustus established a military treasury(aerarium militare) to provide for retired soldiers;this was financed partly from his personal fortuneand two special taxes—death duties (of 5 per cent)and a sales tax

l After conducting the censuses in the provinces,Augustus introduced a poll tax (tributum capitis)and a land tax (tributum soli) which were collectedby the provincial authorities

l Augustus also introduced frontier customs dues of25 per cent and a provincial tax of 2.5 per cent.It is interesting to note that ancient Romans com-

plained about the tax system just as we do today. Asthe taxes were based on land, lawyers and doctors who

P R O F I L ET H E M A U S O L E U M O F A U G U S T U S

A mausoleum is a stately or magnificent tomb, usu-ally associated with royalty. The Mausoleum ofAugustus was built in 28 BC in the CampusMartius and was unusual because it was builtlargely of concrete. It was four storeys high, eighty-eight metres in diameter and designed to resemblean ancient burial mound. From the outset,Augustus envisaged it as the burial place of hisfamily and heirs. Julius Caesar had been buried atthe Campus Martius and Augustus was continuingthe family tradition.

Inside the mausoleum was a central circular cor-ridor in which were stocked funerary urns contain-

ing the ashes of the dead. It is known from thearchaeological excavations of 1935 that the follow-ing were interred in the Mausoleum: Augustus,Livia, Drusus (Augustus’ step-son); Marcellus(Augustus’ nephew), Lucius and Gaius (Augustus’grandsons), Agrippa (Augustus’ friend and son-in-law), Octavia (Augustus’ sister), Tiberius and hisfirst wife Vipsania, Germanicus, Gaius (Caligula)and Claudius. The two members of Augustus’ fam-ily that were forbidden to be placed there were thetwo Julias (his daughter and grand-daughter). Somelater Roman rulers, including Vespasian andNerva, also had their ashes placed there.

figure 9.8 Reconstruction of the Mausoleum of Augustus


made their living from collecting fees paid little tax.Wealthy merchants also paid little tax, for their assetswere ships and goods, not land.

For discussion‘Augustus used money as another means to controlRome’. To what extent do you agree with this statement?

Augustus used every means at his disposal—finances,literature, art and architecture, coinage—to promotehimself, his policies and his family. His motives havebeen hotly debated by historians for many years.‘Rarely’, according to Zanker, ‘has art been pressedinto the service of political power so directly as in theage of Augustus. Poetry and art are filled with theimagery of a blessed world, an empire at peace, underthe sway of a great ruler.’3

THE RELIGIOUS REFORMSOF AUGUSTUS

When Augustus returned to Rome in 29 BC after the suc-cess at Actium, he immediately began a religious revival:

He exploited the conviction that a revival of traditionalreligious customs and observances was necessary for therecovery of peace and harmony in the Roman world.There was a widespread expectation current throughmuch of the earlier part of the century that a new erawhich would be a second golden age was about tobegin.’ 4

He restored old shrines and temples and revived oldpriesthoods and cults. Horace explains, ‘you will con-tinue to pay for the sins of your father, O Roman, untilyou restore the ruined temples of the gods, and theirimages filthy with black smoke.’ (Odes, III, 6.1).l Throughout his reign Augustus paid particular

homage to the gods—Venus Genetrix, Mars Ultor,Apollo, Jupiter to name a few.

l In 27 BC he received the title ‘Augustus’ whichbore significant religious overtones.

l In 19 BC his name was added to the hymns of thegods.

l In 17 BC the Secular Games were held.l He renewed the cult of Lares; his genius (spirit) was

linked with this cult. The people were encouragedto worship the cult of Lares Augusti and to regardhim not as a god but as the guardian of the state.

l Augustus would not allow the worship of himself asa god in Rome or Italy, but it was allowed through-out the provinces. There were temples to Roma andAugustus set up in such places as Pergamum,Nicomedia, Lugdunum and Cologne. Augustusencouraged this as a way of promoting unity in theempire.

S O U R C E 9 . 7

He restored several rituals from ancient ceremonieswhich had gradually died away, for example theAugury of Safety, the official priesthood of Jupiter, therites of the Lupercals, the Secular Games and theCompitalia festival . . . He established the custom thatthe Lares Compitales should be adorned twice a yearwith spring and summer flowers.

Suetonius, cited in C. Ehrhardt, ClassicalStudies for Schools, pp. 43–4

3P. Zanker, The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus,University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1990, p. v.4M. Lyttelton & W. Forman, The Romans, Their Gods andTheir Beliefs, Orbis, London, 1984, p. 64.

P R O F I L ET H E A R A PA C I S

The Altar of Augustan Peace or Ara Pacis Augustaewas built on the Field of Mars from 13–9 BC. It wascommissioned by the Senate to give thanks forAugustus’ safe return from the provinces of Spainand Gaul. It was reconstructed by archaeologists inthe 1930s. This is an important Augustan monu-ment because it is a visual representation of thevalues of the reign—pax (peace), gravitas (author-ity), humanitas (humane character), familia (fam-

ily). (Such values were esteemed by the Romans.) Itis a significant piece of Augustan propagandabecause it depicts the moral and religious tenets ofAugustus’ reign. It was also a clear indication ofAugustus’ dynastic hopes.

The altar, a copy of a smaller altar in theAthenian Agora, is a U-shaped stepped platformwith the open end facing out to the CampusMartius. The altar itself is surrounded by panelled


walls on which are carved scenes both mythicaland historical. The altar is reached by two doors inthe walls. The panels depict:l a full-breasted woman holding two babies in her

lap—thought to be a mother goddess (perhapsVenus, Pax, Italia or Tellus). She is surroundedby livestock, fruit and flowers. This scene isthought to represent the new golden age broughtby Augustus and the fertility that was renewedthrough peace.

l Aeneas sacrificing to the gods upon his arrival inItaly—this connects Aeneas with Augustus.

l A similar scene of Augustus sacrificing to thegods. This forms part of a larger panel on thesouth side showing an actual procession and sac-rifice held in 13 BC to give thanks for Augustus’safe return from the provinces. His whole familyis in attendance.

l The north panel shows magistrates and theirfamilies attending the same procession.

S O U R C E 9 . 8

My song has led to the Altar of Peaceone day from the month’s endPeace, be present with the wreath of Actium on your

headand stay in kindness through the worldLet there be no reason for a triumph—and no

enemies:you will bring more glory than war!Let the soldier carry arms only to repress arms.Let the trumpet sound only for ceremony.

Let the ends of the earth stand in awe of the men of Rome:

if not fear, let there be love.Priests, add incense to the flames of Peace, strike down the white victim.May the house which guarantees peace, in peace last

forever—be that your prayer to the gods who love piety.

Ovid, cited in K. Chisholm &J. Ferguson (eds), Rome: The Augustan Age,

pp. 200–1

Understanding and usingthe sourcesu List all the objects in Figure 9.9 dealing with

fertility and the products of the earth.u The nymphs on either side of the mother goddess

represent winds of land and sea. How are theydepicted in this scene?

u Why would Augustus approve a scene like this onhis monument? What overall purpose does itserve?

u In Source 9.8, what does the line beginning ‘Letthe soldier carry arms’ suggest about Rome’smilitary policy?

u What does the line beginning ‘Let the ends of theearth’ suggest about Rome’s position in theworld?

u What do you think the ‘white victim’ might be?u What is the theme of this passage from Ovid?

figure 9.9 Relief ofMother Earth on the AraPacis


SOCIAL VALUES ANDREFORMS

Women of the imperial familyThe women of Augustus’ family were raised in thepalace under the strict supervision of Augustus. Theireducation was traditional. These women had to set apositive example to society and were important in theformation of dynastic marriages.

Part of the Augustan program of reform was torestore traditional Roman values such as the impor-tance of marriage and family. Females were expectedto be modest, to marry young, have large familiesand, as Roman matrons, exhibit the feminine form ofgravitas.

Augustus tried to legislate on Roman morality.When he came to power he found himself faced withmany social problems: declining birth rate among theupper ruling classes, decay in family life and values,many wealthy Romans engaged in riotous living anddisinclined to marry. His purpose was to redress thesesocial ills.

The Julian lawsIn 19/18 BC Augustus introduced a series of billsbefore the Senate designed to encourage the upperclasses, in particular, to marry and procreate. The lexIulia de maritandis ordinibus penalised those who didnot marry, while the ius trium liberorum enabled thosemen of senatorial rank who did marry and fatheredthree or more children to have their careers rapidlypromoted. The lex Iulia de adulteriis coercendisrestrained adultery and defined the circumstancesunder which Romans could be divorced. Harsh penal-ties, such as banishment and loss of property, wereprescribed for those found guilty of adultery. WealthyRomans were spending fortunes on banquets andhouses and forgetting the simplicitas that had madeRome great. Legislation was passed to curtail theexcesses of the upper classes and to limit how muchcould be spent on houses and food. Augustus had toset a good example, so when he inherited the luxuri-ous house of Vedius Pollio, a man who had helped himin his rise to power, he had it razed to the groundbecause it contravened the sumptuary laws.Members of the Senate had criticised this legislation;Augustus replied by ‘practising what he preached’.

In 17 BC Rome celebrated the Secular Games—three days and nights of games and sacrifices followedby seven days of entertainment. These games illus-trated Augustus’ restoration of religion and traditionalvalues. As part of the celebration, there was a paradeby 110 matrons and separate choirs of boys and girlswho sang Horace’s Ode composed for this occasion.

The lex Papia PoppaeaThe lex Papia Poppaea, passed in AD 9, supple-mented the previous laws. Not everything thatAugustus did was successful. This moral and sociallegislation was not popular and rebounded onAugustus himself. Ulpian, the 3rd-century jurist, com-ments on this legislation, ‘lex Julia allows women arespite from its requirements for one year after thedeath of a husband, and for six months after a divorce;but the lex Papia allows a respite for two years afterthe death of a husband and for a year and six monthsafter a divorce.’5

It is important to note that Augustus was changingthe functions of the state. Instead of permitting fami-lies and individuals to be responsible for their privatebehaviour he was making such behaviour answerableto the state.

Other reformsAugustus wanted to maintain the value of Roman citi-zenship. He therefore restricted the number of freed-men. Under a law of 17 BC, freedmen were givenLatin status and their children were allowed to haveRoman citizenship. A law of 2 BC limited the numberof slaves that could be freed. Freedmen played animportant role in Augustus’ administration, but hebarred them from holding public office or serving inthe legions. Freedmen were to play an increasinglyimportant role throughout the Julio-Claudian period.

For discussionu What do you think Augustus hoped to achieve by

the Secular Games?

u Why did Augustus have difficulty enforcingmorality?

Julia exposedJulia was the only daughter of Augustus andScribonia. In 25 BC, at age fourteen, she was marriedto her cousin, Marcellus. Marcellus died in 23, andtwo years later Julia was married to Agrippa (in his40s) and bore him five children, the last of whom wasborn after his father’s death. Augustus was justlyproud of his daughter, who epitomised his new legisla-tion. Agrippa died in 12, and Augustus immediatelymarried Julia to his step-son Tiberius. (Tiberius wasforced to divorce his wife, Vipsania, in order to marryJulia.)

5K. Chisholm & J. Ferguson (eds), Rome: The AugustanAge, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986, p. 181.


S O U R C E 9 . 9

Agrippa was dead so Augustus needed another helper, sosuperior in honour and power to all others that he couldwhen necessary administer all affairs without dangerfrom envy and plotting; unwillingly, therefore, he choseTiberius, for his own grandsons were still children . . . hebetrothed Julia to him and sent him to fight thePannonians.

Cassius Dio, cited in C. Ehrhardt, ClassicalStudies for Schools, p. 36

The marriage of Julia and Tiberius was not a happyone, for Julia thought that she had married beneathher rank. It is thought that Augustus decided that thechildren needed a step-father. Augustus becameabsorbed in the task of introducing his grandsons intopublic life. While Tiberius served in the East andAugustus involved himself with her children, Juliawent ‘raging’—committing adultery, indulging indrunken revels in the Forum and on the rostra andindulging in indecent behaviour.

S O U R C E 9 . 1 0

She had been accessible to scores of paramours . . . thevery Forum and the rostrum, from which her father hadproposed a law against adultery, had been chosen by thedaughter for her debaucheries, . . . she had dailyresorted to the statue of Marsyas, and, laying aside therole of the adulteress, there sold her favours and soughtthe right to every indulgence with even an unknownparamour.

Seneca, cited in K. Chisholm &J. Ferguson (eds), Rome: The Augustan Age, p. 98

In 2 BC, encouraged by the Julian laws, informers toldAugustus about his daughter’s scandalous behaviour.Augustus could not believe that Julia was anything buta faithful wife and, at first, refused to believe therumours. Seneca (a 1st-century senator, writer andphilosopher) wrote that Augustus afterwards went intoa rage, ignored his own legislation and divorced Juliaon behalf of Tiberius. Augustus wrote to the Senateand detailed Julia’s crimes. Given no chance to defendherself, Julia was banished to the island of Pandateria.Her elderly mother Scribonia (a model of Romanwomanhood) went into exile with her daughter. In AD 4 she moved from the island to Rhegium whereshe died in 14.

Augustus’ behaviour was out of proportion with thecrimes committed by Julia. It would have been more

appropriate to have banished her quietly. When oneexamines the names of the men with whom Julia hadbeen associating, a more sinister picture emerges.They were men of great importance in Rome, includ-ing Cornelius Scipio Sempronius Gracchus and IullusAntonius. Writers such as Seneca have suggested thatJulia’s liaisons constituted a serious conspiracyagainst Augustus led by his daughter.

For discussionu To what extent was Augustus responsible for Julia’s

behaviour?

u Why were Julia’s actions such an affront toAugustus?

For further investigationOther women that played a role in the time of Augustusand the Julio-Claudian rulers were Scribonia, Octavia,Antonia the Younger, Antonia the Elder, VipsaniaAgrippina, Messalina, Agrippina the Elder andAgrippina the Younger (see Chapter 6), PoppaeaSabina. In groups or individually, find out what youcan about each of these women. Try to find primaryand secondary sources on them. Present your informa-tion in either written or oral form.

LIVIA

Livia played an important symbolic role in theAugustan age. Symbolism was very important inRome—the fasces were the symbols of power; the clos-ing of the gates of the temple of Janus symbolisedpeace; Livia symbolised womanhood. As Augustuswas pater patriae, so Livia was the imperial mother.She was ‘depicted as the benefactor of family life, firstwife and mother of the state, symbol of chaste and old-fashioned Roman womanhood’.6 There are, however,contradictory images of Livia: the promoter of familyunity and the destroyer of the imperial family.

Livia’s backgroundl Livia Drusilla (58 BC–29 AD).l Married Tiberius Claudius Nero in 43 or 42 BC.l In November 42 BC, her son Tiberius was born; the

family fled Italy because of their Antonian sympa-thies, but an amnesty permitted their return in 40.

6M. B. Flory, ‘Sic Exemplar Parantur: Livia’s Shrine toConcordia and the Porticus Liviae’, Historia, 33 (1984),p. 317.


l Early in 38 BC Octavian married Livia. Thisrequired a special dispensation from the PontificalCollege—both Scribonia and Livia were pregnant.

l In 35 BC Livia was granted the sacrosanctity of atribune. This was the first time it had been given toa woman who was not a Vestal Virgin.

l She was exempted from the lex Voconia, whichlimited the amount that women could inherit.Livia’s significant personal wealth included finan-cial interests in Italy, mines in Gaul and estates inAsia Minor and Egypt.

l Her one child by Augustus died. In 9 BC she wasexempted from Augustus’ guardianship (tutela)because she had three children (though one haddied).

l After Augustus’ death in AD 14, she was given thetitle ‘Julia Augusta’ and adopted into the Julianfamily.

l She died in AD 29, aged 86.l In AD 42 she was deified by Claudius—women

could then take oaths in the name of Livia.

Livia and religionLivia ably assisted Augustus in his plans to revitaliseRoman religion and society. Augustus was associatedwith the chief god Jupiter and Livia was associatedwith Juno, the wife of Jupiter. She was also asso-ciated with all the female deities and cults connectedwith women—chastity, marriage, childbirth, familylife. From Ovid we learn that Livia restored theTemple of Bona Dea Subsaxana. An inscription on theTemple of Fortuna Muliebris presents her as sponsorof the female cults Pudicitia Plebeia and PudicitiaPatricia (plebeian and patrician chastity). Livia dedi-cated a shrine on 11 June, a day dedicated to the fes-tival of Matralia, which honoured Fortuna Virgo andMater Matuta. These deities were connected with thetraditional child-bearing and domestic roles ofwomen. Livia also honoured Concordia as goddess ofmarried love.

In a significant way, Livia was giving religious jus-tification for the Augustan ideals. She was trying toencourage women to take up the old Roman values byhonouring childbirth and marriage. Following themoral legislation, Augustus and Livia tried to show bytheir example that marriage was beneficial for the lifeof Rome. Livia built temples and other monuments,such as the Porticus of Livia, which had an interiorgarden, art collection and trellised walkways.

Political activityLivia had an active role advising Augustus and inter-ceding on behalf of others, such as Cinna Magnus

(conspirator). She also received entreaties from peoplesuch as the exiled Ovid, and acted on behalf of foreigncities and embassies. In addition, she asserted signi-ficant influence over all members of the imperialfamily. The following sources offer an insight intoLivia’s interests and activities.

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There is a well-known story about Haterius. He wentinto the palace to apologise, and, as Tiberius walked by,grovelled at his feet. Thereupon Tiberius crashed to theground, either by accident or because he was broughtdown by the grip of Haterius—who was then all butkilled by the guards. However, the emperor’s feelingswere not softened by the dangerous predicament of thesenator, until Haterius appealed to the Augusta—asLivia was now called—and, at her urgent entreaty, wassaved.

Tacitus, Annals, trans. by M. Grant, p. 41

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When Livia made the same request [for citizenship] for aGaul from a tributary province, Augustus turned itdown, saying that he would do no more than exempt thefellow from tribute—‘I would far rather forfeit whateverhe may owe the Privy Purse, than cheapen the value ofthe Roman citizenship.

Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, trans. byR. Graves, p. 72

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Livia dedicated a magnificent temple to Concord, and gave it to her husband,generations to come must learn that on the site of Livia’s

columnswas once a huge palace,comparable to a city, fully as largeas many towns.It was razed, not for high treason.Its extravagance was dangerous.Caesar undertook the overthrow of that vastnessand the loss of his inheritance.The act of a censor, an example to others, the judge obeying his own laws.

Ovid, cited in K. Chisholm & J. Ferguson,Rome: The Augustan Age, p. 204


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They furthermore voted an arch in her honour—adistinction conferred upon no other woman—becauseshe had saved the lives of not a few of them, had rearedthe children of many and had helped many to pay theirdaughters’ dowries, in consequence of all which somewere calling her mother of her country. She was buriedin the mausoleum of Augustus.

Cassius Dio, Roman History, Vol. 7, trans. byE. Cary, pp. 187–9

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The aged Augusta died. By her own Claudian family,and her adoption into the Livii and Julii, she was of thehighest nobility. Her first husband, and the father of herchildren, had been Tiberius Claudius Nero . . . Thefuture Augustus, fascinated by her beauty, removed herfrom him . . .

Her private life was of traditional strictness. But hergraciousness exceeded old-fashioned standards. She wasa compliant wife, but an overbearing mother. Neitherher husband’s diplomacy nor her son’s insincerity couldoutmanoeuvre her.


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But Livia was a real catastrophe, to the nation, as amother and to the house of the Caesars as a stepmother.


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For she occupied a very exalted station, far above allwomen of former days, so that she could at any timereceive the Senate and such of the people as wished togreet her in her house; and this fact was entered in thepublic records. The letters of Tiberius bore for a time hername also, and communications were addressed to bothalike. Except that she never ventured to enter the Senatechamber or the camps or the public assemblies, sheundertook to manage everything as if she were soleruler. For in the time of Augustus she had possessed thegreatest influence and she always declared that it wasshe who had made Tiberius emperor; consequently shewas not satisfied to rule on equal terms with him, butwished to take precedence over him . . . For instance, she

had once dedicated in her house an image to Augustus,and in honour of the event wished to give a banquet tothe Senate and knights together with their wives, but hewould not permit her to carry out any part of thisprogram until the senate had so voted, and not even thento receive the men at dinner; instead, he entertained themen and she the women. Finally he removed her entirelyfrom public affairs, but allowed her to direct matters athome.


S O U R C E 9 . 1 8

See how Fortune has raised you high, and commandedyou to occupy a place of great honour; so, Livia, bear upthat load. You draw our eyes and ears to you, we noticeall your actions, and the word of a princeps, oncespoken, cannot be concealed. Stay upright, rise aboveyour woes, keep your spirit unbroken—in so far as youcan. Our search for models of virtue, certainly, will bebetter when you take on the role of first lady (Romanaprinceps).

‘Consolation to Livia’, written on the death of her son Drusus, cited in N. Purcell, ‘Livia and the

Womanhood of Rome’, p. 78

Understanding and usingthe sourcesu Using these sources, what role did Livia play in the

reign of Augustus? What can be learnt aboutAugustus’ personality?

u Describe the relationship between Livia and her sonTiberius.

u How was Livia regarded by the Romans?

u Do you agree with Tacitus’ statement that Liviawas a catastrophe? Why?

u What was the importance and influence of Livia inthis period?

Activity: essay Explain the importance of two of the following mem-bers of the imperial family: Livia, Julia (daughter ofAugustus), Messalina, Agrippina the Younger.


THE PRINCIPATE

Problems of succession: who will followAugustus?Under the republic it was not a normal part of Romantradition for influential citizens to pass on politicalpositions and powers to their descendants. However,families obviously encouraged and actively helpedtheir male offspring to reach the political heights.Augustus, almost from the beginning of his reign, wasconcerned about the future of Rome after his death.Time and again he pinned his hopes on an heir, only tohave his plans thwarted by the untimely deaths ofthose he wished to succeed him. He was adamant thatonly someone of the Julian bloodline should followhim, and to this end he promoted Julians and ignoredthe Claudians, the most unhappy example being hisstep-son Tiberius, who finally did succeed him.Unfortunately, Augustus had no sons by either of hiswives. His marriage to Livia provided him with twostep-sons: Drusus and Tiberius. His only child was adaughter, Julia. So, from the outset, the successionpresented difficulties to be solved by marriagealliances and adoptions, and foiled by prematuredeaths. Julia was a ‘dynastic pawn’, destined to bemarried to chosen regents and to produce children.

S O U R C E 9 . 1 9

To safeguard his domination Augustus made his sister’sson Marcellus a priest and a curule aedile—in spite ofhis extreme youth—and singled out Marcus Agrippa, acommoner but a first-rate soldier who had helped to winhis victories, by the award of two consecutiveconsulships; after the death of Marcellus, Agrippa waschosen by Augustus as his son-in-law. Next the emperorhad his step-sons Tiberius and Nero Drusus hailedpublicly as victorious generals. When he did this,however, there was no lack of heirs of his own blood:there were Agrippa’s sons Gaius Caesar and LuciusCaesar. Augustus had adopted them into the imperialfamily. He had also, despite pretended reluctance, beenpassionately eager that, even as minors, they should beentitled princes of youth and have the consulshipsreserved for them. After Agrippa had died, first LuciusCaesar and then Gaius Caesar met with prematurenatural deaths—unless their step-mother Livia had asecret hand in them. Lucius died on his way to thearmies in Spain, Gaius while returning from Armenia,incapacitated by a wound.

Nero Drusus was long dead. Tiberius was the onlysurviving step-son; and everything pointed in hisdirection. He was adopted as the emperor’s son and as

partner in his powers (with civil and military authorityand the powers of a tribune) and displayed to all thearmies.

Tacitus, Annals, trans. by M. Grant, pp. 32–3

For further investigationu Who are the main contenders to succeed Augustus?

u What role did marriage alliances play in theorganisation of the succession?

u What role did adoption play?

u How did Augustus groom his prospective heirs?What powers did he give them?

The changing nature of the principateBy the time Augustus died in AD 14, the politicalpower base had changed. When Augustus describedhis regime he called it a ‘principate’—rule by the firstcitizen—implying that he did not rule alone. This termcleverly suggests supremacy and equality at the sametime. Augustus held a firm control over the RomanEmpire, making significant changes to all areas ofRoman life. Throughout his life he was at great painsto avoid accepting any powers or offices that mightappear dictatorial. He wanted to be seen and remem-bered as first amongst equals, with all power given tohim legally. The Senate was still operational but nolonger held supreme authority. They now waited on theword of one man.

S O U R C E 9 . 2 0

Augustus . . . not only had control of the funds, but alsocommanded the army: nominally the public revenueshad been separated from his own, but in practice theformer, too, were spent as he saw fit. At any rate, whenhis ten-year period of office expired, another five yearswas voted to him, then another five, after that ten, andthen ten for a fifth time. Thus through this succession often-year periods, he remained sole ruler for life . . .

The entire conduct and direction of affairs dependupon the wishes of the one man who holds power at thetime. And yet in order to maintain the impression thatthis authority is derived from the laws and not from theirown supremacy, the emperors have arrogated tothemselves all the functions, together with their actualtitles, attached to those offices in which power residedand which were held with the free consent of the people,with the single exception of the dictatorship . . .

. . . the emperors are very often created consuls, and


they are referred to as proconsuls whenever they areoutside the city limits. They . . . raise troops, collectfunds, declare war, conclude peace, rule foreigners andcitizens alike, at all times and in all places, and even toput to death both knights and senators within the citylimits, and . . . act in all other capacities once entrustedto the consuls and the other officials who possessedimperium . . .

. . . by virtue of being consecrated in all thepriesthoods. . . they exercise supreme jurisdiction in allmatters both profane and sacred.

The so-called tribunician power . . . gives them theright to veto the consequences of any measure taken byany other official, should they disapprove of any such,and protects them against insult or abuse. Moreover, ifthey appear to have suffered, even to the most trivialextent, not only by deed, but even by word, they maydestroy the perpetrator as one guilty of sacrilege, withouta trial. The emperors, it should be explained, do not seefit to become tribunes, since they belong entirely to thepatrician class. But they assume tribunician power to thefull as this existed when the office was at the height of itspolitical influence, and they use it to number the years oftheir own rule . . .

But besides this status they have acquired another,which was granted to none of the ancient Romansoutright and absolutely . . . They have been set free fromthe laws . . . that is, they are exempted from all bindingtradition, and are not liable to any of the writtenprovisions of the laws. Thus, by means of thesedemocratic rules, they have vested in themselves all theauthority of the government to such an extent that theyactually possess everything that kings possessed excepttheir paltry title.

Cassius Dio, Roman History, trans. byI. Scott-Kilvert, pp. 139–42

S O U R C E 9 . 2 1

Then he gradually pushed ahead and absorbed thefunctions of the Senate, the officials and even the law.Opposition did not exist. War or judicial murder haddisposed of all men of spirit. Upper-class survivors foundthat slavish obedience was the way to succeed bothpolitically and financially . . .

The country had been transformed, and there wasnothing left of the fine old Roman character. Politicalequality was a thing of the past; all eyes watched forimperial commands.


Understanding and usingthe sourcesu List all the powers that Augustus held throughout

his principate.u What had the Senate and the people lost?u Can you detect any bias in these sources? Give

examples. u Do you think the principate introduced by Augustus

was a positive or negative change? Providearguments to support your view.

Activity: debateAugustus was a clever but hypocritical politician.

THE JULIO-CLAUDIANS

The Roman rulers from Tiberius to Nero are known as‘Julio-Claudians’. Study Figure 9.2, the genealogicaltable of the Julio-Claudians.

For further investigationu How and why did these two names come to be used?

u What is a dynasty? How long did the Julio-Claudian dynasty last?

TiberiusAugustus died in AD 14 and was succeeded by hisstep-son Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar (known asTiberius).

Activity: researchu Using the timeline on pp. 272–3, what do you

consider to be the significant events in Tiberius’career that led him to become princeps?

u Explain how Tiberius finally succeeded Augustus.

For discussionImagine that you are Tiberius. You are fifty-six yearsold and have been a successful military leader. Timeand again you have been ‘used’ by Augustus. You knowthat you are his fourth choice as heir—in the end thereis nobody else left! Augustus is dead after a rule offorty-four years. Rome and the empire are yours!

(i) How do you feel about the situation?

(ii) What problems have you inherited?

(iii) How should you proceed?


According to Suetonius, Tiberius:

was a large, strong man of above average height, withbroad shoulders and chest and well-proportioned all theway from head to toe. He was left-handed, and his jointswere so strong that he could bore through an apple withone finger, and break open a boy’s or even a teenager’shead with a mere rap of the knuckle. He wore his whitehair long at the back, covering his neck . . . He had ahandsome face, which would, however, suddenly eruptinto a fierce rash.7

S O U R C E 9 . 2 2

CharacterWhile he was a private citizen or holding commandsunder Augustus, his life was blameless; and so was hisreputation. While Germanicus and Drusus still lived, heconcealed his real self, cunningly affecting virtuousqualities. However, until his mother died there was goodin Tiberius as well as evil.

Tacitus, Annals, trans. by M. Grant,pp. 226–7

S O U R C E 9 . 2 3

Removal of Agrippa PostumusTiberius revealed Augustus’ death only after getting ridof young Agrippa Posthumus, whom the colonelappointed to guard him in the prison island hadreceived a written order to execute. So much is known,but some doubt remains whether this order was left byAugustus to be acted on when he died; or whether Liviawrote it in his name; or whether, if so, Tiberius knewanything of the matter.


S O U R C E 9 . 2 4

Tiberius and the SenateThe Senate now wallowed in the most abject appeals.Tiberius remarked incidentally that, although he didnot feel himself capable of the whole burden ofgovernment, he was nevertheless prepared to take on anybranch of it that might be entrusted to him . . . Gaius Asinius Gallus [asked], ‘which branch do you desire to

have handed over to you?’ . . . [Tiberius] said nothing . . .[Gallus] protested that the purpose of his question had notbeen to parcel out functions which were inseparable; ithad been to obtain from the lips of Tiberius himself the admission that the senate was a single organic whole needing the control of a single mind.


S O U R C E 9 . 2 5

Relationship with GermanicusWhen Germanicus asked for another year to complete[the conquest of Germany], Tiberius subjected hisunpretentious adoptive son to even stronger pressure byoffering him the prize of a second consulship—to beoccupied personally at Rome . . . Germanicus knew thatthis was hypocritical and that jealousy was the reasonwhy Tiberius denied him a victory that was alreadywon. But he acquiesced without further delay.


S O U R C E 9 . 2 6

The influence of SejanusThe emperor himself became tyrannical—or gavetyrannical men power. The cause and beginning of thechange lay with Lucius Aelius Sejanus, commander ofthe Guard . . .

To Sejanus alone the otherwise cryptic emperorspoke freely and unguardedly . . .

Tiberius was readily amenable, praising him inconversation—and even in the Senate and Assembly—as ‘the partner of my labours’ . . . Yet Sejanus’ ambitionswere impeded by a well-stocked imperial house . . .


S O U R C E 9 . 2 7

Tiberius and maiestas[Tiberius] revived the treason law. The ancients hademployed the same name, but had applied it to otheroffences—to official misconduct damaging the Romanstate, such as betrayal of an army or incitement tosedition. Action had to be taken against deeds, wordswent unpunished. The first to employ this law toinvestigate written libel was Augustus . . . Then Tiberius,asked by a praetor, Quintus Pompeius Macer, whethercases under the treason law were to receive attention,replied: the laws must take their course.


7A. Kamm, The Romans: An Introduction, Routledge,London, 1995, p. 52.


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Financial policyWhile expending extremely little for himself he laid outvery large sums for the common good, either rebuildingor adorning practically all the public works and alsogenerously assisting both cities and private individuals.He enriched numerous senators who were poor and onthat account no longer wished to be members of theSenate . . . All these expenditures, moreover, he madefrom the regular revenues; for he neither put anybody todeath for his money nor confiscated, at this time,anybody’s property, nor did he even resort to trickymethods of obtaining funds.


S O U R C E 9 . 2 9

The campaign against wasteTiberius cut down the expenses of public entertainmentsby lowering the pay of actors and setting a limit to thenumber of gladiatorial combats on any given festival.Once he protested violently against an absurd rise in thecost of . . . high-quality fish—three mullets had beenoffered for sale at 100 gold pieces each . . . And to set anexample in his campaign against waste, he often served,at formal dinner parties, half-eaten dishes left over fromthe day before . . .


S O U R C E 9 . 3 0

Retirement to Capri (AD 26)[Tiberius] decided to live away from Rome. Like mosthistorians, I attribute his withdrawal to Sejanus’intrigues . . . It was also said that in old age he becamesensitive about his appearance . . .

According to another theory he was driven away byhis mother’s bullying . . .

This proved fatal . . . for they did not foresee theunbelievable fact that his voluntary self exile would lasteleven years.


Understanding and usingthe sourcesDraw up a chart listing the positive and negative fea-tures of Tiberius and his reign. (Consider the issue ofthe treason trials, discussed on p. 296.)

GaiusTiberius died in AD 37, in suspicious circumstances.Many theories abound concerning his death, andGaius is implicated in most of them. Suetonius andTacitus recount versions of Tiberius’ death in which heis poisoned or smothered or throttled either by Gaiushimself or in accordance with his orders. Suetoniusrelates that according to some writers Gaius actuallyconfessed to intended parricide.

Activity: researchWhy might Gaius have held high hopes of being thenext ruler? Were there any other contenders?

Suetonius describes Gaius as

very tall, with an enormous body supported on spindlylegs, a thin neck, and an extremely pallid complexion.His eyes and temples were sunken, and his foreheadbroad and glowering. His hair was thin and he was baldon top, though he had a hairy body. For that reason itwas a crime punishable by death to look down on himfrom above as he passed by, or for any reason whatsoeverto mention a goat in his presence. He was by natureugly, but he made himself even more so by practisinggruesome faces in a mirror.8

figure 9.10 Tiberius

8Ibid., p. 55.


P R O F I L ET R E A S O N T R I A L S I N T H E R E I G N O F T I B E R I U S

S O U R C E 9 . 3 1

It was, indeed, a horrible feature of the period thatleading senators became informers even on trivialmatters—some openly, many secretly. Friends andrelatives were as suspect as strangers, old stories asdamaging as new. In the Forum, at a dinner-party,a remark on any subject might mean prosecution.Everyone competed for priority in marking down thevictim. Sometimes this was self-defence, but mostly itwas a sort of contagion, like an epidemic.


Tacitus refers to the reign of Tiberius as a reign ofterror largely because of the treason trials and thecruel nature of Tiberius. However, the charge ofmaiestas existed in Rome before Tiberius and wasnot clearly defined. Any offence against Rome wasconsidered maiestas. By the time of Augustus andthe Julio-Claudian rulers, the person of the prin-ceps embodied the state and, therefore, any insultor offence against the leader or his family was opento the charge of maiestas. The Romans had no pub-lic prosecutor. Charges were brought by informers(delatores), and cases were tried in the Senate act-ing as a court. The delatores, if successful, wererewarded by receiving one-quarter of the convictedperson’s property. Tacitus criticised Tiberius forsupporting the practice of informers. In AD 25,there was a proposal that the informers should notreceive their reward if the accused person commit-ted suicide before the trial finished. Tiberiusstopped this measure before it was passed, insistingthat the law remain. Tacitus saw this as support forinformers, but it can be interpreted as Tiberius’respect for the law. Roman citizens were also reluc-tant to help the defendants in a maiestas casebecause they too could be accused of treason.

According to Tacitus, Tiberius was a tyrant. Heclearly exaggerated the importance of the treasontrials in the reign of Tiberius in order to prove hispoint of Tiberius’ tyrannical rule. Tacitus spoke of a‘conspicuously monotonous glut of downfalls’(Annals, IV, 33) There were eighty-six maiestascases in the ‘reign of terror’, but at least thirty of thecharged were acquitted. There were eighteen exe-cutions, but the majority of these were for conspira-cies, not slander of Tiberius. Tiberius also quashedmany convictions and reduced the severity of others.

S O U R C E 9 . 3 2

Marcus Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messallinus wasaccused of uttering reflections on Gaius’ manliness;of describing a priest’s banquet, which he himself hadattended on the Augusta’s birthday, as a funeralfeast; and when complaining of the influence ofMarcus Aemilius Lepidus and Lucius Arruntius, hisopponents in a money dispute, he was said to haveadded: ‘The Senate will back them. My sweet littleTiberius will back me!’ The charges were broughthome and pressed by outstanding figures; but Cottaappealed to the emperor. Soon afterwards Tiberiuswrote to the Senate. In self-defence he traced back toits beginning his friendship with Cotta, whose manyservices he recalled, urging that words maliciouslydistorted, or loosely uttered at table, should not beregarded as damning evidence.


The Senate must bear some responsibility for thetreason trials, for many of the cases were broughtby the senatorial class in order to win favour. Manyof the trials occurred when Sejanus was in chargeof Rome. It does appear that there were more pros-ecutions after Sejanus’ death, when the Senate tookthe opportunity to rid the state of his supporters.Towards the end of his reign, Tiberius himself con-victed a few people—his experience of Sejanus hadled him to become insecure and fearful. One of thepeople convicted was Sextus Paconianus, who wascharged with writing satires against Tiberius.

For further investigationSome of the important treason trials in the reign ofTiberius were: Libo Drusus (AD 16), AppuleiaVarilla (AD 17), Calpurnius Piso (AD 20), L.Ennius (AD 22), Silius Caecina and ClaudiaPulchra. The details of these trials can be found inTacitus’ Annals. With reference to this source andothers, find out:

(i) What were the charges against them?

(ii) What was the outcome of each trial?

(iii) What part did Tiberius or Sejanus play inthese trials?


S O U R C E 9 . 3 3

Accession of Gaius Caligula’s accession seemed to the Roman people—onemight almost say—to the whole world, like a dreamcome true.


S O U R C E 9 . 3 4

Building programHe completed certain projects neglected by Tiberius:namely, the Temple of Augustus and Pompey’s Theatre;and began the construction of an aqueduct in the Tiberdistrict, and an amphitheatre near the enclosure.


S O U R C E 9 . 3 5

Caligula unhingedSuetonius also reported that what had unhingedCaligula was an excessively strong aphrodisiac givenhim by his wife Caesonia. Philo . . . suggested that theillness from which he suffered in the early part of hisreign was breakdown due to over-indulgence . . . He hasbeen variously labelled epileptic, schizoid,schizophrenic or just chronically alcoholic. Tacitusdescribes his mind as disordered and upset, but Caligulawas probably not mad in any accepted sense of the term;though diagnoses by modern psychologists or physiciansare useless because there is no adequate evidence to go on.

M. Grant, The Twelve Caesars, p. 111

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Mad or bad?He even went on to manufacture statues of himself . . . heafterwards ordered temples to be erected and sacrifices tobe offered to himself as to a god.

Gaius was ruled by the charioteers and gladiators,and was the slave of actors and others connected withthe stage . . .

He caused great numbers of men to fight asgladiators . . . It was not the large number of those whoperished that was so serious, though that was seriousenough, but his excessive delight in their death and hisinsatiable desire for the sight of blood . . . Others . . .owed their ruin to the emperor’s illness of the precedingyear and to the death of his sister Drusilla, since . . .anyone who had entertained or had greeted another,or even had bathed, during those days incurredpunishment . . .

One single incident will give the key to all thathappened at that time: the emperor charged withmaiestas and put to death a man who had sold hotwater.

Cassius Dio, Roman History, Vol. 7, trans. byE. Cary, pp. 271–3, 289–91, 293–5

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Death of GemellusHe caused the death of Tiberius [Gemellus], who hadassumed the toga virilis, had been given the title ofprinceps iuventutis, and finally had been adopted intothe family. The complaint made against the lad wasthat he had prayed and expected that Gaius would die.

Cassius Dio, Roman History, Vol. 7, trans. byE. Cary, p. 283

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A violent endSuch frantic and reckless behaviour roused murderousthoughts in certain minds . . . when two Guards colonelsput their heads together and succeeded in killing him . . . On 24 January . . . Caligula, seated in theTheatre, could not make up his mind whether to rise forluncheon . . . his friends persuaded him to come out withthem along a covered walk . . . some say that Chaereacame up behind Caligula as he stood talking . . . andwith a cry of ‘Take this!’ gave him a deep sword-woundin the neck, whereupon Gaius Sabinus, the other colonel,stabbed him in the breast.

Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, trans. byR. Graves, pp. 176–8

figure 9.11 Gaius


S O U R C E 9 . 3 9

His characterCaligula was clearly capable of acting right to the endin a rational manner. Why then does he seem so often tohave behaved otherwise? . . . while he was not clinicallymad he was so obsessed with a sense of his ownimportance as to be practically devoid of any sense ofpersonal responsibility.

A. Barrett, Caligula, p. 240

Activity: debateThat Caligula was mad, bad and dangerous to know.

Claudius

Activity: researchu What claim to rule did Claudius have? Was there

any other contender?

u What events in Claudius’ early career would haveprepared him for rule?

The events surrounding Claudius’ accession are thesubject of myth, bad publicity and much speculation.

S O U R C E 9 . 4 0

The new emperor. . . Claudius became emperor, at the age of fifty, by anextraordinary accident. When the assassins orderedCaligula’s courtiers to disperse, pretending that hewished to be alone, Claudius went off with the rest andretired to a room called the Hermaeum; but presentlyheard about the murder and slipped away in alarm to anearby balcony, where he stood trembling behind thedoor curtains. A guardsman . . . noticed a pair of feetbeneath the curtain, pulled their owner out foridentification and re-cognised him. Claudius dropped onthe floor and grasped the soldier’s knees but foundhimself acclaimed emperor.

He was then bundled into a litter and transferred tothe camp of the Praetorian Guard where he was held asa virtual hostage while the Senate debated therestoration of the republic . . .

Meanwhile, crowds surrounded the building anddemanded a monarchy, expressly calling for Claudius.So he allowed the Guards to acclaim him emperor andto swear allegiance. He also promised every man 150gold pieces, which made him the first of the Caesars topurchase the loyalty of his troops.


Understanding and usingthe sourcesu What events in this account appear to be

melodramatic and implausible?

u What impression is given of Claudius?

u Why do you think the people clamoured for thecontinuance of the monarchy?

u Why do you think the Senate debated the possibilityof a republic?

u What precedent does Suetonius believe had been setby Claudius’ actions?

S O U R C E 9 . 4 1

His characterClaudius comes across as a positive mishmash ofconflicting characteristics: absent-minded, hesitant,muddled, determined, cruel (by proxy), intuitive, wise,and dominated by his wife and his personal staff offreedmen. He was probably all of these.

A. Kamm, The Romans, p. 58

S O U R C E 9 . 4 2

His appearanceHe was not short of either authority or dignity when hewas standing up or sitting down, still less so when hereclined: he was tall but not lanky, and good looking,with a fine crop of white hair and a well-set neck. Buthis knees were so weak that he staggered as he walked,and his habits were embarrassing whether he wasindulging in domestic or business affairs. He had anindecent laugh, and when he was annoyed he foameddisgustingly at the mouth and his nose ran. Hestammered, and his head twitched the whole time, butfaster when he was actually engaged in the slightestactivity. He was always ill, until he became emperor.Then his health improved marvellously, except forattacks of stomach ache, which he said even made himthink of suicide.

Suetonius, cited in A. Kamm, The Romans,p. 58


S O U R C E 9 . 4 3

Conquest of BritainAnd the Britons beyond the sea-shores which one sees,Blue-shielded Brigantians too, all thesehe chained by the neck as the Roman’s slaves.He spake, and the Ocean with trembling wavesAccepted the axe of the Roman law.

Seneca, cited in K. Chisholm &J. Ferguson (eds), The Augustan Age, p. 610

S O U R C E 9 . 4 4

AmnestyNo sooner had Claudius’ power been established than hegave priority to the task of obliterating all records ofthose two days when there had been talk of a newconstitution. He ordered a general amnesty, andobserved it himself, apart from executing a few of thecolonels and junior officers who had conspired againstCaligula—to make an example of them and becausethey had, he knew, planned his own murder as well.


S O U R C E 9 . 4 5

Public worksOn the occasion of a severe famine he considered theproblem of providing an abundant food supply, not onlyfor that particular crisis but for all time . . . all the grain

used by the Romans was imported, and yet the regionnear the mouth of the Tiber had no safe landing placesor suitable harbours . . . Except for the cargoes broughtin during the summer season and stored in warehouses,they had no supplies for the winter . . . Claudiusundertook to construct a harbour, and . . . he brought itto accomplishment.


S O U R C E 9 . 4 6

Money[Claudius’] attitude towards money was remarkable. Forhe forbade anyone to bring him contributions, as hadbeen the practice under Augustus and Gaius, andordered that no one who had any relatives at all shouldname him as his heir; he furthermore gave back thesums that had previously been confiscated underTiberius and Gaius, either to the victims themselves, ifthey still survived, or otherwise to their children.


S O U R C E 9 . 4 7

Public showsClaudius often distributed largesse to the people, andgave numerous magnificent public shows; not only thetraditional ones in the customary places but others,including novelties and ancient revivals.


S O U R C E 9 . 4 8

MessalinaShe was infatuated with the best-looking young man inRome, Gaius Silius . . .

Claudius was unaware of his matrimonialcomplications . . . Messalina’s adultery was going sosmoothly that she was drifting, through boredom, intounfamiliar vices . . . [Gaius Silius] urged thatconcealment should be dropped . . .

. . . the idea of being his wife appealed to her . . . So,waiting only until Claudius left to sacrifice at Ostia, shecelebrated a formal marriage with Silius.

Tacitus, Annals, trans. by M. Grant,pp. 231, 238

figure 9.12 Claudius


S O U R C E 9 . 4 9

Freedmen[Claudius’] firmest devotion was reserved for Narcissus ,his secretary and Pallas, his treasurer whom heencouraged the Senate to honour with large gifts ofmoney and the insignia of quaestors and praetors aswell . . .

Claudius fell so deeply under the influence of thesefreedmen and wives that he seemed to be their servantrather than their emperor; and distributed titles, armycommands, indulgences or punishments according totheir wishes . . . seldom even aware of what he wasabout.


Activity: researchRead the following sources or others that you mightfind: Cassius Dio, History, LX, 6–7, 11–13, 16, 25,28.6, LXI, 29; Suetonius, Claudius, 14–16, 22–24;Levick, Claudius, Chapter 11; Letter to theAlexandrians in Chisholm and Ferguson (eds) TheAugustan Age, pp. 539–41.

(i) Compile a list of Claudius’ reforms andlegislation.

(ii) What areas did his legislation cover?

(iii) What impression do you gain of Claudius’administration?

(iv) Do you agree with Tacitus’ description ofClaudius as a tool of the women and freedmen?

NeroYou will need to refer to Chapter 6 for further informa-tion on Nero.

Activity: researchu How influential was Agrippina in Nero’s rise to

power?

u How old was he when he became emperor?

u What attributes did he have that fitted him for thetask of ruling the Roman Empire?

For discussionYou have just become emperor in fairly dubious cir-cumstances. Your mother is suspected of removing allopposition, including your step-father, the emperorClaudius. Your childhood and upbringing have beendysfunctional, to say the least.

(i) What are your feelings towards your mother?

(ii) On whom should you rely for advice?

(iii) Have you any rivals for power?

(iv) What shall be the features of your reign?

Suetonius presents an image of Nero as

fair-haired, with features that were pretty rather thanhandsome, weak blue eyes, a fat neck, a pot belly, skinnylegs, and a body which smelt and was covered withspots . . . He was so insensitive about his appearance thathe used to wear his hair in rows of curls, and when hewas on his Greek trip he let it grow down his back. Heusually appeared in public in a dressing-gown without abelt, a scarf round his neck and no shoes.9

S O U R C E 9 . 5 0

The hope of the worldThe expectation and hope of all the world has beenproclaimed emperor; the good genius of the world andthe beginning of all great and good things, Nero hasbeen proclaimed Caesar.

Oxyrynchus Papyrus No. 1021, cited inD. Shotter, Nero, p. 16

S O U R C E 9 . 5 1

The new Augustus[Nero] promised to model his rule on the principles laiddown by Augustus, and never missed an opportunity ofbeing generous or merciful . . .


S O U R C E 9 . 5 2

The Death of Britannicus[Nero] hated Britannicus . . . he could not find a chargeagainst his step-brother or order his execution openly.Instead, he decided to act secretly—and ordered poisonto be prepared . . .

Britannicus was handed a harmless drink. The tastertasted it; but Britannicus found it too hot, and refused it.Then cold water containing the poison was added.Speechless, his whole body convulsed, he instantlyceased to breathe.


9Ibid., p. 62.


S O U R C E 9 . 5 3

SpectaclesHe gave an immense variety of entertainments—coming-of-age parties, chariot races in the Circus, stageplays, a gladiatorial show . . .

He staged a naval engagement on an artificial lakeof salt water which had sea monsters swimming in it . . .

At an athletic competition held in the Enclosure, oxenwere sacrificed on a lavish scale; that was when heshaved his chin for the first time, put the hair in a pearl-studded gold box and dedicated it to Capitoline Jupiter.


S O U R C E 9 . 5 4

The influence of Seneca and Burrus. . . two leading members of the court, Seneca, who hadgraduated from the tutorship of Nero to become hisadvisor, and Burrus, commander of the PraetorianGuard, . . . governed the empire between them . . .

They had no part in the death of Britannicus; indeedit may have embarrassed them. But they were the menwho successfully eased Agrippina out of her dominantrole . . .

[Seneca’s] control of the empire, however, dependedon his control of the young Nero. It was Seneca whocomposed Nero’s inaugural speech to the Senate—amodel of modest correctness.

M. Grant, The Twelve Caesars, pp. 153–4

S O U R C E 9 . 5 5

The great fire of RomeNow started the most terrible and destructive fire whichRome had ever experienced. It began in the Circus whereit adjoins the hills . . .

Nobody dared fight the flames. Attempts to do sowere prevented by menacing gangs. Torches, too, wereopenly thrown in, by men crying that they acted underorders . . .

Nero was at Antium. He only returned to the citywhen the fire was approaching the mansion he hadbuilt . . .

. . . flames broke out again in the more open regionsof the city . . . This new conflagration causedadditional ill-feeling because it started on Tigellinus’estate. For people believed that Nero was ambitious tofound a new city to be named after himself.

Of Rome’s fourteen districts only four remained intact.


S O U R C E 9 . 5 6

Treatment of ChristiansNero had self-acknowledged Christians arrested. Then,. . . large numbers of others were condemned—not somuch for incendiarism as for their anti-socialtendencies . . . Despite their guilt as Christians, and theruthless punishment it deserved, the victims were pitied.For it was felt that they were being sacrificed to oneman’s brutality rather than to the national interest.


S O U R C E 9 . 5 7

Death of Nero. . . perceiving that they were drawing near, [Nero]commanded his companions to kill him. And when theyrefused, he uttered a groan and said: ‘I alone haveneither friend nor foe.’ By this time the horsemen wereclose at hand, and so he killed himself, after utteringthat oft-quoted remark: ‘Jupiter, what an artist dies inme!’ And as he lingered in his agony, Epaphroditusdealt him the finishing stroke.


Activity: researchRead the following sources: Suetonius, Nero, 10–12,20–25; Tacitus, Annals, XIV, 15–16, 19, XVI, 3;Griffin, Nero, Chapter 8.

(i) What were Nero’s artistic pursuits and talents?(ii) How did the Romans respond to Nero the artist?

(iii) Who were the Augustiani? What part did theyplay in Nero’s performances?

(iv) What festival did Nero institute?(v) What effects did Nero’s artistic activities have on

his reign?

figure 9.13 Nero


THEMATIC STUDY 1

According to Dio and Tacitus (Sources 9.20 and 9.21)the Senate was no longer the major ruling body ofRome. Augustus had usurped the Senate’s functions, yetit had handed him much of his authority. The Senatecould have refused to give these honours and powers toAugustus, for it had the legal power; Augustus, how-ever, controlled the ‘real’ power—the army. The Senatediscussed issues, minted bronze and copper coinage,made laws through the passing of senatus consulta,acted as a court of justice and had charge of the senato-rial provinces. However, Augustus changed its mode ofoperation by the introduction of the consilium (the sena-torial council) and the use of his auctoritas. Dioexplains the operation of the consilium:

[Augustus] called in the consuls . . . to advise him forperiods of six months, together with one of the holdersof each of the other offices of state [that is, themagistrates], and fifteen men chosen by lot from therest of the Senate. In consequence it became a practicethat all legislation put forward by the emperors iscommunicated after a fashion through these advisers toall the other senators.

Augustus depended on the senatorial class for theadministrative machinery of the empire. By the end ofhis reign, the Senate virtually followed his orders.Tiberius tried to restore the Senate to its former positionof executive responsibility, but to no avail—it hadbecome too dependent on the princeps. Gaius treatedthe Senate with disdain. The Senate had no respect forClaudius because it was given no say in his selection asemperor. By the end of the Julio-Claudian period, theSenate had become almost irrelevant, an apathetic bodyruled by factions.

A U G U S T U S

l Augustus tried to restore to the Senate its prestige,and treated it with some respect. He aimed to makethe body operate more efficiently, so in 29/28 BC herevised the list of eligible senators and reduced thenumber from 1000 to 800. In 18 BC he reduced theSenate to 600. In 11 BC and AD 4 there were furtherrevisions of the Senate. In 17 BC senators were finedfor not attending Senate meetings.

l Augustus relied upon the senatorial class to adminis-ter the state. For example, senatorial commissionswere in charge of aqueducts, corn supply, roads andpublic buildings (Suetonius, Augustus, 37). Senatorswere recruited from the twenty young men who each

year became quaestors, or financial secretaries. Thequaestors were elected by the Senate but Augustuschecked the list of candidates. Birth had been themain qualification for entry to the senatorial class,but in 13 BC Augustus established a minimum prop-erty qualification for senators of one million sester-ces. It is known that Augustus financially assistedworthy members of the equestrian class to take thestep up to the senatorial group.

l Augustus had the right to introduce the first item toSenate meetings. The Senate basically acted as anadvisory body to Augustus, but was able to pass reso-lutions, or senatus consulta. Augustus changed theway in which the Senate functioned by introducingthe consilium—a committee composed of Augustus,the two consuls, a representative of each of the mag-istrates and fifteen men chosen by lot from theSenate. The consilium prepared the agenda forSenate meetings and discussed issues with Augustus.The Senate became, virtually ‘a rubber stamp’, for itwas unlikely that its members would resist the direc-tion of the consilium and the leading statesman,Augustus. In AD 13 the consilium was enlarged toinclude Augustus’ step-son Tiberius, the two adoptedgrandsons, the consuls designate and an additionalfive senators chosen by lot.

l Augustus wanted the Senate to be a responsible anddignified body, so he insisted that religious obser-vances were undertaken before the commencementof its meetings. In 9 BC it was determined that theSenate met twice a month. A quorum was estab-lished for certain types of business.

l The Senate, in conjunction with the two consuls,formed a senatorial court and conducted trials ofpeople of high rank. For example, Augustus broughtto the Senate a case of maiestas, or treason, againstCassius Severus. Volesus Messalla was accusedbefore the Senate of provincial misgovernment. Thesenatorial courts dealt not only with treason, but alsowith extortion and adultery.

l The more settled peaceful provinces were adminis-tered by the Senate.

l Under Augustus, the Senate retained control of theaerarium, or public treasury of Rome. However, welearn from the Res Gestae that the treasury was oftenempty and that Augustus had to make contributionsto it, which meant that he exerted an unofficial con-trol over the Senate’s expenditure. The setting up ofthe military treasury in AD 5–6 further reduced theSenate’s control of finances. The Senate mintedbronze and copper coins with the mark ‘SC’

THE SENATE: AUGUSTUS AND THE JULIO-CLAUDIANS


inscribed on them. Augustus seems to have had aninfluence on the design of these coins, as many ofthem reflect his policies.

T I B E R I U S

l Tiberius attempted to restore the traditional rightsand dignity of the Senate by consulting it on everyissue. He ‘commended to the senate Germanicus’ sonNero Caesar’ and asked that he be ‘permitted to standfor the quaestorship five years ahead of the legal age’.(Tacitus, Annals, III, 29.1) Suetonius reports that heconsulted the Senate on national revenue, repair ofbuildings, troop movements, military commands andforeign policy (Suetonius, Tiberius, 30.1–2).

l Being a traditionalist, Tiberius always entered theSenate House without an escort, and rose to greet theconsuls (Suetonius, Tiberius, 31.4).

l The election of magistrates was transferred from thecomitia (people’s assembly) to the Senate. Tiberiustried to encourage the Senate to become a significantlegislative body—the most important business wastransacted in the Senate (Tacitus, Annals, IV, 6).Tiberius was concentrating more power in his ownhands and taking a direct role in the electoralprocess (Levick, Tiberius, p. 96).

l Tiberius abolished the consilium of Augustus andinstead established a council of his friends plus agroup of twenty men chosen for him from the Senate.The consilium of Tiberius advised him on adminis-trative matters (Suetonius, Tiberius, 55).

l Tiberius expanded the judicial role of the Senate bymaking it responsible for trying provincial officialsand those charged with maiestas and (occasionally)murder. The senatorial court dealt with many treasoncases in Tiberius’ reign.

l Like Augustus, Tiberius assisted indidivuals to meetthe financial qualifications of the senatorial group.Others who asked for his help were told to prove theircase before the Senate (Tacitus, Annals, I, 75.6).

l The Senate offered Tiberius titles and honours, whichhe refused (Suetonius, Tiberius, 26).

l Although he wanted the Senate to be an independentbody and encouraged it to debate and discuss issues,the senators were sometimes reluctant to uphold theirresponsibilities. In AD 21 Tiberius reminded theSenate that its province of Africa required a new gov-ernor who would quell the rebellion that was occur-ring there. The Senate showed itself to be inadequateat this point, for it wanted Tiberius to make thechoice (Tacitus, Annals, III, 32).

l Tiberius did not conduct purges of the Senate asAugustus had done, perhaps disapproving of his pre-

decessor’s methods. He was also sparing in the num-ber of men he admitted to the Senate.

l In AD 19 the Senate took a greater role in religiousmatters when it chose a new Vestal Virgin. In 22 itdebated on the rights of the Flamen Dialis and in 24had to elect a replacement priest.

l Senatorial commissions were set up to deal with theproblems of the flooding of the Tiber, the care of pub-lic buildings, the maintenance of public records,investigation of catastrophes—such as the collapse of the Amphitheatre in AD 27 and periodic earth-quakes.

l As his reign progressed, Tiberius became increas-ingly frustrated with the Senate (Dio, Roman History,LVIII, 18, 3–6). He became so annoyed with the ser-vility of the senators that he commented that theywere ‘men fit to be slaves’ (Tacitus, Annals, III, 64).

l In AD 26 Tiberius left Rome and settled on Capri.When in Rome, he had regularly attended the Senateand this probably raised the level of the debate. As aresult of his leaving Rome, Tiberius changed the cen-tre of government. Levick notes that ‘the Senate,functioning as a court, was being exploited by rivalfactions . . . and incapable of operating as a seriousdeliberative body’ (Levick, Tiberius, p. 113).

G A I U S

l Two days after the death of Tiberius, Gaius appearedbefore the Senate, where ‘immediately and unani-mously [it] conferred absolute power upon him’(Suetonius, Gaius, 14). He was given tribunicianpower and proconsular imperium as well as manytitles. The balance that had been built up byAugustus and maintained by Tiberius was destroyedin one blow. At that meeting of the Senate, Tiberius’will was declared null and void. By a senatorialdecree, Gaius was given the power to do what hethought was right for the state.

l At first, Gaius treated the Senate with great respectand promised to share power with it (Dio, RomanHistory, LIX, 6). He won popularity with the Senatewhen he abolished the charges of maiestas, put anend to the use of delatores (informers) and recalledsenators exiled in the reign of Tiberius. He was con-cerned for the welfare of senators, allowing them tosit on cushions at the shows instead of bare boards.

l After his illness in AD 37, Gaius’ behaviourchanged, now treating the Senate with contempt anddispensing with their services. Suetonius tells us thatGaius enjoyed humiliating senators by making themrun beside his chariot dressed in their togas or waiton him dressed in their tunics (Suetonius, Gaius, 26).


He was planning to give his horse, Incitatus, a con-sulship—an insult to the office and to the Senate(Suetonius, Gaius, 55). He abused the Senate fordestroying his family, favouring Sejanus and beinghostile to Tiberius (Suetonius, Gaius, 30).

l In AD 38, Gaius renewed the laws of maiestas.l He removed the Senate’s right to mint coins.l He executed any senators who tried to give him

advice.l After the conspiracy of AD 39, senators became fear-

ful that Gaius might suspect them of plotting againsthim. The Senate became sycophantic and grantedhim even more honours.

l Senators such as Vinicianus, Valerius Asiaticus andLonginus were part of the plot that killed Gaius.

l The Senate had little choice in confirming Gaius asprinceps, given the arrangements of the PraetorianGuard. Yet the senators, according to Barrett, ‘mustbear responsibility for the massive grant of powersthey made to the young, inexperienced and almosttotally unknown Caligula, and for their own reluc-tance to try to curb or restrain him.’ The Senateresponded to each humiliation by giving Gaius evenmore honours and by spending vast sums trying toentertain him (Barrett, Caligula, p. 239).

C L A U D I U S

l After Gaius’ assassination, Claudius was proclaimedruler by the Praetorian Guard while the Senatedebated whether to restore the republic. Josephustells us that the Senate wanted to regain its formerprestige. In AD 41 it declared Claudius a publicenemy. Claudius granted 15 000 sesterces to everyguardsman, as a result of which the Senate wasforced to confer on him the powers of princeps.Claudius was resented because the Senate believedit had been given no say in the choice of ruler(Josephus, The Jewish War, XIX, 19, 212–67). ‘Byforcing himself on the Senate, Claudius inflicted adeep wound in its authority and self-regard’ (Levick,Claudius, p. 93).

l When Claudius began his rule he completely ignoredthe fact that the Senate had seriously consideredchanging the form of government (Suetonius,Claudius, 11).

l A number of senators had been involved in Gaius’murder, but Claudius gave amnesties to all exceptthe actual murderers. He tried to be conciliatory,recalling exiles, repealing Gaius’ laws and grantingconsulships to those with republican sympathies.

l Claudius displayed respect and courtesy to theSenate—he stood in its presence; restored to it the

elections of the magistrates; held banquets for sena-tors and their wives; personally visited sick senators;granted consulships to men of distinction andrestored to the Senate its right to mint coinage.

l Claudius attempted to increase the prestige of theSenate by expelling lazy senators (Tacitus, Annals,XII, 52). He encouraged the Senate to take itsresponsibilities seriously as a forum for discussionand for the passing of legislation. Foreign affairs andmatters concerning the provinces were once morediscussed by the Senate. There were more senatusconsulta passed in Claudius’ reign than in that of anyother princeps (Levick, Claudius, p. 97).

l Claudius established an efficient centralised admin-istration. His reliance on this civil serviceencroached on senatorial areas of responsibility. He‘renewed the practice of having advisers sit with him,a practice that had been abandoned when Tiberiusretired to Capri’ (Dio, Roman History, LX, 4.4). TheSenate became even more hostile to Claudius(Tacitus, Annals, XII, 57). A further cause of hostilitywas his extensive use of freedmen such as Pallas,Narcissus and Polybius in the administration ofRome. Tiberius and Augustus had also used freed-men, but Claudius formalised their use.

l Claudius kept many routine administrative details tohimself and his selected assistants, so that theSenate felt that it was ignorant of the direction ofgovernment.

l Claudius interfered in traditional areas of Senateresponsibility. Charge of the imperial treasury wastaken away from the Senate and given to procuratorsanswerable to Claudius. Procurators were alsoplaced on senatorial commissions. Claudius returnedsome provinces to the Senate but then he interferedin the administration of them.

l In AD 41 Claudius abolished the charge of maiestas,but later revived it. Many of the trials for the accusedwere supposedly held in the palace behind closeddoors or in the Senate before Claudius, the prefectsand the freedmen (Dio, Roman History, LX, 16.3).Claudius regularly attended the senatorial courts butan increasing number of criminal matters were han-dled in the imperial court.

l In AD 42 an attempted coup was hatched; Claudiuswas always fearful of the recurrence of plots. It wasclaimed that in Claudius’ reign, thirty-five senatorsand about 300 equestrians were killed.

l Augustus had used the censorial power as an instru-ment of government, but Claudius revived the officeof censor itself. As censor, he held a revision of theSenate and enrolled many of his supporters. He alsointroduced into the Senate worthy men from the


provinces. (The Senate did not like admitting for-eigners.) Seneca mocks Claudian policy in this mat-ter: ‘He made up his mind, you know, to see thewhole world in the toga, Greeks, Gauls, Spaniards,Britons and all’ (Seneca, Apocolocyntosis, 3).

l Dio tells us that Claudius accepted all the titles andhonours given to him at the beginning of his reign,with the exception of ‘father of his country’. He lateraccepted this when he felt he had earned it (Dio,Roman History, LX, 3.2). After the conquest ofBritain in AD 43, the Senate gave him the title of‘Britannicus’.

l Claudius wanted the senators to express their views,but they were intimidated by the constant presenceof the Praetorians, who supported Claudius. This ele-ment of force deepened senatorial resentment atClaudius’ rule.

N E R O

l Because he was influenced by Seneca and Burrus,Nero’s relations with the Senate were at first good. Hepromised to reverse the unpopular measures thatClaudius had introduced. In his first speech to theSenate, composed by Seneca, Nero promised that theSenate would exercise its traditional functions; thatthere would be no treason trials; that the freedmenwould be controlled; that he would not conduct allthe judicial business as Claudius had done and thathe would model his leadership on that of Augustus.

l Criminal cases in Italy and the provinces were triedin the senatorial court.

l Initially, Nero rejected offers of statues and titles.l The Senate was able to debate freely (Tacitus,

Annals, XIII, 25). Nero wanted to abolish customsduties, but the Senate prevented this (Tacitus,Annals, XIII, 50).

l Coins were issued on the authority of the Senate.

l After the murder of Agrippina in AD 59, the death ofBurrus in AD 62 and Seneca’s retirement, Nero’srelations with the Senate deteriorated. According toSuetonius, Nero made senators and knights do battlein the arena at public shows (Suetonius, Nero, 12).As his reign progressed, Nero neglected his imperialduties in favour of poetry, drama and music. Heappeared disinterested in discussing matters of state,preferring to demonstrate the mechanics of water-organs or talk about his lyre-playing (Suetonius,Nero, 41).

l Treason trials were revived by Tigellinus, thePraetorian prefect. A number of prominent senatorsand wealthy people were murdered. Many senatorshad their property confiscated. Nero ‘hinted broadlythat it was not his intention to spare the remainingsenators, but would one day wipe out the entire sena-torial order’ (Suetonius, Nero, 37).

l Most of the senators became more sycophantic. Forexample, Nero’s wife Octavia was murdered and theSenate responded with decrees of thanksgiving.Nero’s daughter died—at the age of four months—and the Senate declared her a goddess.

l Some senators, such as Thrasea Paetus, tried to resistNero.

l In AD 65 the Pisonian conspiracy was uncovered. Anumber of senators had conspired to assassinateNero. After the plot was uncovered, the treason trialswere conducted in secret. Many senators, both inno-cent and guilty, were murdered—including Seneca,Lucan and Thrasea Paetus. Tigellinus purged theSenate.

l In AD 68 the Senate declared Nero a public enemy.

A c t i v i t y

ESSAY Expain how the role of the Senatechanged from the time of Augustusthrough the Julio-Claudian periods.


THEMATIC STUDY 2

If one looks at the Roman military system, one willrecognise that the possession of a large empire hascome into their hands as the prize of their valour, notas a gift of fortune. For this people does not wait forthe outbreak of war to practise with weapons nor dothey sit idle in peacetime bestirring themselves only intimes of need. Rather, they seem to have been bornwith weapons in their hands . . . no wonder that theboundaries of their empire are in the east to theEuphrates, in the west to the Atlantic Ocean, in the south the new lands of Libya and in the north theDanube and the Rhine. One would easily say that the people who have won this empire are greater thanthe empire itself.10

The army had been instrumental in helping theRomans acquire and maintain their vast empire.Augustus understood the importance of keeping directcontrol over the army and of making it an instrument ofthe state rather than a weapon to be used by individualgenerals. He instituted changes that made the army aprofessional standing body—this Augustan structurewas retained for the next few centuries. It became animportant part of Roman tradition for the ruler to beseen as a capable military figure. Even Claudiusastutely cultivated this image. When the rulers ignoredthe power of the army and failed to project a militarypresence, as Nero did, they ran the risk of being over-thrown by the army.

A c t i v i t y

RESEARCH Find out how the Roman army wasorganised in the Augustan period andduring the 1st century AD. You will needto research the meaning of the followingwords: legion, cohort, auxiliary, ala oralae, legate, centurion, military tribune.

A U G U S T U S

l Under Augustus the Roman army became a perma-nently organised professonal army, replacing themilitia arrangements of the republic.

l Soldiers during the republic had depended on theirgenerals for pay and rewards. Generals such asPompey and Caesar often used their armies for theirown political ends. Augustus was at pains to put thearmy under his control and separate the military andpolitical roles that the army could play. Soldiersreceived their pay and rewards from the emperor orthe centralised financial administration. Thisreduced their dependence on the commanding gen-erals and hence weakened the patron–client rela-tionship that existed between generals and soldiers.(Suetonius names this as the principal motivebehind the reform.) The army was reliant onAugustus and now became his client.

l In 29 BC Augustus took the title ‘imperator’ as partof his name. This emphasised the importance of hismilitary leadership.

l In 27 BC Augustus was given control of Spain, Syria and Gaul–Germany. This gave him control offour-fifths of the armed forces and the right tochoose the generals and the legions. In 12 BCIllyricum was converted from a senatorial to animperial province, thus adding to his control.‘Thislong-term concentration of the supreme command ofalmost the entire armed forces in one hand was . . .unique and new’ (Raaflaub, ‘Political Significance’,p. 1010).

l Augustus standardised the pay and allowances forthe entire army. In 13 BC he fixed the period of ser-vice at twelve years for Praetorians and sixteenyears for legionaries. In AD 6 it became sixteenyears for Praetorians and twenty years for legionar-ies. He changed the bounty payable on completionof service from a piece of land (before 13 BC) to alump sum of money equalling thirteen years’ pay.Before AD 6 this money came from Augustus’ pri-vate fortune. After AD 6 the reforms were funded bythe military treasury (aerarium militare). The 5 percent inheritance tax and the 1 per cent sales taxwent into the military treasury (Suetonius, Augustus,49).

l As a result of these measures, conscription was nolonger necessary. However, after the Varian disasterof AD 9 and the Pannonian revolt, conscription wasbriefly applied in Italy.

l The legions were drawn mainly from the sons of vet-erans. Augustus forbade soldiers to marry duringtheir term of service partly to improve military effi-ciency by keeping women and children out of thearmy camps. The children of the many men who

10Josephus, The Jewish War, cited in N. Lewis &M. Reinhold, Roman Civilization: Sourcebook II, Harper& Row, New York, 1966, pp. 492, 494.

THE ARMY: AUGUSTUS AND THE JULIO-CLAUDIANS


ignored this law were regarded as illegitimate. Thesons of soldiers tended to enlist to gain citizenship.

l Augustus used the Praetorians as bodyguards. Theybecame a permanent force. The urban cohorts wereused as city police, but Augustus was careful never tohave more than three cohorts in Rome (Suetonius,Augustus, 49). Other troops stationed in Rome werethe vigiles (a fire brigade composed of 7000 freed-men).

l Auxiliary cohorts, supplying specialist forces andcavalry, were also permanently established byAugustus. Sometimes these foreign troops were com-manded by their own chieftains, but from the time ofAugustus, equestrian tribunes and prefects mainlycommanded them.

l Two standing fleets commanded by equestrian pre-fects were established by Augustus, one at Misenumand one at Ravenna. There were also various riverfleets stationed throughout the empire, such as thoseon the Rhine and the Danube (Suetonius, Augustus,49).

l Augustus strongly encouraged military service forsenators and senatorial aspirants (Suetonius,Augustus, 38).

l In 28 BC, Augustus reduced the number of legionsfrom sixty to twenty-eight. This demonstrated to theRomans that he had fulfilled one of his main politicalplatforms by bringing peace to the world. Financialconsiderations were at work here, as was a sense ofthe need to minimise the possibility of militaryrevolts.

l The Roman Empire covered a large area, but therewas limited manpower available to maintain it.Troops were dispersed along the borders of theempire so as to avoid a concentration of the army inone place. a consequence of this was that soldierswere alienated from civil society.

l The greatest military disaster of Augustus’ reign wasthe defeat of Varus in AD 9. The Germans annihi-lated Varus and three Roman legions in the Teutobergforest. Much to the disgrace of the Romans, theGermans also captured the Roman standards.Augustus was supposedly haunted by this awfuldefeat and constantly cried out, ‘Varus give me backmy legions!’ (Suetonius, Augustus, 23).

l The control and patronage of the army was dominatedby Augustus and his family. All provincial soldiersswore an oath to Augustus. After victories, at tri-umphs and on politically important occasions, dona-tives were distributed to the soldiers from Augustus’fortune. In Res Gestae 3.3, Augustus explains that hesettled 300 000 veterans in colonies. When hisgrandson was presented to the army in 8 BC,Augustus gave the soldiers a donative (Dio, Roman

History, LX, 6.4). Colonies established by veteransbore such names as colonia Julia or Julia Augusta.

l Augustus fostered the centurions by creating newcareer paths for them and allowing them entry intothe equestrian order. These men were very loyal toAugustus.

l Under the Augustan system, the people who gainedthe top military positions were usually members ofthe imperial family or those who owed their careers toAugustus. The legati Augusti were appointed byAugustus and responsible to him. Augustus con-demned haste and recklessness in his military com-manders (Suetonius, Augustus, 25.1).

l Augustus ensured that nobles and members of thesenatorial class held positions of authority—thoughwithout real military power (Raaflaub, ‘PoliticalSignificance’, p. 1017).

l Triumphs were no longer held by successful generals,but only by the imperial family.

l Personal connections with the army were regarded asimportant. Augustus went to Spain and Gaul and per-sonally commanded the final stages of the war. In 19BC he sent his step-son Tiberius to negotiate thereturn of the Parthian standards.

l Augustus put the army on a stable footing and tried toeliminate the misuse of the army that had occurred atthe end of the republic. The regulations concerningpay and years of service encountered some difficul-ties, for when Augustus died the armies in Pannoniaand Germany staged serious revolts. By AD 14 thesesoldiers had not received the promised rewards ofAugustus’ reforms.

l Another difficulty was that each soldier had to pay forhis own equipment, uniform and rations. The dona-tives came to be seen more as part of regular pay thanas a gift.

l Augustus’ military policy was to a large extent suc-cessful because he cared for the social and materialneeds of soldiers, officers and veterans; cultivated theties of clientela; provided reliable leadership.

T I B E R I U S

l Tiberius enjoyed a long and distinguished militarycareer before he became ruler. On his accession inAD 14 the armies in Pannonia and Germanymutined. These were serious revolts, and VelleiusPaterculus, an experienced soldier, wrote that ‘thearmy . . . wanted a new leader, a new order of things,and a new republic . . . They even dared to threaten todictate terms to the Senate and to the emperor’(Velleius Paterculus, History, 2.125.1). Tiberius’ sonDrusus was sent to deal with the army in Pannonia,


and his nephew Germanicus quelled the revolt inGermany (Tacitus, Annals, I, 15–48). As emperor,Tiberius made no visits to the troops serving on thefrontiers. He closely followed the measures thatAugustus had put in place for the army. ‘His longcareer as commanding general provided him withsuch a bonus of loyalty within the armies that, afterthe mutinies of AD 14, there were only minor diffi-culties’ (Raaflaub, ‘Political Significance, p. 1020).

l According to Tacitus, during the reign of Tiberiusthere were eight Roman legions along the Rhine,three in Spain, two in Africa and Egypt, four in theEast (guarding the territory from Syria to theEuphrates), two in Pannonia, Moesia and Dalmatia.

l In AD 23 Tiberius recruited soldiers from theRomanised people in the provinces and the descen-dants of veterans. He was not impressed by the qual-ity of the Italians that were enlisting, saying that theywere mainly the destitute and the lazy (Tacitus,Annals, IV, 4).

l The army began to play a role not only on the eventsin the empire but also within Rome itself. The vigilesplayed a part in the downfall of Sejanus. ThePraetorian prefect Sutorius Macro had previouslybeen a prefect of the vigiles. While Sejanus was in theSenate House listening to the letter from Tiberiusdenouncing him, Macro dismissed Sejanus’Praetorians and replaced them with a group of loyalvigiles (Dio, Roman History, LVIII, 9.6).

l Tiberius sought to reduce robbery by decreasing thedistances between military posts (Suetonius, Tiberius,37).

l Tiberius delegated military campaigns to able gener-als. He avoided aggressive action unless it was neces-sary, preferring to win by diplomacy rather than force(Tacitus, Annals, II, 26.3).

l Tiberius provided reliable military leadership andcultivated ties with the legions. His success as a mili-tary commander stands in contrast to the inexperi-ence of his successors, who, ‘aware of traditionalexpectations, suffered from lack of confidence inthemselves and suspicion of military talent in others’(Griffin, Nero, p. 224).

G A I U S

l Gaius was popular with the army because he was theson of Germanicus. He had spent his early years inthe army camp and was given the nickname ‘Caligula’,meaning ‘little army boots’, because he was dressedin miniature army uniforms (Suetonius, Gaius, 9).

l From Suetonius we learn that Gaius dismissed gener-als who were late in bringing their auxiliary troops.

He discharged older centurions who were within afew days of retirement. As a cost-cutting measure hereduced the retirement bonuses for soldiers(Suetonius, Gaius, 44).

l In AD 39/40 Gaius went to Gaul where he wasacclaimed seven times (even though he fought no bat-tles). He wanted to create a military image.

l In AD 39 the army in Germany and the commanderGaetulicus, as well as members of the imperial fam-ily, were involved in a plot to overthrow Gaius, whovisited Germany and quickly suppressed the revolt.Grant sees this as a turning point in Gaius’ reign(Grant, The Twelve Caesars, p. 124).

C L A U D I U S

l The Praetorians, rather than the Senate, choseClaudius as ruler. He therefore needed the support ofa powerful group. Despite his scholarly pursuits, lackof military experience and unmilitary appearance,Claudius cultivated the soldiers throughout his reign,for he realised the importance of a military image.

l In AD 41 Claudius faced a serious crisis when thegovernor of Dalmatia, Scribonianus, staged a revolt.However, Scribonianus’ legions refused to follow him,and so the revolt failed. Claudius rewarded thelegions with the title ‘Claudia pia fidelis’, meaning‘Claudius’ own loyal and true’.

l Claudius did not have a personal relationship withthe army when he began his reign. He quickly cor-rected this by personally leading his troops to subdueBritain in AD 43 (Dio, Roman History, LX,21.4–22.2). On his return to Rome he held a triumph.Coinage of the period shows the title ‘imperator’ onone side and the triumphal arch honouring theachievement on the other side.

l Claudius carefully cultivated his military image oncoins, statues, buildings and on every possible publicoccasion. At the ceremony to celebrate the drainingof the Fucine Lake, Claudius wore a military cloak (ofimperial purple).

l Claudius rewarded his troops with titles and grants of citizenship, and began the practice of awardingcertificates for honourable discharge of soldiers

l He was saluted as ‘imperator’ on twenty-seven occasions.

l In AD 45 Claudius granted to the soldiers the privi-leges enjoyed by married men. Soldiers now had theright to give legacies to their children.

l The army was well disciplined and generally contentthroughout Claudius’ reign. He chose capable men asgenerals—Galba, Corbulo, Vespasian, SuetoniusPaulinus.


N E R O

l During his reign, Nero was given thirteen imperialsalutations.

l Nero had little concern for the soldiers, allowing theirpay and rewards to fall into arrears.

l Nero’s extravagant behaviour and emphasis on hisartistic activities upset the army. He made no attemptto build a military image or cultivate ties with thearmy as Claudius had done.

l He made serious mistakes in the choice of leaders.Caesonius Paetus, sent to the East to drive Tiridatesout of Armenia, suffered a humiliating defeat at thehands of the Parthians.

l Nero killed some of the more successful military gen-erals. Corbulo had served with distinction in the East.He was then sent to Germany, but Nero feared himand had him killed.

l Many groups, including the army, became disillu-sioned with Nero and with the increasingly powerfulfreedmen. When he went on his trip to the East, Neroleft a freedman Helius in charge of Rome.

l The soldiers and the provincial governors were upsetby the heavy burden of taxation that Nero placedupon the provinces to fund his extravagance. Nerofeared the power and threat posed by the militarycommanders.

l In AD 68 Julius Vindex, the governor of Gaul, stagedan unsuccessful revolt. Galba revolted in Spain.Macer and the legion in Africa turned against Nero,then the legions in Germany withdrew their supportfrom him, as did the Praetorian Guard in Rome. Nerowas forced to commit suicide. The army, then, playeda role in Nero’s downfall.

l Nero was unable to shoulder ‘the burden of expectedmilitary glory’ (Griffin, Nero, p. 233).

A c t i v i t y

ESSAY Analyse the role of the army in the time ofAugustus and explain the changes thatoccurred in the Julio-Claudian period.

F o r d i s c u s s i o n

Why was Augustus’ reform of the army animportant feature of his reign?


THEMATIC STUDY 3

Another group that had a significant impact in thisperiod was the Praetorian Guard, which Augustusformed in 27 BC. Initially, the nine cohorts ofPraetorians were stationed outside Rome, their responsi-bility being to safeguard both the city and the imperialfamily. They patrolled the palace and buildings in Romeas well as the towns surrounding Rome. The Praetorianprefect, who had charge of them, was directly answer-able to Augustus. The position of prefect was the highestoffice that members of the equestrian order could attain.By the end of the Julio-Claudian period, the prefectwielded considerable power and influence within Rome.The Guard was often required to carry out unpleasanttasks for the ruling family.

A U G U S T U S

l The initial leadership of the Praetorian Guard con-sisted of two prefects.

l In 2 BC Augustus appointed two Praetorian pre-fects—Publius Aper and Ostorius Scapula. While onduty at the palace, guardsmen carried weapons butwore civilian dress. On parade, they wore elaboratelydecorated breastplates. They received one-and-a-halftimes the pay of an ordinary legionary.

l Augustus later replaced the two prefects with one—Valerius Ligur, who was granted a chair of honouralongside Augustus.

T I B E R I U S

l In AD 15 Lucius Strabo, formerly Praetorian prefectunder Augustus, became Prefect of Egypt. His sonLucius Aelius Sejanus became Praetorian prefect.

l In AD 23 a camp for the Praetorian Guard was builtjust outside Rome, near the Porta Viminalis. (Thismay have been a suggestion of Sejanus.)

l Sejanus played an important role in imperial politics.He took part in the murders of Drusus (AD 23),Agrippina the Elder (AD 29) and her sons Nero (AD31) and Drusus (AD 33). He desired to marry Livillain AD 25, but Tiberius refused. He became betrothedto Julia in AD 31. Many of the treason trials wereseen as the responsibility of Sejanus. When Tiberiusretired to Capri in AD 26 (possibly at the suggestionof Sejanus), the Praetorian prefect cleverly controlledthe flow of information between Rome and theemperor.

l Sejanus was extremely loyal to Tiberius. He savedTiberius’ life when the roof of the grotto at Speluncacaved in. Tiberius referred to him as ‘adjutorimperii’—‘sidekick of power’.

l When Tiberius realised just how much power Sejanushad been wielding he had him removed and killed.

l Sutorius Macro was prefect of the Guard from AD31–38. He had played a vital part in the overthrow ofSejanus and was rewarded with the top job. Helooked after Tiberius’ interests in Rome, but also cul-tivated the young Gaius. According to Tacitus’account, Macro killed Tiberius in AD 37 (Tacitus,Annals, VI, 50). In Dio’s account, Macro is Gaius’accomplice in the murder (Dio, Roman History,LVIII, 28).

G A I U S

l Macro helped Gaius in gaining senatorial approval.In AD 38 he became one of Gaius’ victims when hewas ordered to commit suicide.

l Marcus Arrecinus Clemens replaced Macro as pre-fect. He was involved in plots against Gaius.

l Some of the Praetorians and senators were involvedin the plot to kill Gaius. It was the tribune of theGuard, Cassius Chaerea, who struck the fatal blow.

l The Praetorian Guard found Claudius in the palaceand made the decision that he would be the nextruler.

C L A U D I U S

l Claudius was extremely grateful to the Praetorians forhis elevation to power, and gave them generous dona-tives throughout his reign. He also had gold and sil-ver coins minted in AD 41–42 that depicted himshaking hands with the guardsmen. This indicatedthe close relationship that existed between Claudiusand the Guard.

l Despite his gratitude to the Guard, Claudius exe-cuted Chaerea and Sabinus, the Praetorian tribuneswho had killed Gaius.

l There were two Praetorian prefects in Claudius’reign—Rufrius Pollio and Catonius Justus. Pollioenjoyed the great honour of being seated alongsideClaudius on public occasions. Pollio accompaniedClaudius and the cohorts of the Guard when theyjoined the expedition to Britain, but he was executedby Claudius in AD 47.

THE PRAETORIAN GUARD: AUGUSTUS AND THE JULIO-CLAUDIANS


l Messalina saw to it that Catonius Justus was exe-cuted in AD 43 (he knew of her adulterous affairs).

l Rufrius Crispinus was loyal to Messalina. In AD 47he arrested Valerius Asiaticus, on her behalf, on thecharge of conspiracy (the real reason was thatAsiaticus was an enemy of Messalina).

l In AD 51 Claudius’ new wife, Agrippina, removedCrispinus from office, on the pretext that only oneprefect was needed instead of two. Agrippina recom-mended one of her clients, Afranius Burrus, as thereplacement.

l Lusius Geta had been appointed prefect before AD47. In AD 48 Claudius asked Geta for his adviceregarding Messalina. However, he could not betrusted with Messalina’s execution because he wasloyal to her and her children.

N E R O

l Burrus promoted the interests of Agrippina by pre-senting her son Nero to the Praetorian Guard in AD54.

l Burrus and Seneca advised Nero and kept a check onhis behaviour. During his time as prefect, Burrusplayed a significant role in the formulation of Nero’s

policies. In AD 55 he was accused of plotting againstNero, but escaped the charge.

l Burrus’ influence declined after Nero’s murder ofAgrippina in AD 59.

l In AD 62 Burrus tried to persuade Nero not todivorce Octavia. Burrus developed a throat conditionand died later that year.

l Faenius Rufus was co-prefect with Gaius OfoniusTigellinus, AD 62–65 Rufus was involved in thePisonian conspiracy of AD 65, and was executed.

l Tigellinus was prefect, AD 62–68. He made exten-sive use of delatores to conduct a reign of terror inRome. He ruthlessly executed those involved in theconspiracy of Piso. He fell ill in AD 68 and his co-prefect Nymphidius Sabinus assumed command.

l In the last days of Nero’s reign, Tigellinus desertedNero.

l Sabinus ensured that the Guard withdrew their sup-port from Nero. He had pledged his support to Galba,one of the contenders for the throne, in return for apayment of money.

F o r f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n

Research the lives and careers of Sejanus,Macro, Burrus and Tigellinus


THEMATIC STUDY 4

It should be noted at the outset that imperial policyincludes the treatment of provinces and frontiers.Provinces are those areas conquered and settled by theRomans, while frontiers refer to the imperial bound-aries—those areas on the borders of the empire. Thefrontiers were fluid, moving frequently as initiativesexpanded and contracted.

Political and geographical conditions were so vari-able within the empire that the Romans did not use asingle strategy. They adopted various means to controlthe empire: military conquest; diplomacy; buffer zonesof client states; the traditional method of ‘divide andrule’, whereby the emperors fostered internal conflicts.The Romans dealt with each area according to its owncircumstances. Two areas of particular concern through-out this period were the Rhine–Danube frontier and theSyria–Asia Minor area that bordered on the Parthianempire.

Augustus intended to conquer the whole world, or atleast to create the impression that he had. He projectedthe image of a world conqueror, a bringer of peace, theruler over foreign kings. He extended the RomanEmpire in some areas, but suffered a major setback inGermany.

Tiberius had undertaken expeditions on behalf ofAugustus. He understood the Augustan policies of con-solidating the Roman frontiers and improving the gov-ernment of the provinces. During his reign, therefore,Tiberius followed the Augustan policy of consolidation,and made some innovative changes to provincialgovernment.

Gaius reversed Augustan policies in the East, partic-ularly in Parthia and Judaea, which weakened Rome’sposition. However, he made some wise decisions withregard to client kings.

Claudius adopted a policy of expansion and con-quered Britain. Like Augustus before him, Claudiuscultivated the image of a great conqueror.

Nero maintained the Roman frontiers but failed tosolve some major provincial problems. His neglect ofthe provinces had dire consequences, for it was theprovincial governors who led the revolts that ultimatelycaused his downfall.

A U G U S T U S

l The Augustan poets praised Augustus for extendingthe Roman Empire and bringing great glory andwealth to Rome. Augustus promoted several images

of himself, including that of a world conqueror. At thebeginning of the Res Gestae, he claimed that he had‘subjected the world to the power of the Roman people’.

l Augustus did not employ one overarching policy forthe whole of the empire—particular circumstancesdictated the use of specific methods. ‘Augustus . . .allowed the allied nations to manage their affairsaccording to their ancestral traditions.’ He was con-tent to permit some territories to govern themselves,while over others he favoured the continuation ofdirect Roman rule. This idea of imperial flexibility‘he impressed upon the Senate in writing’ (Dio,Roman History, LIV, 9).

l Client kings: The general policy, was to leave theclient kings or native rulers in control of their ownterritories. To ensure the loyalty of these client king-doms, the Romans often held members of their fami-lies as hostages in Rome. If the local kingdoms wereunstable or threatened Roman security, they wereannexed and became provinces of Rome. Such clientkingdoms were usually situated on the fringes of theempire, and acted as buffer zones between Roman-controlled territory and the possibly hostile areasbeyond.

l Augustus’ aim was to have defensible frontiersagainst ‘barbarian’ invaders. He wanted to push fron-tiers to their natural limits without losing control ofdistant armies.

l In 25 BC Augustus established Juba as the clientking of Mauretania. He also established client king-doms in Cappadocia, Commagene and Chalcis.

l Senatorial and imperial provinces: In 27 BC theprovinces were divided into senatorial and imperialunits of administration. The Senate controlled thesenatorial provinces, which rarely held troops; theimperial provinces were controlled by Augustusthrough his legati. ‘He handed over the weakerprovinces to the Senate, on the ground that they wereat peace and free from war, but he kept the strongerunder his authority, arguing that they were insecureand exposed to danger and either had enemies neartheir frontiers or were capable of starting a seriousrebellion on their own initiative’ (Dio, RomanHistory, LIII, 12).

l Augustus established the client kingdom of Judaea,which was put into the hands of Herod the Great. InAD 6, after Herod’s death, it became an imperialprovince.

l The Balkans: Between 12 and 9 BC, Tiberius, on

IMPERIAL POLICY: AUGUSTUS AND THEJULIO-CLAUDIANS


behalf of Augustus, conducted four campaigns in theBalkan region. A serious revolt erupted in Pannoniain AD 6, but eventually this area was divided into thetwo provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia.

l Spain: In 26 BC Augustus personally led the army tonorth–west Spain to extend Roman control. It tookfurther campaigns by M. Agrippa before Spain wassubdued in 19 BC. Horace wrote an ode celebratingAugustus’ success in Spain, and the Ara Pacis wasset up to honour the achievement.

l Gaul: In 27–13 BC Gaul was divided into three dis-tricts: Belgica, Aquitania and Lugdunensis, for easeof administration.

l Provincial government: Augustus saw provincialgovernment as a priority and made extensive tours ofthe provinces: 27–24 BC—Gaul and Spain; 22–19BC—the eastern provinces; 15–13 Gaul (Dio, RomanHistory, LIV, 20).

l Augustus improved the provinces by his carefulchoice of governors and prefects, whom he paid gen-erously in an effort to avoid administrative corrup-tion. Under Augustus, the usual tenure for commandswas 3–5 years. The road system was improvedbetween Rome and the provinces for better communi-cation. Augustus promoted colonisation and thedevelopment of towns throughout the empire.

l Augustus encouraged the worship of Roma in theprovinces, creating a bond of loyalty between theprovincials and Rome.

l Germany: Augustus planned to make the Elbe Riverthe border of the northern frontier. As a result of theVarus disaster in AD 9 (Dio, Roman History, LVI,18–23), Augustus concluded that the conquest ofGermany was not possible. The tribal nature of theGermans and the difficulty of the terrain meant that itwas too costly in manpower and resources to conquer.Instead the Romans extended and strengthened thenorthern frontier.

l Egypt: Egypt was specially controlled by Augustusbecause of its great wealth; it almost became a pri-vate estate of the emperors. Only men of equestrianrank were sent as governors of Egypt. Senators had togain special permission from imperial authoritieseven to set foot there (Res Gestae, 27).

l The East: Augustus adopted a general policy of non-aggression in the East. On behalf of Augustus,Tiberius installed Tigranes on the Armenian throne.Augustus conducted diplomatic relations withParthia and achieved a propaganda success when theParthian king, Phraates, returned the Roman stan-dards taken from Crassus in 53 BC (Dio, RomanHistories, LIV, 8).

l In 25 BC Augustus annexed Galatia and strength-ened Syria.

l In 21 BC he settled the disputes on the Ethiopian–Egyptian frontier.

l Augustus ‘was the first Roman to see the boundary ofthe empire and its defence as a single problem’(Webster, Roman Imperial Army, p. 31). Augustanimperial policy ‘varied from region to region,adjusted for circumstances and contingencies.Aggression alternated with restraint, conquest withdiplomacy, advance with retreat. Acquisitions andannexations occurred in some areas, consolidationand negotiation in others . . . The regime persistentlyprojected the impression of vigour, expansionism, tri-umph and dominance’ (Gruen, ‘Imperial Policy ofAugustus’, p. 416).

l Augustus pursued an expansionist imperial policybut by the end of his reign he had to settle for adefensive policy.

T I B E R I U S

l Tiberius carefully followed Augustan advice to avoidextending the empire, and ‘left the frontiers in a morestable condition’ (Webster, Roman Imperial Army,p. 40).

l Before coming to power, Tiberius had spent twenty-eight years abroad. As princeps, he neither visitedthe provinces nor left Italy. However, he did intervenewhen necessary. For example, when Germanicusentered Egypt without permission, Tiberiusresponded quickly.

l Provincial government: Tiberius made two impor-tant innovations in his reign—he lengthened thetenure of provincial governors and centralised the sys-tem of administration. Tiberius wanted the provincesto be governed by men of merit, so he allowed legatesand governors to remain in their provinces for longperiods of time. For example, C. Poppaeaus Sabinusserved in Moesia for twenty-four years. Lengtheningprovincial commands allowed men to become famil-iar with the demands of their province. However, notall the appointments were prudent. Pontius Pilategoverned the volatile area of Judaea for nine years(AD 27–36). Pilate made a number of serious mis-takes that offended the Jews. He brought Roman mil-itary standards bearing the image of Tiberius intoJerusalem. He used part of the sacred treasure tobuild an aqueduct, and insisted on erecting goldenshields in Herod’s Palace. All of these measuresupset traditional Jewish law. Tiberius centralised theprovincial administration by allowing some governorsto rule their provinces from Rome. L. Aelius Lamia,for example, remained in Rome while fulfilling theoffice of legate of Syria from AD 21 to 32.


l Rome was dependent on the provinces for supplies,especially grain (Tacitus, Annals, III, 54.6–8). It wasthe duty of the princeps to ensure that the provinceswere efficiently exploited, hence Tiberius’ commentto the prefect of Egypt that he wanted his sheep shornnot flayed (Suetonius, Tiberius, 32.2).

l Eleven prosecutions of provincial officials were con-ducted during Tiberius’ reign.

l In AD 17 Tiberius displayed his generosity by remit-ting the taxes of twelve cities of Asia Minor that hadbeen hit by earthquakes.

l Tiberius had permanent military bases built along theRhine and the Danube to strengthen the frontiers.

l Rhine: The northern frontier was maintained at theRhine after Germanicus’ attempts to expand it to theElbe were stopped by Tiberius. In AD 28 the Romanssuppressed a revolt of the Frisii.

l Danube: Tiberius believed that if he left the rebel-lious tribes to their own internal disturbances theywould eventually turn against themselves. He used anative leader, Catualda, to keep a watch on the upperDanube on behalf of the Romans (Tacitus, Annals, II,60). He further strengthened the Danube area in AD15, when Achaea and Macedonia became imperialprovinces. Tiberius replaced the two kings in thelower Danube region and appointed a Roman tosupervise them. The Danube was also strengthenedby improved roads and river fleets.

l The East: Germanicus settled the question of king-ship in the East. A new treaty was negotiated withParthia, and the Romans installed Zeno (Artaxes) asthe new king of Armenia (Tacitus, Annals, II, 55).Once more the Romans asserted their authority in thearea. In AD 17 the client kingdoms of Cappadociaand Commagene were annexed and becameprovinces of Rome.

l Africa: A deserter, Tacfarinas, led revolts in the sen-atorial province of Africa from AD 17 to 24. Tiberiuswas annoyed with the Senate for allowing this situa-tion to go on for seven years. Africa was an importantarea because it supplied two thirds of Roman grainneeds. Junius Blaesus finally defeated Tacfarinas(Tacitus, Annals, IV, 21–5).

l Gaul: Two Gallic noblemen Florus and Sacrovir, ledrevolts in the province of Gaul.

l Tiberius’ principate was marked by tranquillity. Ageneral environment of peace was interrupted bythree minor disturbances.

G A I U S

l Gaius appeared to be inconsistent in his policies(particularly in Parthia). He was influenced by his

eastern friends and rewarded them with client king-doms, hoping to ensure their loyalty. Commagenebecame a client kingdom again. Gaius establishedclient states in Thrace, Pontus and Armenia Minor.His measures were well accepted, and Claudiusmaintained them.

l Rhine: Gaius went to the Rhine area to secure thesupport of the army. He may have been contemplat-ing a campaign in Germany (Suetonius, Gaius, 45–7). He used the pretext that he wished tostrengthen the frontiers, but in fact he was concernedthat one of the Rhine commanders, Lepidus, was inleague with two of his sisters in a conspiracy. Galbawas given command of the upper Rhine, and spent anumber of years securing the frontier against theGermans.

l Gaul: In AD 39 Gaius visited Gaul. It is believedthat he planned an invasion of Britain, but the troopsrefused to make the crossing. Even though the inva-sion did not eventuate, Gaius announced Britain’sannexation.

l Africa: Gaius ordered Ptolemy, the client king ofMauretania to commit suicide in preparation for itsannexation. This was a very provocative action onGaius’ part, and led to a civil war in Africa.

l The East: Gaius restored dispossessed friendlykings to their former thrones and found kingdoms forothers he favoured. He reversed Augustus’ policy ofreligious toleration in Judaea. He ordered the Jews toset up a statue of him in the Temple at Jerusalem,which caused considerable unrest in Judaea for along period of time.

l In Parthia, the Romans sought to maintain theirauthority with minimal military effort. Gaius reversedAugustan policy towards Parthia, enabling it toregain its influence in Armenia.

l Barrett comments that Gaius ‘seems to have beenconcerned primarily with preserving stability in the(eastern) part of the empire, rather than with extend-ing the Roman imperium’ (Barrett, Caligula, p. 222).

C L A U D I U S

l Claudius wanted to be remembered as the ‘extenderof empire’. During his reign new territories, such asBritain, were added to Rome’s empire. Claudiusexpanded Rome’s imperial holdings, and assimilatedthe inhabitants of newly acquired territories. LikeAugustus, he stressed the military role of the princeps.

l Claudius’ prime concern seems to have been respon-sible and efficient government.

l Rhine–Danube: Claudius maintained Tiberius’


defensive and diplomatic policy on the Rhine–Danube frontier, but moved the frontier to the RhineRiver. To reinforce this area, fleets patrolled theDanube and roads were improved. Noricum becamean imperial province governed by an equestrianprocurator. Further south, the provinces of Achaeaand Macedonia were returned to the control of theSenate.

l In AD 47 Claudius prevented Corbulo from conduct-ing any further aggressive and expansionary cam-paigns in Germany (Tacitus, Annals, XI, 19).

l Britain: Claudius annexed Britain in AD 43. Thefactional fighting of the British chieftains providedClaudius with his excuse for the invasion. He waskeen to enhance his military image and popularitywith the army and to gain the riches of Britain. AulusPlautius completed most of the conquest before giv-ing way to Claudius, who took formal possession ofBritain (Dio, Roman History, LX, 21.1–5). A colonyof veterans was established at Camulodunum, andtrade and business activity began in the town ofLondinium, the headquarters of the imperial gover-nor. By AD 54, the Romans controlled southernEngland, while the fringes of the British frontier wereguarded by the client kingdoms of the Iceni, Regniand Brigantes tribes. The conquest of Britain was animportant achievement for Claudius, for he hadextended the boundary of the empire. The conquestwas commemorated on coins, architecture and inliterature.

l Senatorial and imperial provinces: Claudiusrestored the provinces of Macedonia and Achaea tosenatorial control (Dio, Roman History, LX, 24.1).

l Mauretania, which had erupted during the reign ofGaius, was organised into two imperial provinces byClaudius. Britain, Thrace (AD 46), Lycia (AD 43)and Judaea also came under imperial control (Dio,Roman History, LX, 17.3–4). These provinces weregoverned by a procurator Augusti, personallyaccountable to Claudius. This centralisation of con-trol was a feature of Claudius’ rule.

l The East: Gaius had stirred up trouble with theJews, but Claudius skilfully soothed their anger byreversing Gaius’ policies.

l Judaea was a client kingdom under Herod Agrippa,but on his death in AD 44 it became an imperialprovince.

l Poor relations prevailed between the Jews andGreeks of Alexandria. Claudius listened to the argu-ments of both sides and attempted to curb the ill-feeling between the two groups.

l In AD 49 Mithradates, a Roman appointee, wasplaced on the throne of Armenia. This kept theParthians occupied (Tacitus, Annals, XI, 6–10).

l Romanisation: Claudius improved the infrastruc-ture of the empire. For example, the Via ClaudiaAugusta (a 525-km road) linked Augsburg to Trent inthe Danube region. Numerous towns and colonies,such as Cologne and Triers, were built throughout theempire.

l Gaul: Under Claudius, many provincials weregranted Latin rights or, in some cases, full Romancitizenship. In AD 46 the whole Anauni tribe wasgranted Roman citizenship. In AD 48 Claudius evenallowed some Gallic nobles to enter the RomanSenate (Tacitus, Annals, XI, 23.1–25.1). This waspart of Claudius’ push to Romanise the empire, but itcaused much alarm in some quarters of Roman society.

l Client kingdoms: Claudius changed the govern-ments of Raetia, Noricum, Mauretania and Thracefrom client kingdoms to provinces. He believed thatdirect Roman control was preferable to the system ofclient kingdoms.

N E R O

l Initially, under the guidance of Seneca and Burrus,Nero’s policy towards the empire showed restraintand consolidation. Nero was not interested inexpanding the empire, only in spending the moneyderived from it (Suetonius, Nero, 31).

l Nero displayed little real interest in the provincesand frontiers of the empire. He was inconsistent inhis policies. He loved all things Greek, so heexempted Greece from paying taxes, but the rest ofthe empire had to pay dearly. He chose capable menas governors of upper and lower Germany—Scribonius Proculus and Scribonius Rufus. Later inhis reign, he became afraid of military men andrequired them to commit suicide. Corbulo sufferedsuch a fate (Dio, Roman History, LXII, 17). Griffincomments that ‘Nero did not put the provinces at riskby appointing incompetent governors. But he did putthe confidence of the Senate at risk through his grow-ing unwillingness to trust its aristocratic membersand to reward military achievement . . . all Nero’sarmy commanders came to feel insecure as well asunappreciated, and it was only a matter of time untilone of them initiated or supported an attempt at revo-lution’ (Griffin, Nero, p. 118).

l Britain: According to Suetonius, Nero consideredwithdrawing the troops from Britain (Suetonius, Nero,18). The serious uprising of Boudicca was caused bythe greed of the Roman tax collectors and money-lenders. Boudicca, Queen of the Iceni, enjoyed aclient relationship with Rome, but she rebelled


against the harsh demands of the Romans. Other dis-gruntled tribes, such as the Trinovantes, joined herrebellion. They were successful in burning threeRoman towns, including the capital, Londinium,before they were defeated (Dio, Roman History, LXII,1–12).

l Nero granted Latin rights to the people of theMaritime Alps.

l He made edicts concerning all the provinces, not justthose under imperial control.

l The East: Nero attempted to annex Armenia.Corbulo advised Nero against these actions but wasignored. The Romans suffered a humiliating surren-der and lost Armenia to the Parthians (Dio, RomanHistory, LXII, 19–23). Despite this, Nero the show-man could not resist making a monumental display,in Rome, of presenting the throne to Tiridates.

l In AD 64, the client kingdom of Pontus was annexed.As a result of this move, Asia Minor and the BlackSea area came under direct Roman control.

l In AD 64, Gessius Florus was made procurator ofJudaea and only increased the tension in the regionby his heavy exactions until, in AD 66, the Jewsrebelled. The Roman forces were defeated on thisoccasion. In the last years of Nero’s reign, Vespasianwas sent to try to regain Judaea for the Romans.

l By the end of Nero’s reign, the Roman Empire con-fronted serious problems. The governor of Gaul,Vindex, attempted to overthrow Nero, partly becausethe Gauls were suffering from the heavy burden oftaxation (Dio, Roman History, LXIII, 22.2). Vindexconspired with Galba, the governor of Spain, whoultimately succeeded in depriving Nero of power.

A c t i v i t y

ESSAY Assess imperial policies in this period.

CONCLUSION

The dynasty begun by Augustus came to an end in AD68 with the death of Nero. A period of disruption pre-vailed until the Flavian dynasty was established.Under the leadership of Augustus and the Julio-Claudians, Rome had changed dramatically:l the government had become more centralised and

was now accountable to the princepsl the Senate had lost its importance as a governing

body, but functioned as an administrator of parts ofthe empire

l the army had increased its importance throughoutthe period, finally acquiring sufficient power tochoose the emperor

l the image of the ruler had become a vital means ofensuring political survival—the military image wasespecially important to cultivate

l despite encountering a few problems, the empire,on the whole, was well governed and stable.By AD 68 the republican government had virtually

disappeared; the centralised imperial government waswell established.

figure 9.14 Nero the entertainer—one view ofimperial rule at the end of the Julio-Claudian period

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