Augustus

and the City of Rome 27BC-14AD

A Brief look at Roman History

The civilisation known as “Rome” has a long history, some 12oo years. Throughout it’s history, Rome underwent three distinct forms of governance: monarchy, democracy and a form of dictatorship known as the ‘Principate’

“In the beginning” Rome in the Monarchical period

Rome was ruled by seven kings after it’s establishment by

Romulus in 753BCE. Monarchical rule in Rome grew steadily more

tyrannical until Rome overthrew the seventh king, the

spectacularly named Tarquinius Superbus in about 550BCE. This

revolution in which plebian and patrician joined forces to

establish a democracy was a hugely significant event and shaped

radical change in Roman society. Despite this, many offices and

practices of the monarchical period existed well into the Imperial

period.

The Senate The Senate were a group of 100 men who were from “the best families in Rome” Established by Romulus, the original king they originally formed an advisory panel. After the overthrow of the kings, the Senate now held supreme control in the new Roman “democracy”. Members of the Senate controlled all the significant political and religious positions and were the bulk of the landholders. In the later republic, members of the Senate were forbidden from engaging in commerce by the Lex Claudia. The senatorial class were the aristocracy of Rome.

They were also known as the “patricians” and subject to a different set of laws than other Roman social classes.

The Twelve Tables While the Senate were one of the institutions to survive and benefit from the overthrow of the kings, a new legal and political system was instituted, known as the Twelve Tables. This system, which took about 100 years to properly formulate, “weakened” the stranglehold that the patricians had over political and religious positions and ensured legal equality for the working classes of Rome, known as plebians.

The Twelve tables were a series of concessions made by the patricians in order to secure plebian support for the overthrow of the monarchy. The tables were published around Rome, unfortunately many plebians were illiterate. Despite the concessions, it would be 200 years before a plebian gained a significant political position and entered the Senate.

Voting in Ancient Rome As in any true democracy, voting was restricted to Roman citizens (males over the age of 18 who were the offspring of Roman citizens) You could only vote if you were present in Rome. Voting occurred in a number of different groups, known as “assemblies” depending on the issue. Voting was often easily manipulated and sometimes downright crooked.

Comitia Centuriata (Military Assembly) Organised by military service. Elected praetors, consuls and censors. Could vote to go to war. Became less important especially after the Marian reforms

Comitia Tributa (Tribal Assembly)Organised by neighbourhood. Voted for Questors, Aediles and Tribune

Plebian Assembly (Concilium Plebis)Organised by neightbourhood, but plebians only. Voted for Plebian tribunes (a key position in the Senate)

Roman Values Pietas : means “duty” linked to religious observance

Auctoritas : means “authority” or the power to command.

Potestas : Influence or power

Dignitas : Prestige

Virtus : Incorruptability of character

Res publica: “the public good”

Pater Familias: The male head of the family

Matrona: the female spirit, embodied in mothers

Patronas: the concept of patronage, a mutual relationship between a client

(clientas) and a patron (patronas)

Mos Maiorum: in the tradition of our ancestors

Patronas and ClientasThe system of patronage dates back to the overthrow of the Monarchy. This system was the glue that held Roman society together. Without this system of mutual benefit, the delicate balance between the patrician and plebian social classes would be lost. Patrons were generally wealthy Romans (mostly patricians) while clientas were plebians. Most mornings clientas would greet the patronas at his house in a ritual known as salutio.

PatronasPatrons had a wide variety of responsibilities such as providing legal protection to their clients as well as business loans. They could expect political support and the odd ‘favour’ from their clientas. Patronas also gained dignitas and auctoritas from having many clientas.

ClientasClients were expected to stay loyal (fides) to their patronas and promise political support. They could expect legal protection, financial benefit and dignitas from this relationship.

Major events during the Republic 264 – 146 BCE Punic Wars: Rome defeats Carthage and becomes the unchallenged power in the Mediterranean

90-88BCE Social Wars: Italian allies of Rome win Roman citizenship by defeating Roman military forces

107BCE Marian Reforms: These reforms transformed the Roman Army into a professional, full time force. Overnight the power of the Army and it’s generals was transformed. While the Empire began to grow at an unprecedented rate during the 1st century BCE, the rise of the power of the military heralded the beginning of a prolonged period of instability and the last days of the Republic.

The End of the Republic: Optimates V Populares

With the rise of power of the Army and with it the people, the Senate struggled to deal with this new world order. From this problem, there emerged two groups within the Senate: the Optimates and Populares. One group wanted to retain traditional forms of power while the other was happy to compromise and supported popular political decisions. These two warring Senatorial factions were exploited by many powerful Roman generals.

Optimates The conservative traditional majority of

the Senate. They tried to retain their

power by limiting the power of the plebs

by restricting the Plebis Concilium and

shutting out the increasing number of

“novus homo” (new men) who were

entering the Senate during this period

(many were Plebians)

Populares Members of the Senate who relied on the

plebs for their position. Populares were

responsible for increasing grain doles in

the city of Rome and spreading citizenship

to Roman allies. Populares backed Julius

Caesar and many other generals.

Chaos and Civil War

Marius Reformed the Army then dominated Roman politics by force. Civil war with Sulla before suicide.

Sulla Defeated Marius and marched on Rome before reviving the office of dictator and restoring the balance between Senate and plebs

PompeyAn optimate who used his influence to dominate politics, but entered into an agreement with Crassus and Julius Casear. Died in Egypt.

Beginning of Triumvirates The period between 150 – 60BCE was tumultuous. The senate was depleated by repeated proscriptions. After 60BCE, many new senators filled the ranks and much of the mos maiorum was lost. Experience had taught ambitious senators that stability benefitted everyone and those who could entered into secret agreements. Behind the scenes, these men controlled the Senate, the Army and the people, while on the surface, everything appeared to be working as normal. The first agreement of this type was between Crassus, Pompey and a young man called Julius Caesar.

The Death of Caesar

Caesar gained a consulship from his arrangement and quickly overwhelmed his partners with his popularity. Crassus fades off into history and after Caesar’s daughter Julia dies, open hostilities with Pompey begin. After Pompey’s death in Egypt, Caesar returns to Rome unchallenged. Many Senators who fear a return to proscriptions and chaos offer Caesar an unprecedented title, dictator for life which he accepted. A faction of Optimates, led by Brutus and Cassius assassinated Caesar in order to preserve the Republic. Unfortunately, this led to a power vacuum which allowed Caesar’s closest allies to step into. They followed Caesars lead and formed a temporary alliance known as the Second Triumvirate. These men were Marcus Lepidus, Caesar’s best friend, Marcus Antonius, Caesar’s military protégé and Gaius Octavius, Caesar’s grand nephew and adopted son. The trio would cement their alliance with marriages, financial agreements and common political and military interests like the first agreement. It would also fall apart in much the same way and lead to one of the trio dominating Roman life and establishing the Principate.