Slide 1

At a Glance: ParagraphsChapter 1The Paragraph and Prewriting

Kinds of ParagraphsIntroductory: gives the necessary background and indicates the main idea, called the thesis.Developmental: a unit of several sentences, it expands on an idea.Transitional: directs the reader from one point in the essay to another.Concluding: usually the last paragraph in an essay, it makes the final comment on the topic.Developmental ParagraphA group of sentences, each with the function of stating or supporting a controlling idea called the topic sentenceThree Parts of the Developmental ParagraphThe subject

The topic sentence

The supportThe Topic SentenceAn effective topic sentence has both a subject and a focus. The subject is what you intend to write about. The focus is what you intend to do with your subject.Example: Wilson High School subjectoffers a well-balanced academic program. focusSupportEvidence or reasoning that explains the topic sentenceCan be developed according to several patterns: Description, Narration, Exemplification, Analysis by Division, Process Analysis, Cause and Effect, Comparison and Contrast, Definition, ArgumentTwo Most Common Designs of Paragraphs(A)Topic sentenceSupport(B)Topic sentenceSupportConcluding sentence

The Writing ProcessUsing prewriting techniques to explore a topicLimiting and then developing the topic, usually with an outlineWriting a first draftRevising the draft as often as necessaryEditing the material

PrewritingPrewriting includes activities you do before writing your first draft or whenever you need new ideas. These strategies help you get started and develop your ideas.Prewriting strategies: freewriting, brainstorming, clustering, defining a topic, and outlining

FreewritingWrite without stopping, letting your ideas tumble forth.Helps you break emotional barriers, generate topics, and discover and explore ideas.

Generating key words and phrases related to the topicBegin by asking Who? What? Where? When? Why? and How? questions about your subject or by merely listing ideas concerning your subject.BrainstormingClusteringAlso called mappingStart by double-bubbling your topic. Then ask What comes to mind? and single-bubble other ideas on spokes radiating out from the double bubble.The Topic SentenceAn effective topic sentence has both a subject and a focus. The subject is what you intend to write about. The focus is what you intend to do with your subject.Example: Wilson High School subjectoffers a well-balanced academic program. focusOutliningPattern for showing the relationship of ideasTwo main outline forms:Sentence outlineTopic outlineIndentation, number and letter sequences, punctuation, and word placement indicate relationshipsMajor support indicated by Roman numeralsMinor support: supporting material that develops the major support

Topic sentence I. Major support A. Minor support B. Minor support1. Details or examples2. Details or examples II. Major support A. Minor support B. Minor support

Chapter 2Writing, Revising, and Editing the Paragraph

Writing Your First DraftFirst (or rough) draft = your initial writingAs you write, pay close attention to your outlineBut do not get caught up in correcting and polishing your writing during this stageWriting process is recursive (going back and forth)Revising Your WritingRevising focuses on organization, content, and language effectivenessEditing involves final correction of mistakes in spelling, punctuation, and capitalizationThe main points of revision are contained in the acronym CLUESS.CLUESSCoherence: Does the material flow smoothly, with each idea leading logically to the next?Language: Are the words appropriate for the message, occasion, and audience?Unity: Are all ideas related to and subordinate to the topic sentence?Emphasis: Have you used techniques such as repetition and placement of ideas to emphasize your main point(s)?Support: Have you presented material to back up, justify, or prove your topic sentence?Sentences: Have you used some variety of structure and avoided fragments, comma splices, and run-ons?

Editing:Examine your work carefully.Look for problems in Capitalization, Omissions,Punctuation, andSpelling.(COPS)Using the Writing Process WorksheetExplore your topic, organize your ideas, and write your paragraphs using the Writing Process Worksheet as your guide. Photocopy the blank form in the book or print it from the Student Companion site.Chapter 3From Reading to WritingReading-Based WritingHas a writing component and a reading componentOriginates as a response to something you have readIndicates, to some degree, content from that pieceDemonstrates a knowledge of the piece of writing

Reading TechniquesUnderliningAnnotatingOutliningTaking NotesUnderlineThe main idea in paragraphs

The support for those main ideas

The answers to questions that you bring to the reading assignment

Only the key words

AnnotatingWriting notes in the margins

Related to underlining

Usually appears with underlining to signal your understanding and extend your involvement in your reading

Represents intense involvement because it turns a reader into a writer

Your response in the margin mayEcho the authors ideas

Question the authors ideas critically

Relate the authors ideas to something else

Add to the authors ideasOutliningAfter reading, underlining, and annotating the piece, the next step could be outliningOutline shows relationships of ideas (sequence, relative importance, and interdependence)Taking NotesInvolves underlining and annotating passages and jotting down useful points in your outlineWhen writing a summary, reaction, or two-part response, you can use your notes instead of referring back to the reading(s)Reading-Based Writing FormsSummary restate main ideas in your own wordsReaction comment critically on what you readTwo-part response includes both a summary and a reactionTo Write an Effective SummaryCite the author and title of the textReduce the length of the original by 2/3Concentrate on main ideas, not detailsChange original wording, not ideasDo not evaluate the content or give opinionsDo not add ideasDo not include personal comments (dont refer to yourself)Seldom use quotationsUse author tags to remind the reader you are summarizing the work of another author: says York, according to York, the author explains.Writing a ReactionA type of reading-based writing in which you incorporate your viewsIncludes personal experience and other information to explain, validate, or challenge the ideas in the reading selectionA Two-Part ResponseA clear, concise summary followed by a reaction responseUseful for critical examination of a text, or for problem-solving assignmentsHelps you avoid the common problem of writing only a summary of the text when your instructor wants you to both summarize and evaluate

Kinds of Support for Reading-Based WritingExplanations

References

QuotationsSupporting Ideas with Quotations and ReferencesQuotations are borrowed words, and you must give credit to the original writer

References point the reader directly toward the reading selection, including the page number

You must indicate the sources of all original ideas you have borrowed, even when you have changed the wordsPlagiarismBorrowing words or ideas without giving credit to the originatorsAvoiding plagiarism requires careful documentation of sourcesBasic Formal DocumentationIdentify the source if you use material from a source you have readDocument any borrowed original idea, whether it is QuotedParaphrased (written in your words but not shorter)Summarized (written in your words and shorter)Basic MLA Documentation in Reading-Based WritingNormally, give only the authors name and a page number: (Rivera, 45)If you state the authors name in introducing the quotation or idea, then give only the page number: (45).Work Cited: MLABlaylock, Richard. More Than the Classroom. Paragraphs and Essays with Integrated Readings. 10th ed. Ed. Lee Brandon and Kelly Brandon. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2008. 199-208. Print.

Chapter 4Paragraphs and Essays

The ParagraphA paragraph is a group of sentences, each with the function of stating or supporting a single controlling idea that is contained in the topic sentence.Parts of a ParagraphTopic sentence (subject and focus)Support (evidence and reasoning)Concluding sentence at the endThe Essay DefinedThe essay is a group of paragraphs, each of which supports a controlling idea called a thesis.Main Parts of the EssayIntroduction: carries the thesis, which states the controlling ideamuch like the topic sentence for a paragraph but on a larger scaleDevelopment: evidence and reasoningthe supportConclusion: an appropriate endingoften a restatement of or a reflection on the thesisPurposes of the Introductory ParagraphIntroduces the subject through the thesis or controlling ideaGains the readers interestMoves the reader into the middle paragraphsMiddle ParagraphsForm the body of an essayProvide information and reasoning that justify the thesis presented in the essays introductory paragraphConcluding Paragraph3-6 sentences longEnd on a note of finalityChapter 5Narration: Moving Through TimeNarrativean account of an incident or a series of incidents that make up a complete and significant action 5 Properties of NarrativesSituation

Conflict

Struggle

Outcome

MeaningDevices Used to Enhance NarrativeDescription: images that appeal to the senses (sight, smell, taste, hearing, touch) and other details to advance actionDialogueTransitional devices to indicate chronological order:Transitional Words for NarrativesFOR NARRATION: Time: after, before, later, earlier, initially, soon, recently, next, today, tomorrow, yesterday, now, then, until, currently, when, finally, not long after, immediately, (at) first, (at) last, third, previously, in the meantime, meanwhileFOR DESCRIPTION AS PART OF NARRATION: Place: above, over, under, below, nearby, near, across, beyond, among, to the right, to the left, in the background, in the foreground, further, beside, opposite, within sight, out of sightIn narration,Keep in mind that most narratives written as college assignments will have an expository purpose; that is, they explain a specific ideaChapter 6Description: Moving Through Space and TimeDescriptionUse of words to represent the appearance or nature of somethingOften called a word pictureTwo types: objective and subjectiveObjective DescriptionPresents the subject clearly and directly as it exists outside the realm of feelingsFeatures specific, impersonal details

Subjective DescriptionConveys a feeling about the subject and sets a mood while making a pointMore likely to use imagery and words rich in associations Elements of descriptionImagery: sensory impressionsGeneral and specific wordsAbstract and concrete wordsDominant impressionOrder: Time and space

Transitional Words for DescriptionFOR DESCRIPTION: Place: above, over, under, below, nearby, near, across, beyond, among, to the right, to the left, in the background, in the foreground, further, beside, opposite, within sight, out of sightFOR NARRATION AS A FRAMEWORK FOR DESCRIPTION: Time: after, before, later, earlier, initially, soon, recently, next, today, tomorrow, yesterday, now, then, until, currently, when, finally, not long after, immediately, (at) first, (at) last, third, previously, in the meantime, meanwhileUseful Procedure for Writing DescriptionWhat is the subject?What is the dominant impression I am trying to convey?What details support the dominant impression?What is the situation?What is the order of details?Chapter 7Exemplification: Writing with ExamplesExemplificationUsing examples to ExplainConvinceAmuse

May take the form of single words, phrases, or a paragraph or moreCharacteristics of Good ExamplesVivid examples attract attention

Specific examples are identifiable

Representative examples are typical and therefore the basis for generalization

In exemplificationTie your examples clearly to your thesis

Draw your examples from what you have read, heard, and experienced

Brainstorm a list or cluster of possible examples before you write

Transitional Words for ExemplificationFor example, as an example, another example, for instance, such as, including, specifically, especially, in particular, to illustrate, as an illustration, that is, i.e. (meaning that is), e.g. (meaning for example)Chapter 8Analysis by Division:Examining the PartsAnalysis by DivisionFor explaining how something works or exists as a unitBreak down a unit into parts and explain how each part functions in relation to the wholeIn Analysis by DivisionStep 1 begin with something that is a unitStep 2 state the principle by which that unit functionsStep 3 divide the unit into parts according to the principleStep 4 Discuss each of the parts in relation to the unitOrganizing the Parts of a UnitTimeSpace Emphasis

To apply that procedure to a new boss:UnitManager

Principle of functionEffective as a leader

Parts based on the Fair, intelligent, stable, principlecompetent in the field

DiscussionConsider each part inrelation to the personseffectiveness as a managerTransitional Words for Analysis by DivisionTime or numbering: first, second, third, another, last, finally, soon, later, currently, before, along with, another part (section, component)Space: above, below, to the left, to the right, near, beyond, under, next to, in the background, split, divideEmphasis: most important, equally important, central to the, to this end, as a result, taken collectively, with this purpose in mind, working with the, in fact, of course, above all, most of all, especially, primarily, without question

Chapter 9Process Analysis: Writing about Doing

Two Types of Process AnalysisDirective process analysis explains how to do something; it usually addresses the reader as youInformative process analysis explains how something was (is) done by giving data; does not use the words you or yourTransitional Words for Process AnalysisOrder will usually be chronological (time-based) in some sense: first, second, third, then, soon, now, next, finally, at last, therefore, consequentlyWords used to show the passage of time such as hours, days of the week, and so on (especially for informative process analysis)Basic Forms for Process AnalysisDirective

PreparationA. B.StepsA.B.C.

Informative

Background/contextA.B.Change or development (narrative)A.B.C.

Chapter 10Cause and Effect:Determining Reasons and OutcomesWriting Paragraphs of Cause and EffectCauses and effects deal with reasons and outcomesIn a paragraph, you will probably concentrate on either causes or effects, although you may mention both of themIdentify and develop the most important ones

Using Listing to Develop Cause and Effect

Event, Situation, or Trend

Causes1.2.3.4.

Effects1.2.3.4.Transitional Words for Cause and EffectCause: as, because, because of, due to, for, for the reason that, since, bring about, another cause, for this reason, one cause, a second cause, another cause, a final causeEffect: accordingly, finally, consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus, as a consequence, as a result, resultingBasic Structure for ParagraphA typical outline might look like this:Cause or Effect 1Cause or Effect 2Cause or Effect 3

Chapter 11Comparison and Contrast: Showing Similarities and DifferencesComparison and ContrastUse the 4 Ps:PurposePointsPatternPresentation

PurposeInform or persuade?During the exploration of your topic, define your purpose clearly.PointsIndicate your points of comparison or contrast, perhaps by listing

Eliminate irrelevant points

PatternsAfter considering your topic and the planned focus, select the Subject-by-subject patternPoint-by-point pattern

The point-by-point pattern is the more common pattern.

Basic Subject-by-Subject PatternSubject XA. Point 1B. Point 2

Subject YA. Point 1B. Point 2

Basic Point-by-Point PatternPoint 1A. Subject XB. Subject Y

Point 2 A.Subject X B.Subject YPresentationUse your outline to write your paragraph.

Use appropriate explanations, details, and examples for support.Transitional Words for Comparison and ContrastComparison: in the same way, similarly, likewise, also, by comparison, in a like manner, as, with, as though, both, like, just asContrast: but, by contrast, in contrast, despite, however, instead, nevertheless, on (to) the contrary, in spite of, still, yet, unlike, even so, rather than, otherwiseChapter 12Definition: Clarifying TermsDefinitionSimple DefinitionExtended DefinitionSimple DefinitionSynonym, phrase, or sentenceEtymology (word history)Extended Definition Use clustering to consider other patterns of development that may be used to define your term

Narration DescriptionExemplification Analysis by DivisionProcess Analysis Cause and EffectClassification Comparison and ContrastOrderThe organization of your extended definition is likely to be one of emphasis, but it may be space or time, depending on subject material.You may use just one pattern of development for the overall sequence.Ways to Introduce a DefinitionQuestionStatement of what it is notStatement of what it originally meantDiscussion of why a clear definition is importantCombination of these ways

Developing a DefinitionDevelopment is likely to represent one or more of the patterns of narration, description, exposition, and argumentation.

Whether or not you personalize depends on purpose and audience. Transitional Words for Definitionoriginates from, means, derives from, refers to, for example, as a term, as a concept, label, similar to, different from, in a particular context, in common usage, in historical context

Chapter 13Argument:Writing to InfluenceDefining Persuasion and ArgumentPersuasion: broad term that refers to influencing people to think in a certain way or to do somethingArgument: persuasion on a topic about which reasonable people disagreeComponents of Your ParagraphStatements of argument are informal or formalBoth provide a proposition (main point of the argument) and support (evidence or reasons that back up the proposition)Elements in an essay of argument: background, proposition, qualification of proposition, refutation, and supportQuestions to Ask When Developing IdeasBackground: What is the historical or social context for this controversial issue?Proposition (the thesis of the essay): What do I want my audience to believe or to do?Qualification of proposition: Can I limit my proposition so that those who disagree cannot easily challenge me with expectations?Refutation (taking the opposing view into account, mainly to point out its fundamental weakness): What is the view on the other side, and why is it flawed in reasoning or evidence?Support: in addition to sound reasoning, can I use appropriate facts, examples, statistics, and opinions of authorities?Basic Form for Paragraph of ArgumentProposition (topic sentence)I. Support 1II. Support 2III. Support 3Kinds of EvidenceFactsExamplesStatisticsEvidence from, and opinions of, authoritiesTransitional Words for Argumentit follows that, as a result, causes taken collectively, as a concession, even though, of course, in the context of, in the light of, in the final analysis, following this, further, as additional support, moreover, consequently, according to, in support of, contrary to, therefore, naturallyChapter 14HandbookIdentifying Parts of SpeechNounsNouns are naming words.They may name persons, animals, plants, places, things, substances, qualities, or ideasBart, armadillo, Mayberry, tree, rock, cloud, love, ghost, music, virtue

Noun IndicatorsThe, A, and An signal that a noun is ahead.PronounA word used in place of a nounSome pronouns may represent specific persons or things:Ishethey you

meherthem yourself

myself herself themselves yourselves

ithewewho

itselfhimuswhom

thathimselfourselvesIndefinite PronounsRefer to nouns (persons, places, things) in a general way:

each everyone nobody somebodyPronouns that Point Out Particular ThingsSINGULAR

thisthat

PLURAL

thesethosePronouns that Introduce QuestionsWho

Which

What

VerbsShow action or express being in relation to the subject of a sentence.Types of VerbsAction verbs: ate, washedBeing verbs: is, as, were, are, amHelping verbs are used with main verbs to form other tenses to form verb phrases:had sung, will be singingMain helping verbs: has, have, had, is, was, were, are, amHelpers: will, shall, should, couldAdjectivesModify nouns and pronouns and answer the questionsWhat kind?

Which one?

How many?AdjectivesWhat kind are descriptive wordsred, dirty, noisy, gentle, tired

Which one narrows or restricts meaningmy, our, other, this, these

How many are numbering wordssome, three, each, one, few

Articles are noun indicatorsa, an, theAdverbsModify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbsAnswer the questionsHow?Where?When?To what degree?

Adverbs that answerHOW? show manner or way

WHERE? show location

WHEN? indicate time

TO WHAT DEGREE? express extentHungrily, noisily

Downtown, behind, upstairs

Yesterday, soon

Entirely, somewhatAdverbsMost words ending in ly are adverbs.SkillfullyCourteouslyExceptions are adjectives like lovely and uglyPrepositionsAre words or groups of words that function as a connectiveThe preposition connects its object(s) to some other word(s) in the sentence. A preposition and its objectusually a noun and a pronounwith modifiers make up a prepositional phrase, which will function as an adjective or an adverb.Common Prepositionsabout beforebutintopast above behindbyliketoacrossbelowafterdespiteneartowardafterbeneathdownofunder againstbesideforoffuntilamongbetweenfromonuponaroundbeyondinoverwithPrepositions Composed of More Than One WordAccording toAs far asBecause of In spite ofAhead ofAs well asIn back ofInstead ofAlong withAside fromIn front ofTogether withConjunctionsA conjunction shows a relationship between words, phrases, or clausesCoordinating ConjunctionsForAndNorButOrYetSoSubordinating ConjunctionsAfterbecauseprovidedwheneverAlthoughbeforesincewhereAsbut thatso thatwhereasAs ififtillwhereverAs long asin order thatuntilAs soon asnotwithstandingwhenInterjectionConveys strong emotion or surprisePunctuated with an exclamation markAwesome!Curses!Cowabunga!Yaba dabba doo!When appearing as part of a sentence, interjections are usually followed by a commaOh, I did not consider that problem.Seldom appropriate for college writing.

Locating Subjects and VerbsSubjects and VerbsThe subject is what the sentence is about.The verb indicates what the subject is doing or is being.SubjectsYou can recognize the simple subject by asking Who? or What? causes the action or expresses the state of being found in the verb.Single and Compound SubjectsMy friend and I have much in common. [compound subject]

My friend brought a present. [single subject]Location of SubjectsBefore the verb:A tiny bird was in the nest.

After the verb:In the nest was a tiny bird.

Implied SubjectsThe command, or imperative, sentence has a you as the implied subject and no stated subject.

(You) Read the notes.The object of a preposition cannot be a subject.The chairperson [subject] of the department [object of the preposition] directs the discussion.VerbsShow action or express being in relation to the subject of a sentence.Action VerbsSuggest movement or accomplishment of an idea or a deedHe dropped the book. [movement]

He read the book. [accomplishment]

Being VerbsIndicate existence

They were concerned.

Verbs may occur as single words or phrases.He led the charge. [single word]

She is leading the charge. [phrase]Compound verbs are joined by a word such as and or or.She worked for twenty-five years and retired.Verbals are not verbs; verbals are verblike words that function as other parts of speech.Singing [gerund acting as a noun] is fun.

I want to sing. [infinitive acting as a nounobject]

Singing [participle acting as a modifier], hewalked in the rain.

Words such as never, not, and hardly are not verbs; they modify verbs.A verb phrase may be separated into a question.Where had the defendant gone on that fateful night?Writing Different Kinds of SentencesTypes of SentencesOn the basis of number and kinds of clauses, sentences may be classified asSimpleCompoundComplexCompound-Complex

ClausesClause: a group of words with a subject and a verb that functions as a part or all of a complete sentence.There are two kinds of clauses: independent (main) and dependent (subordinate).Independent ClausesAn independent (main) clause is a group of words with a subject and a very that can stand alone and make sense. An independent clause expresses a complete thought by itself and can be written as a separate sentence.I have the money.Dependent ClausesA dependent clause is a group of words with a subject and verb that depends on a main clause to give it meaning.Functions in a sentence as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

When you are ready.Kinds of Sentences DefinedSIMPLE: One independent clauseSusan was having trouble with her spelling.

COMPOUND: Two or more independent clausesSusan was having trouble with her spelling, and she purchased a computer with a spell checker.Kinds of Sentences DefinedCOMPLEX: One independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.Because Susan was having trouble with her spelling, she purchased a computer with a spell checker.COMPOUND-COMPLEX: Two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.Because Susan was having trouble with her spelling, she purchased a computer with a spell checker, and the results made her expenditure worthwhile.

PunctuationUse a comma before a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) between two independent clauses.

The movie was good, but the tickets were expensive.PunctuationUse a comma after a dependent clause that appears before the main clause.

When the bus arrived, we quickly boarded.PunctuationUse a semicolon between two independent clauses in one sentence if there is no coordinating conjunction.

The bus arrived; we quickly boarded.PunctuationUse a semicolon before and usually a comma after a conjunctive adverb (such as however, otherwise, therefore, on the other hand, and in fact), and between two independent clauses (no comma after then, also, now, thus, and soon).

The Dodgers have not played well this year; however, the Giants have won ten games in a row.Spring training went well; then the regular baseball season began.

Combining SentencesCoordinationIf you want to communicate two equally important and closely related ideas, place them close together, probably in a compound sentence (two or more independent clauses).Combining Sentences by Using a Coordinating ConjunctionWhen you combine two sentences by using a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS), drop the first period, change the capital letter of the second sentence to a small letter, and insert a commabefore the coordinating conjunction.

I like your home. I can visit for only three months.

I like your home, but I can visit for only three months.Combining Sentences by Using a SemicolonWhen you combine two sentences by using a semicolon, replace the first period with a semicolon and change the capital letter that begins the second sentence to a small letter. If you wish to use a conjunctive adverb, insert it after the semicolon and usually follow it witha comma.I like your home. I can visit for only three months.

I like your home; I can visit for only three months.

I like your home; however, I can visit for only three months.SubordinationIf you have two ideas that are closely related, but one is secondary or dependent on the other, you may want to use a complex sentence.

My neighbors are considerate. They never play loud music.

Because my neighbors are considerate, they never play loud music.Punctuating Complex SentencesIf the dependent clause comes first, set it off with a comma.

Because the dog has no hands or words, he licks me to show affection.Punctuating Complex SentencesIf the dependent clause comes after the main clause, set it off with a comma only if you use some form of the word though or if the words are not necessary to convey the basic meaning of the sentence.Edmund Hillary was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II because he was one of the first two men to climb Mt. Everest.Other mountain climbers soon duplicated his feat, though they received less recognition.Coordination and SubordinationAt times you may want to show the relationship of three or more ideas within one sentence. If that relationship involves two or more main ideas and one or more supporting ideas, the combination can be stated in a compound-complex sentence (two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.)Punctuating Compound and Complex SentencesUse punctuation consistent with that of the compound and complex sentences.

Kafka produced illegible handwritten papers. At that time he had not learned how to operate a word processor. Now he hands in clean, attractive pages.

Before Kafka learned how to operate a word processor, he produced illegible handwritten papers, but now he hands in clean, attractive pages.

Other Methods of Combining IdeasUse a prepositional phrase, a preposition followed by a noun or pronoun object.John Elway lead the Denver Broncos to two Super Bowl victories. Both triumphs occurred in the 1990s.John Elway lead the Denver Broncos to two Super Bowl victories in the 1990s.Use an appositive phrase, a group of words that immediately follows a noun or pronoun and renames it.Garth Brooks claims Yukon, Oklahoma, as his hometown. He is a famous singer.Garth Brooks, a famous singer, claims Yukon, Oklahoma as his hometown.Drop the subject in the sentence that follows and combine the sentences.Emily Dickinsons poetry went mostly unpublished during her lifetime. It was finally discovered and celebrated more than half a century later.Emily Dickinsons poetry went mostly unpublished during her lifetime but was finally discovered and celebrated more than half a century later.Use a participial phrase, a group of words that includes a participle, which is a verbal that usually ends in ing or ed.The turtle plodded without rest stops. It won the race against the rabbit.Plodding without rest stops, the turtle one the race against the rabbit.Techniques for Achieving Variety in SentencesTypesOrderLengthBeginningsCorrecting Fragments, Comma Splices, and Run-onsComplete SentencesEach complete sentence musthave an independent clause, a group of words that contains a subject and a verb, and can stand alone.

He enrolled for the fall semester.FragmentsFragment: a word or group of words without a subject, without a verb, or without bothA correct sentence signals completeness; a fragment signals incompletenessit doesnt make sense.You expect the speaker or writer of a fragment to say or write more or to rephrase it.Dependent Clause FragmentsA dependent clause cannot stand by itself because it begins with a subordinating word.

Because he left.

When she worked.

Although they slept.Phrase FragmentsA verbal phrase, a prepositional phrase, and an appositive phrase may carry ideas, but each is incomplete because it lacks a subject and verb.

Verbal Phrase: having completed his initial researchHaving completed his initial research, he refined his outline.Prepositional Phrase: in the storeShe worked in the store.Appositive Phrase: a successful businessMarks Brothers, a successful business, sells clothing.Comma SplicesA comma splice consists of two independent clauses with only a comma between them.

Maria exceeded her sales quota, she received a bonus. [A comma by itself cannot join two independent clauses.]Run-onsThe run-on differs from the comma splice in only one respect: It has no comma between the independent clauses.

Maria exceeded her sales quota she received a bonus. [Independent clauses must be properly connected.]Correcting Comma Splices and Run-onsUse a comma and a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to correct the comma splice or run-on.

Maria exceeded her sales quota, and she received a bonus.Correcting Comma Splices and Run-onsUse a subordinating conjunction(such as because, after, that, when, although, since, how, till, unless, before) to make one clause dependent and correct the comma splice or run-on.

Because Maria exceeded her sales quota, she received a bonus.Correcting Comma Splices and Run-onsUse a semicolon(with or without a conjunctive adverb such as however, otherwise, therefore, similarly, hence, on the other hand, then, consequently, also, thus) to correct the comma splice or run-on.

Maria exceeded her sales quota; therefore, she received a bonus.

Maria exceeded her sales quota; she received a bonus.Correcting Comma Splices and Run-onsUse a period to replace a comma and add a capital letter (to correct a comma splice), or use a period between two independent clauses and add a capital letter(to correct a run-on).

Maria exceeded her sales quota. She received a bonus.Common OmissionsSubjectsVerbsThat as a conjunctionPrepositions

Working with Verb FormsTwelve Verb Tenses SIMPLE TENSESpresentpastfuture

PERFECT TENSESpresent perfectpast perfectfuture perfect

PROGRESSIVE TENSESpresent progressivepast progressivefuture progressive

PERFECT PROGRESSIVETENSESpresent perfect progressivepast perfect progressivefuture perfect progressivePast ParticiplesThe past participle uses the helping verbs has, have, or had along with the past tense of the verb. For regular verbs, whose past tense ends in -ed, the past participle form of the verb is the same as the past tense.Regular and Irregular VerbsWhereas regular verbs are predictablehaving an ed ending for past and past participle formsirregular verbs, as the term suggests, follow no definite pattern.

raise, raised, raised [regular]see, saw, seen [irregular]Problem VerbsCertain verbs (present tense here) can be troublesome and should be studied with care.

lie, laysit, setrise, raiseVerb TenseA word form indicating timeThere are no inflexible rules about selecting a tense for certain kinds of writing, but you should be consistent, changing tense only for a good reason.Using Present TenseUsually you should select the present tense to write about literature.

Herman Melvilles character Bartleby the Scrivener fails to communicate.Using Past TenseSelect the past tense to write about yourself or something historical.

I was eighteen when I decided I was ready for independence.If the subject is singular, the verb should be singular, and if the subject is plural, the verb should be plural.

The price of the shoes is high.

The advantages of that shoe are obvious.Subject-Verb AgreementVoiceThe active voice expression (subject, active verb, and sometimes object) is usually preferred over the passive voice expression (subject as the receiver of action, with doer unstated or at the end of a prepositional phrase.)

She read the book. [active]The book was read by her. [passive]Selecting Pronoun CasePronouns and Pronoun CaseA pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun.Case is the form a pronoun takes as it fills a position in a sentence.Subjective PronounsSubjective-case pronouns are I, he, and she (singular) and we and they (plural). Who can be either singular or plural. Subjective case pronouns can fill subject positions.

We dance in the park.

It was she who spoke.[referring back to and meaning the same as the subject]

Objective PronounsObjective-case pronouns are me, him, and her (singular) and us and them (plural). Whom can be either singular or plural. Objective-case pronouns fill object positions.

We saw her in the library. [object of a verb]

They gave the results to us. [object of a preposition]Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun Case to UseIf you have a compound element (such as a subject or an object of a preposition), consider only the pronoun part.

They will visit you and (I, me).

[Consider: They will visit me.]

Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun Case to UseIf the next important word after who or whom in a statement is a noun or pronoun, the word choice will be whom; otherwise, it will be who. Disregard qualifier clauses such as It seems and I feel. The person whom judges like will win.The person who works hardest will win.The person who, we think, worked hardest won. [ignoring the qualifier clause]Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun Case to Use Lets is made up of the words let and us and means You let us; therefore, when you select a pronoun to follow it, consider the two original words and select another object wordme.

Lets you and me go to town.Pronoun Agreement A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender.Pronoun AgreementAvoid needless shifting in person, which means shifting in point of view, such as from I to you.

I was having trouble. You could see disaster ahead.

Change to I was having trouble. I could see disaster ahead.Pronoun AgreementMost problems with pronoun-antecedent agreement involve number. The principles are simple: If the antecedent (the word the pronoun refers back to) is singular, use a singular pronoun. If the antecedent is plural, use a plural pronoun.

Roger forgot his notebook.Many students cast their votes.Someone lost his or her [not their] book.Pronoun AgreementThe pronoun should agree with its antecedent in gender, if the gender of the antecedent is specific. Masculine and feminine pronouns are gender-specific: he, him, she, her. Others are neuter: I, we, me, us, it, they, them, who, whom, that, which.Pronoun AgreementThe words who and whom refer to people. That can refer to ideas, things, and people but usually does not refer to individuals. Which refers to ideas and things but not to people. To avoid a perceived sex bias, you can use he or she or his or her instead of just he or his; however, many writers simply make antecedents and pronouns plural.

Everyone should revise his or her composition carefully.

Students should revise their compositions carefully.Using Adjectives and AdverbsAdjectivesAdjectives modify (describe) nouns and pronouns and answer the questionsWhich one? What kind? How many?AdverbsAdverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs and answer the questionsWhere?When?Why?How?To what degree?Most words ending in ly are adverbs.Making Comparisons with AdjectivesSome adjectives follow a regular pattern.

nice, nicer, nicestlonely, more lonely, most lonelyRules for Comparative and Superlative Adjective FormsAdd er to short adjectives (one or two syllables) to rank units of two.Jethro is shorter than Cy.Add est to short adjectives (one or two syllables) to rank units of more than two.Senator Goodyear is the brightestperson in Congress.c. Add the word more to long adjectives (three or more syllables) to rank units of two.Your state is more prosperous than mine.

More Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adjective FormsAdd the word most to long adjectives (three or more syllables) to rank units of three or more.Your state is the most prosperous state in the West.Some adjectives are irregular in the way they change to show comparison.good, better, bestbad, worse, worstMaking Comparisons with AdverbsSome adverbs follow a regular pattern.

sadly, more sadly, most sadly

carefully, more carefully, most carefullyRules for Comparative and Superlative Adverb FormsAdd er to the comparative form and est to the superlative form.

Pierre works hard. [positive]

Pierre works harder than Simon. [comparative]

Pierre works hardest of all students in the class. [superlative]Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adverbs FormsAdd the word more to adverbs of two or more syllables for the comparative form and the word most to adverbs of two or more syllables for the superlative form.

Sultana proofread carefully. [positive]Sultana proofread more carefully than Venny. [comparative]Sultana proofread most carefully in all the class. [superlative]Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adverb FormsIn some cases the word less may be substituted for more and the word least for most.

Martelle examined the contract less carefully during her second reading. [comparative]

Martelle examined the contract most carefully during her third reading. [superlative]Double NegativesAvoid double negatives. Words such as no, not, none, nothing, never, hardly, barely, and scarcely should not be combined.Confusing Adjectives and AdverbsDo not confuse adjectives with adverbs. Among the most commonly confused adjectives and adverbs aregood / wellbad / badlyreal / reallyConfusing Adjectives and Adverbs The words good, bad, and real are always adjectives.The words badly and really are always adverbs.Well is usually an adverb.Well is sometimes an adjective.Incorrect: Clint did good. [Good is not an adverb]Correct: Joline felt good. [Good does not address the matter of feeling; it indicates the condition of the subject, Joline.]Correct: Clint did well. [Used here as an adverb, well modifies the verb did.]Correct: Sigmund said, Carl, you are not a well person.[Used here as an adjective, well modifies the noun person.]Incorrect: Elvis was real happy with his new disguise. [Happy is an adjective modifying the noun Elvis, and real modifies that adjective. Because only adverbs modify adjectives, we need the word really.]

Correct: Elvis was really happy with his new disguise.

Incorrect: I feel badly. [Badly is an adverb but here indicates the condition of the subject; therefore, it modifies the pronoun I.]

Correct: I feel bad. [Bad is an adjective modifying the pronoun I.]

Correct: I explained that badly. [Badly, an adverb, modifies the verb explained.]Dangling ModifiersA dangling modifier gives information but fails to make clear which word or group of words it refers to.

Incorrect: Ignoring the traffic signals, the car crashed into a truck. [The car is not ignoring; the driver is.]

Correct: Ignoring the traffic signals, the driver crashed his car into a truck.Misplaced ModifiersA misplaced modifier is placed so that it modifies the wrong word or words.

Incorrect: The monkeys attracted the attention of the elegant women who picked fleas off one another.

Correct: The monkeys who picked fleas off one another attracted the attention of the elegant women.Balancing Sentence PartsParallelismParallelism is a balance of one structure with another of the same kindnouns with nouns, verbs with verbs, adjectives with adjectives, phrases with phrases, and clauses with clauses.Goats, chickens, and cows [nouns] roamed the yard and caused [verbs] considerable confusion.

Tanya walked into the room and out of the room with grace. [prepositional phrases]

Tanya walked into the room, and she walked out of the room with grace. [independent clauses]Faulty Parallel StructureFaulty parallel structure is awkward and draws unfavorable attention to what is being said.

Hitting home runs and to catch balls in the outfield were his main concerns.should be

Hittingand catching orTo hitand to catch.Words that Signal Parallel StructureAll coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) can give such signals.

My car is inexpensive and plain.

My dog is ugly, but it is a good companion.Combination Words that Signal ParallelismThe most common ones are either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, both/and, and whether/or.

Patsy decided that propagating plants could be either a hobby or a business but not both. [A noun follows each of the combination words.]Avoiding Wordy PhrasesCommon Wordy PhrasesAt the present time Due to the fact thatUntil such time asI personally feel thatAt that point in timeIn this day and age

Mastering PunctuationThree Marks of End Punctuation.Periods use after a statement or common abbreviations.Questions marks use at the end of a direct question, not indirect questions.She asked me what caused the slide.Exclamation points use after a word or group of words that expresses strong feeling. Dont overwork it or use double exclamation points.

CommasThe comma is used to separate and set off sentence elements.Use a comma to separate main clauses joined by one of the coordinating conjunctionsfor, and, nor, but, or, yet, soWe went to the game, but it was cancelled.Use a comma after long introductory modifiers. The modifiers may be phrases or dependent clauses.Before she and I arrived, the meeting was called to order.

CommasUse a comma to separate words, phrases, and clauses in a series.He ran down the street, across the park, and into the forest.

Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives not joined by and that modify the same noun.I need a sturdy, reliable truck.CommasUse a comma to separate sentence elements that might be misread.Outside, the thunder rolled.

Use commas to set off nonessential (unnecessary for the meaning of the sentence) words, phrases, and clauses.Maria, who studied hard, will pass.CommasUse commas to set off nouns used as direct address.What do you intend to do, Hamlet?

Use commas to separate the numbers in a date.November 11, 1918, is a day worth remembering.

Use commas to separate the city from the state. No comma is used between the state and the ZIP code.Boston, MA 02110SemicolonsThe semicolon indicates a longer pause and stronger emphasis than the comma. It is used principally to separate main clauses within a sentence.SemicolonsUse a semicolon to separate main clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction.

You must buy that car today; tomorrow will be too late.SemicolonsUse a semicolon between two main clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb (such as however, otherwise, therefore, similarly, hence, on the other hand, then, consequently, accordingly, thus).

It was very late; therefore, I remained at the hotel.Quotation MarksQuotation marks are used principally to set off direct quotations. A direct quotation consists of material taken from the written work or the direct speech of others; it is set off by double quotation marks. Single quotation marks are used to set off a quotation within a quotation.

He said, I dont remember if she said, Wait for me.Quotation MarksUse quotation marks to set off slang, technical terms, and special words.

The platoon system changed the game of football. [technical term]ItalicsItalics (slanting type) are also used to call special attention to certain words of groups of words. In handwriting or typing, such words are underlined.ItalicsItalicize (underline) foreign words and phrases that are still listed in the dictionary as foreign.

modus operandiperestroikaItalicsItalicize titles of books; long poems; plays; magazines; motion pictures; musical compositions, newspapers; works of art; names of aircraft and ships; and letters, numbers, and words referred to by their own name.War and PeaceApollo 12Leaving the second o out of sophomore.The DashThe dash is used when a stronger pause than a comma is needed. It can also be used to indicate a break in the flow of thought and to emphasize words (less formal than the colon in this situation.)

I cant remember the townnow I doits Tupelo.The ColonThe colon is a formal mark of punctuation used chiefly to introduce something that is to follow, such as a list, a quotation, or an explanation.

These cars are my favorites: Cadillac, Chevrolet, Toyota, Oldsmobile, and Pontiac.ParenthesesParentheses are used to set off material that is of relatively little importance to the main thought of the sentence. Such materialnumbers, parenthetical material, figures, supplementary material, and sometimes explanatory detailsmerely amplifies the main thought.The years of the era (1961-1973) were full of action.I paid twenty dollars ($20) for that mousepad.BracketsBrackets are used within a quotation to set off editorial additions or corrections made by the person who is quoting.

It [the Yalta Agreement] contained many mistakes.The ApostropheThe apostrophe is used with nouns and indefinite pronouns to show possession, to show the omission of letters and figures in contractions, and to form the plurals of letters, figures, and words referred to as words.mans coatgirls clothescant five andsits [contraction]The HyphenThe hyphen is used to link two or more words together into a single compound word. Hyphenation, therefore, is essentially a spelling problem rather than a punctuation problem. Because the hyphen is not used with any degree of consistency, it is best to consult your dictionary to learn current usage.Uses of the HyphenUse a hyphen to separate the parts of many compound words.about-facego-between

Use a hyphen between prefixes and proper names.all-Americanmid-July

Use a hyphen with spelled-out compound numbers up to ninety-nine and with fractions.Twenty-sixone hundredtwo-thirds

Use a hyphen to join two or more words used as a single-adjective modifier before a noun.First-class servicehard-fought gamesad-looking motherConquering CapitalizationUse English Conventions for Capital LettersCapitalize the first word of a sentenceCapitalize proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns such as the names of persons, countries, nationalities and races, days of the week, months, and titles of booksCapitalize words denoting family relationships when they are used before a name or substituted for a name.The minister greeted Aunt May, my grandfather, and Mother.