ETRUSCAN RESEARCH No 1, January 2014 Etruscan Research [Editor-in-Chief Sergei V. Rjabchikov]. – January 2014. – Number 1. The postal address of the Editor-in-Chief is as follows: 1/39 Krasnoarme-jskaja Street, 350063 Krasnodar, Russia. The journal Etruscan Research was established by the Sergei Rjabchikov Founda-tion, Krasnodar, Russia. CONTENTS The Etruscan Astronomy Sergei V. Rjabchikov 2 Keywords: archaeoastronomy, writing, solar eclipses, Pythagoras, Greek, Etruscan, Etruria, Egypt, Italy

Copyright © 2014 by Sergei V. Rjabchikov. τll rights reserved.

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The Etruscan Astronomy1

Sergei V. Rjabchikov

Several Celestial Scenes on Etruscan Vases from Caere

According to van der Waerden (1974: 186, table), in the past the Greek and Roman deities were symbols of some planets (Zeus, Iuppiter = Jupiter: Jupiter; Aphrodite, Venus: Venus; Ares, Mars: Mars and so on). I suggest that the Etruscans who had borrowed many religious ideas from the Greeks were aware of the celes-tial appendix of the Greek religion.

Let us consider some mythological plots painted on Etruscan vases from the town of Caere (Cervet-eri). Here and everywhere else, I use the computer program RedShift Multimedia Astronomy (Maris Multi-media, San Rafael, USA) to look at the heavens. The dates for observations are chosen as examples only. There are others dates to illustrate the obtained results.

(1) Vase 1 (Del Chiaro 1974: 43, plate 43): Neck. A satyr rides a goat in the right direction. A rosette is shown beneath the animal. Body. The goddess of dawn Θesan-2 (the Greek goddess Eos, the Roman goddess Aurora) drives the quad-riga decorated with rays.

My decipherment. Choose January 15, 400 B.C. The time was 06:05. The rising star Prima Giedi (α Capricorni) was seen in the direction of the south-east. Then the dawn began at 06:06. The sun rose at 07:46. In this scene the goat denotes the constellation Capricornus (The Horn of the Goat). As a general rule, a ro-sette is the symbol of a celestial object (= a star, a planet, the moon etc.). Here this sign indicates the bright-est star of the constellation. The goddess Θesan- (Morning) denotes the dawn, the rising sun.

(2) Vase 2 (Del Chiaro 1974: 33, plate 34): Side A. A woman moves to the right. She holds two torches in both hands. A rosette is depicted near her at the bottom left, and another one is depicted near her at the top right.

My decipherment. It is the picture of the rising full moon. The woman is the goddess Artumes (the Greek goddess Artemis, the Roman goddess Diana), the incarnation of the moon. Both rosettes represent the motion of the moon from left to right.

(3) Vase 3 (Del Chiaro 1974: 30, plate 30): Neck. A griffin is depicted. A rosette is shown under this character. Body. Two rosettes located in the down positions accompany a woman.

My decipherment. Choose September 09, 290 B.C. The griffin (the symbolism of thunderstorm) is the planet Jupiter (the Etruscan god Tin, the Roman god Iuppiter, the Greek god Zeus). The rosette is the sign of that planet. The time was 22:30. Jupiter rose in the constellation Taurus. At the same time the moon was seen lower above the horizon, it set in the constellation Sagittarius. In the picture the woman (Artumes) is the in-carnation of the moon. The rosettes represent the setting moon.

(4) Vase 4 (Del Chiaro 1974: 13, plate 11): Body. A winged god stands before a sitting woman. He offers a necklace to her. A wheel is depicted beside his feet.

My decipherment. The god symbolises the rising sun (usil etc.). The wheel (round) is its sign. The woman (the goddess Artumes) is the incarnation of the setting moon.

(5) Vase 5 (Del Chiaro 1974: 23, plate 21): Body. At the left a woman is seated. Another woman at the right goes away. A rosette marks the latter.

My decipherment. Choose June 9, 290 B.C. The time was 21:53. The sitting woman denotes the set-ting moon (the goddess Artumes), and the moving woman denotes the planet Venus (the Etruscan goddess Turan, the Greek goddess Aphrodite, the Roman goddess Venus) setting slower to the right of it in the con-stellation Leo. The rosette represents this planet.

(6) Vase 6 (Del Chiaro 1974: 8, plate 1): Neck. The god Turms (the Greek god Hermes, the Roman god Mercury) with a caduceus stands before a sit-ting woman. She holds a tambourine.

My decipherment. Here the conjunction of the planet Mercury with the moon is described.

1 This paper was first read by the author on the scientific session of the Sergei Rjabchikov Foundation – Research Cen-tre for Studies of Ancient Civilisations and Cultures, January 13, 2014, Krasnodar, Russia. 2 Some meanings of the Etruscan words are taken from this work (Pallottino 1963). I use its variant published as the Russian edition of the selected chapters (Pallottino 1976).

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(7) Vase 7 (Del Chiaro 1974: 10, plates 3-4): Body. On the distant left a winged woman stands. Another woman is seated on the right. Then a youth hold-ing a spear stands before a sitting woman.

My decipherment. This youth is the Etruscan god Maris (the Greek god Ares, the Roman god Mars). He is the image of planet Mars. Choose October 9, 392 B.C. The time (04:40) was before the dawn (04:41). Mars was seen near the moon in Gemeni. Venus was seen in Virgo low above the horizon. So, the three fe-males in the picture were Virgo (the star Spica), Venus and the moon.

(8) Vase 8 (Del Chiaro 1974: 13, plate 10): Neck. A youth moves to the left turning away to the right. He holds a spear and supports a tambourine. A star is depicted before his head.

My decipherment. Here the retrograde motion of Mars relative to the stars is depicted.

The Astral Religion in Etruria Three gold tablets of ca. 500 B.C. with inscriptions, two Etruscan (CIE 6314, 6315) and one Punic (CIE 6316), were excavated in an Etruscan sanctuary at the port of Pyrgi (Santa Severa) of the town of Caere (Cerveteri). The first Etruscan plate and the Punic one encompass quasi-bilingual texts. All the records are dedicated to the goddess Uni-Astre or Uni (δatin Iuno, Greek Heraν Junoν θhoenician „štrtν Astarte). Accord-ing to Pliny the Elder (Natural History, II: 37), the planet Venus was the star of Juno in the Roman beliefs. In all three texts the temple of the goddess is connected with stars.3

Etruscan pulum means „starν‟ the root pul (celestial fire) was derived from Greek πにと „fireν‟ and the suffix um is the same as in Latin astrum „star.‟ Greek αjkさと and αjkとοち mean „starν flame‟ and „starν celes-tial body‟ respectively. The expression Spulare Aritimi is read in the record on an Etruscan statuette, and Aritimi is another version of the name of the moon goddess Artumes (Jannot 2005: 144). I have translated the epithet Spulare as S-pul-are „Starlikeν (Someone who belonged) to stars.‟ The word snuial (all, many, filled etc.) correlated with the word pulumぬva „star‟ (dat. plur.) in the second θyrgi record is cognate with Hittite šunnai- „to fill‟ and šunnant- „filled.‟

Consider the scenes on an Etruscan vase (Eisenberg 2011: no. 138) as an illustration: Side A. The goddess Artumes drives a cart drawn by two stags to the left. Side B. The same personage is seated to the left. She holds a basket with two eggs. On her frock a starlike sign is represented. Near this goddess a rosette is shown.

My decipherment. The sign of the star corresponds to Etruscan Spulare „Starlike.‟ In both scenes the setting moon is indicated. The rosette is the additional symbol of the moon in this context.

The stars played a crucial role in the questions of the inheritance rights, too. Consider a fragment of the text inscribed on side B of the Perugia stele (CIE 4538): Velしina Watena zuci enesci ipa spel aneしi fulumぬva spelしi reneしi estac Velthina has joined inheritance rights since (he) promised on oath a sacred gift to the stars, (he) promised on oath (and) called the stars. Velしina acilune turune Wcune Velthina has done (all), given (that gift), given (that) sign (gift, sacrifice etc.). Vocabulary: Velしina „the personal nameν‟ Wat- „to have rights,‟ cf. Hittite ašanza- „trueν‟ zuc- „book, text,‟ cf. Etruscan zic-, ziぬ- „to write,‟ ziぬ- „bookν‟ cf. Greek jにγγとαlさ „recordν recordingν‟ enesc- (e-nes-c) „died, dead,‟ cf. Etruscan nes- „diedν‟ ipa „since, asν‟ spe- „to promise on oath,‟ cf. δatin spondeo „ditto‟ and sponsio „oath obligationν‟ aneしi „sacred giftν‟ cf. Sidetic anaしema „ditto‟ from Greek αちαしiたα „ditto‟ (ζeumann 1λθκ)ν fulum „star,‟ cf. Etruscan pulum „dittoν‟ ren- „to callν to nameν‟ cf. Hittite lamniya- „to callν to name‟ (the alternations of the sounds a/e, r/l and m/n are possible); 3 In compliance with van der Waerden (1961: 100), the transmission of the mathematical knowledge from the Greek astronomer and mathematician Pythagoras to the Etruscans is dated from before 500 B.C. One can suggest in this con-nection that the Etruscans also learned the information about the sun, the moon, planets and some stars from him or his disciples.

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estac „star‟, cf. Hittite hašter- „dittoν‟ ac-, acil „to do,‟ cf. Etruscan acas „dittoν‟ tur- „to giveν‟ Wc- „to give an omen, a sign,‟ cf. Etruscan Wac (a verb associated with the religious practice); cf. Hittite šakiya- „to give an omen, a sign.‟

On the Observations of Mars in Rome Consider the Etruscan inscription (CIE 5093) in the Golini Tomb I of 4th century B.C. at Volsinii (Orvieto). Here some data about the nobleman Vel are reported. The following fragment has attracted my attention: Zilaぬ nve pulum Rumi trineしi εa[r]ce clel lu[c…] (He) served as a magistrate (there where had been a dedication) to the star of the trinity (of gods) of the city of Rome, (and where) εars had created a king [known as δucius Tarquinius Superbus]… Vocabulary: zilaぬ „to serve as a magistrateν‟ pulum „starν‟ Rumi „Rome‟ (gen. sing.), cf. Etruscan Ruma „Rome‟ (nom. sing.)ν trineしi „triadν three‟ from δatin trinitas „threeν trinity [the late term]ν‟ Marce „the planet εarsν‟ cle- „to make‟ (Rjabchikov 2013: 31)ν luc- „king.‟

Thus, one can suppose that the Etruscan Vel was a magistrate of the Etruscan part of the ancient Rome for some years. According to Livy (Books from Foundation of the City, II: 5.2), the Field of Mars in Rome belonged once to the last Roman king Lucius (i.e. Luc-, King) Tarquinius (Superbus) who was an Etruscan. In Rome the basic deities were known as the triad, Iuppiter, Mars and Quirinus, in more recent times.

The Record about Mars and Jupiter Consider the inscription on a leaden plate (TLE 359) of the 4th century B.C. from Heba (Magliano in To-scano). Side A contains the expression cepen tuしiu meaning „the priest of society.‟ So, this ancient report could tell of his service at the temple in the role of an astronomer.

Side B contains three vital fragments:

Marca lurcac ξ…π (The planet) εars was not visible… Vuris eis teis Evi tiuras mulsle mlaぬ ξ…π (It was) the god „The sun‟ of the month of Sheep (the constellation Aries). The votive gift was given… Tins lursし ξ…π (The planet) Jupiter is not visible… Vocabulary: Marca „the god εarisν the planet εarsν‟ lur- „to be invisible, to disappearν to shorten,‟ cf. Hittite luri- „deficiencyν shortage‟ and δuwian lawarr- „to breakν‟ Wur , sur- „the sun,‟ cf. Sanskrit sūrya „dittoν‟ the Etruscan name Vuri is closely related to the sun god Aplu (Apuluν Greek Apollon „Apollo‟) (Jannot 200η: 14θ)ν I have translated this epithet as „the sunν solarν‟ eis, ais „deity,‟ cf. Hittite ešri- „statueν‟ tei „thisν‟ evi „sheep‟ (Rjabchikov 2013: 32), cf. Luwian hawi- „dittoν‟ tiur- „monthν‟ mul- „to sacrificeν‟ mlaぬ- „votive giftν‟ Tin- „the god of thunderstormν the planet Jupiter.‟

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According to Weeks (1985: 11, 44), some Hittite words are cognate with Old Indic words because of the Mitannian influence. In this context one can compare Etruscan sur- „the sun‟ with Sanskrit sūrya „ditto.‟ Besides, Hittite *šawelia „the sun‟ could be closely connected with the latter form. Furthermore, Etruscan herama „temple‟ in the texts on the first and second gold θyrgi tablets (CIE θ314, θ31η) is comparable with Sanskrit harmya „palace‟ (cf. Hittite karimn- „temple‟ as well).

For instance, on April 21, 324 B.C. Mars could not be observed in Magliano (Mars: the rising: 05:11, the setting: 18:00; the sun: the beginning of dawn: 03:48, the rising: 05:30, the setting: 18:56); and on May 21 324 B.C. Jupiter and Mars could not be observed, too (Jupiter: the rising: 05:58, the setting: 21:07; Mars: the rising: 04:01, the setting: 17:52; the sun: the beginning of dawn: 02:48, the rising: 04:48, the setting: 19:27, the end of twilight: 21:26).

Capricornus and εars in the Etruscan “δiber δinteus” Etruscan records of an ancient book were discovered on an Egyptian mummy binding from Alexandria (Egypt). Now this relic is housed in the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb (Croatia). Here and everywhere else, I use the term “book” to designate it. Consider the following record in it (X: 2-3): Caprti εarem zaぬame nacum Capricornus (and) Mars are observed at night. Cepen fla naぬ vacl ξ…π The priest watches (the stars) at night, makes a libation… Vocabulary: caper- (capr-) „he-goat,‟ cf. θroto-Indo-European root *kapro- „ditto‟ (θokorny 1949), cf. Latin caper „dittoν‟ Caper- „Capricornusν‟ cf. δatin Capricornus (the constellation); zaぬ- „to watch over,‟ cf. Hittite šakuwai- „dittoν‟ nacum (nac-um), naぬ „nightν at night,‟ cf. δatin nox „dittoν‟ cepen, capen „priest,‟ cf. δydian kave- „dittoν‟ cf. also Hittite hap- „wealthν‟ fla-, pal- „to observe,‟ the verb palha (the exact meaning is unknown) is presented in a Hettite record about the astronomical observations (Güterbock and Hoffner 1λλι: θ3)ν cf. the θroto-Indo-European root *per- „to try‟ (θokorny 1ληλ)ν cf. δatin periri „to learn‟ and Russian pyalit’ „to gaze‟ν vacl- „to make a libation.‟

Cf. the representation of Capricornus on vase 1, see above.

On Some Other Astronomical Records in the Book

The parallel text in the book (XI, 19) reads: Fla-nac Farsi lans enac Watch Sagittarius (the star Rukbat ο α Sagittarii) for a short interval of time at night. Fla-nac Farsi tunt enac Watch Sagittarius (the star Rukbat ο α Sagittarii) for a long interval of time at night. Vocabulary: fla-, pal- „to observeν‟ nac, enac (e-nac) „night, at nightν‟ Fars- „the constellation Sagittarius (The Archer),‟ cf. Greek Τてつてkさな „ditto‟ as well as kてつてkさな and kてつてlてとてな „archer‟ (kてつてち „arrow‟ and lてとてな „carrying‟)ν the name Τてつてlてとてな „Sagittarius‟ could coexist as a variantν it is clear that Greek component lてとてな of the name of the constellation was borrowed by the Etruscans in the form fars-; lans „small period of timeν this moment,‟ cf. Hittite lammar „dittoν‟ tunt „long period of time,‟ cf. Hittite ištantai- „to delay.‟

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Judging from the next record, the observations were conducted in the winter. Here the appearances of the star Rukbat after the heliacal rising are described: the interval of time of the visibility of this star in-creased smoothly in January.

Another astronomical record in the book (XI, 21) reads: Tei ぬimし It is the winter. Stre ta Satrs enac The planet Saturn (is seen) at night. Vocabulary: tei „thisν‟ ぬim- „winter,‟ cf. Greek ぬiすたα, Latin hiems „dittoν‟ stre „starν‟ ta „thisν‟ Satrs „the planet Saturn,‟ cf. δatin Saturnus „the name of the godν the planet Saturnν‟ enac (e-nac) „nightν at night.‟

The observations of Saturn were conducted in January to predict the weather in next months. It should be emphasised that the Roman festival Saturnalia dedicated to the god Saturn lasted for several days in De-cember. It is likely that the Romans borrowed this custom from the Etruscans in the distant past.

The Report about a Solar Eclipse in the Book

Housley, Srdoč and Horvatinčić (1989: 975) have identified that the most probable age range for the

book is ca 360-210 B.C. Let us read the following fragment of the inscription (VII: 8-16):

Cepen tutin renぬ zua The priest of the society calls: the sun! Etnam cepen Ceren Wucic firin tesim (And) The priest of (the goddess) Ceres has repeated struggling, caring: Etnam celu cum caitim Caperぬva hecia (And) Rise together with the low (constellation) Capricornus here! Aisna clevana The sacred gifts (are given to) the deities. Χim enac usil (Now) the sun is as at night in the winter. Cerine [T]enしa[W]a ca[W] nam […] εasn zelva murWW (The goddess) Ceres … the month εasn (Januaryν February) … that is dead. Etnam しacac usli neぬse acil ame (And) The sun is made dark. Etnam cilし cveti hilare acil (And) The (bright) sky is killed everywhere. Vacl cepen-しaurぬ Ce[r]ene acil The priest pours a libation for (the goddess) Ceres. Etnam ic clevana Wucic firiし Vene acil (And) Since the sacred gifts were given, (the prayers) have been repeated struggling: Venus (was here)! Vocabulary: cepen, capen „priestν‟ tuti „societyν‟ ren- „to callν to nameν‟ zu, su „the sunν‟ cf. Hittite DUTU-liya- = *šawelia „ditto‟ (Weeks 1λκη: 1η)ν so, zu, su < *sulia < *sawelia; etnam „andν‟ Ceren, Cerine, Cerene „the goddess of fertility and agriculture,‟ cf. δatin Ceres;

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Wuci „to say again and again,‟ cf. δatin succino „to repeat‟ (the segment -no may be an Etruscan suffix: cf. Etruscan Tur-an etc.); firin, firiし „struggling,‟ cf. δatin firmus „strong, mightν‟ tesim „caring,‟ cf. Etruscan tes- „to careν‟ celu „to riseν to lift,‟ cf. θroto-Indo-European root *kel- „to rise‟ (Weeks 1λκη: λ), „to be high‟ (θokorny 1949), cf. Hittite kalmara „mountain,‟ Greek せそすkにな „slopeν hill‟ and せてそωちさ „heightν hill,‟ δatin collis „hill,‟ clivosus „steep‟ and celsus „to elevateν‟ cum „with,‟ cf. δatin cum „dittoν‟ caitim „low,‟ cf. Hittite katta „down,‟ kattera „lowerν‟ Caper- „Capricornusν‟ cf. δatin Capricornus (the constellation); hecia „here,‟ cf. δatin hac „dittoν‟ aisna „deitiesν‟ clevana „sacred gifts are givenν‟ ぬim „winterν‟ enac (e-nac) „nightν at nightν‟ usil, usli „the sun‟ ξ *sulia „ditto‟ (see above)ν Masn, Masan „Januaryν Februaryν‟ the name reads as two Sumerograms, εÁŠ „he-goat‟ and AN „sky,‟ of the Hittite script;4 murWW „diedν deadν dark,‟ cf. Hittite mar-, merr-, mirr- „to disappear, to get lostν‟ the Hittite word mar-marra „swamp‟ is the reduplication of the previous meaningν しacac „to make,‟ cf. Hittite takš- „dittoν‟ neぬse „dark,‟ cf. Hittite neku „to get darkν to become eveningν‟ ac- „to doν‟ am, ame „to beν‟ cilし „sky,‟ cf. δatin caelum „dittoν‟ cveti (cve-ti) „is killed,‟ cf. Hittite kuen „to kill,‟ cf. Etruscan cver, cvil „votive gift,‟ its original meaning was „victimν sacrificeν‟ hilare „anything,‟ cf. δydian qelis- „dittoν‟ vacl „to make a libationν‟ cepen-しaurぬ „priestν‟ ic „becauseν‟ clevana „sacrifice is doneν‟ Vene „Venus‟ (the planet), cf. δatin Venus (ditto).

One can suppose that the book was written in Alexandria (Egypt). The expression in the text (II: 8) reads: Wpureri meしlum Eric for the city-community of Alex(andria) Vocabulary: Wpur- „townν city‟ (nom. sing.)ν Wpureri „city‟ (dat. sing.)ν meしl- „communityν town‟ (Kharsekin 1λιθ)ν Eric- (the shortened record of the name of the city of Alexandria; the variations of the sounds a/e, l/r, e/i are possible in the Etruscan language).

Choose Alexandria for our archaeoastronomical studies. The star θrima Giedi (α Capricorni) rose at 03:45 on February 11, 217 B.C. Venus was in Capricornus (04:37) before the dawn. The sun rose at 06:53. The almost total solar eclipse occurred at sunset. (In Italy this eclipse was seen weaker.)

The Second Punic War that had begun in 218 B.C. was the historical background of the arrival of the Etruscan priest, the author of the book, to Egypt. He worshipped to the goddess Estre „Astarte‟ (the book, IX: 16).

Consider the parallel text in the book (XII: 10-13):

4 In compliance with Turfa (2012: 109-110), the trustworthy meanings of the names of the Etruscan months are from March to October; the month Masan (Masn) is outside this list.

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ξ…π Masn Unialti ξ…π …The month εasn (Januaryν February) of the goddess Uni… Сluce Caperi The constellation Capricornus rose. Za mtic svem しum sa The destination is the sun in the dim light. εatan cluc TraW hilar The destination: the thunderstorm (= the dark clouds) appeared everywhere. Vocabulary: Masn „Januaryν Februaryν‟ Uni „the goddess of fertility,‟ cf. δatin Iuno „Junoν‟ clu, celu „to riseν‟ Caper- Capricornus (the constellation); za, sa „the sun‟ (gen. sing.); see above: zu, su „ditto‟ (nom. sing.)ν cf. also Hittite nekuza „dawnν morning‟ ξ *neku za; m(a)t- „destination,‟ cf. Lycian metu „to destineν‟ svem „daylight,‟ cf. Hittite šiwatt- „dayν daylightν‟ しum „dimν dark,‟ cf. Hittite *dum(m)- „deaf‟ (dumb, blind, black) (Weeks 1λκη: ι3)ν in this connection cf. the Proto-Indo-European root *dhūmo- „smoke‟ (θokorny 1λ4λ)ν TraW „the god of thunderstorm,‟ cf. Etruscan Tarχun- (the symbolism of the thunderstorm and authority), Hittite and Luwian Tarhunt- (the Storm-god);5 hilar- „anything.‟

Moreover, the Etruscan expression Masan tiur „the month εasan‟ is connected with the name of the

goddess Uni (Unias) in the text on the second gold Pyrgi tablet (CIE 6315). Etruscan tiur „month‟ is a reflex of the name of the deity in the distant homeland; in this connection cf. the Proto-Indo-European roots *deie- „day; the sky god‟, *deiew-, *diw- „day‟ (θokorny 1λ4λ).

The Report about a Solar Eclipse in the Record on a Leaden Tablet This plate was excavated in an Etruscan sanctuary at Punta della Vipera near Santa Marinella (Comella 2001: 132, plates 36, 37). The lower limit of the dating of this text (CIE 6310) is the interval of time between ca. 540 and 520 B.C., obtained on the base of the datings of Greek vases and Etruscan terracottas.

The text is very obliterated. Some interesting fragments are presented below: […] MMMCCC lanぬu mite ξ…π 3300 (gifts, etc. are brought from) the yards of the men… Pulun za i pal ξ…π The star (ο Venus) of the sun goes along the wide (road)… Za ξ…π [s]italte ξ…π The star (ο Venus) of the sun… Mena Tina ξ…π Tin (Jupiter) is not seen… Helucu acasa tei luru ξ…π The sun is broken… ζunしena ξ…π […]sice lanぬu mite ξ…π The sacrifices (sacred gifts) were made by the yards of the men… εlaciしa hecia i peri τpa ξ…π The sacral gifts are hereν (so that) the Father (the sun) goes high (now) … Ar surve cles vare […] Rise, the sun, be made like the fire!… Vocabulary: lanぬu „yard,‟ cf. Hittite hilan „dittoν‟

5 The latter survived in the late Anatolian culture as Lycian god Trqqas (Trqqiz, Trqqnt) (Bryce 1986: 177).

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mit- „manν head of a household,‟ cf. Hittite miti „servantν‟ pulun „star, planet etc.,‟ cf. Etruscan pulum „dittoν‟ za, sa „the sun‟ (gen. sing.); i „to go,‟ cf. Luwian i-, Hittite iya- „dittoν‟ pal „wide,‟ cf. Hittite palhi- „dittoν‟ [s]italt- „star‟ (ρ), cf. δatin astrum and stella „dittoν‟ mena „invisible‟, cf. Hittite maninkuwant- „shortened,‟ cf. also Etruscan man „diedν‟ Tin- „the god of the thunderstorm (the planet Jupiter here)ν‟ helucu „the sun,‟ cf. Greek さiそすοな, さそすοな „ditto‟ν cf. also Hittite lukki- „to lightν‟ acasa, acas „to doν‟ tei „thatν‟ lur- „to be invisible, to disappearν to shortenν‟ nunしena „sacrificesν‟ […]sice (the meaning is unclear, but this verb has the suffix ce of the past tense); mlaciしa „sacral giftsν‟ hecia „hereν‟ peri „high,‟ cf. δuwian parrai-, Hittite parku „dittoν‟ apa „fatherν ancestor,‟ cf. Greek αππα „fatherν‟ ar „to rise,‟ cf. Hittite arai- „dittoν‟ Wur , sur- „the sunν‟ vare „fire,‟ cf. Etruscan verse „dittoν‟ in this connection cf. the Proto-Indo-European root *wer- „to burn‟ (Pokorny 1959).

Choose the town of Santa Marinella for our archaeoastronomical studies. Venus rose at 01:41 on Sep-tember 1, 507 B.C. Jupiter was absent in the sky (it had set earlier). The sun rose at 05:29. The almost total solar eclipse occurred in the evening.

I believe that the Etruscan priest could predict eclipses. The votive gifts were carried into the temple to avoid another eclipse in future.

Some Notes on the Etruscan Language

To understand some words, I have conducted the internal comparative studies of the texts. In this respect I am a follower of Pallottino and others.

Consider the record in the book (XI: 5): Cepen teWa mitn murce. „The priest takes care of the dead people.‟ It is common knowledge that the words cepen and teW- signify „priest‟ and „to care‟ respectively. The verb murce has the suffix ce of the past tense (mur-ce). As is well known, the word murs signifies „sarcophagus‟ (ξ „place associated with the dead‟). Hence, the word mit-n means „menν peopleν‟ the word mit- means „manν human being etc.,‟ and the word mur means „to die.‟ Cf. also Etruscan murWW „diedν deadν dark‟ that has been mentioned above. Then one can compare Etruscan mit- „manν head of a household‟ with Hittite miti „servant.‟

It is also known that Etruscan etera and eteri mean „slaveν servant.‟ Hittite hurtalan means „male slave,‟ and δuwian hutarli means „servant.‟ Both terms read as the Sumerogram KUR „slave‟ and the root tal (tar) „slaveν servant.‟ It is apparent that the roots ter (< e-ter-a, e-ter-i) and tal or tar are cognate. It is also known that Etruscan luc-, luぬum- (luぬ-um-) mean „king,‟ cf. Sumerogram LUGAL „ditto‟ in the Hittite script. Cf. also Lydian qalmlus „king‟ ξ *kalma- luh- (LUG-) „high [i.e., great] king.‟

On Quasi-Bilingual Records (Pictures, Texts) Let us examine the frescoes and the corresponding inscriptions in the Golini Tomb I of 4th century B.C. at Volsinii (Orvieto).

(1) The fresco. The slave ignites the wood under the bath. Before the funeral repast the man performs the ritual ablution using a scoop. The records (CIE 5084, 5085) are as follows:

Klu mie par liu (He) lifts (the vessel) high (and) pours (the water). Tesinし tamia しuras (It is) the trustee (chief) of the synod of the sanctuary.

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Vocabulary: klu, clu „to riseν to elevateν‟ mie „to growν to increase,‟ cf. Hittite mai-, miya- „dittoν‟ par „highν‟ liu „to pour,‟ cf. the θroto-Indo-European root *lei- „ditto‟ (Pokorny 1949), cf. also Hittite lilahuwa „dittoν‟ Etruscan vacl- „to make a libation‟ ξ *vac- l(ai-) „to pray during a libation‟, cf. Hettite wek- „wishν requestν petitionν‟6 tesinし „trusteeν‟ tamia „temple,‟ cf. Etruscan tmia „ditto,‟ cf. the θroto-Indo-European root *domos „house‟ (θokorny 1λ4λ), しuras „brotherhoodν membersν‟ the similar Greek term was jにちοhοな „religious communityν‟ tesinし tamia しuras „trustee (chief) of the synod of a sanctuaryν priest‟ (ρ)ν cf. Greek すiとοποすοな „member of a religious community,‟ too.

(2) The fresco. The slave carries a vessel and the meat. The corresponding record (CIE 5079) reads as

follows: Θrama mliしuns (The slave) brings the food.7 Vocabulary: しra-, tra- „to carryν to bring‟ (Rjabchikov 2013: 31)ν mli-し-un- „sacrificial food‟ here, cf. Etruscan mlac „offeringν votive gift.‟

(3) The fresco. The slave has brought the food. The corresponding record (CIE 5080) reads as follows: Θresu f[a]si trals The bringing (man) has brought the ritual food. Vocabulary: しre-, tra- „to carryν to bringν‟ fas-, faW- (the term of the religious practice). The next fresco. The widow is seated; she has received a portion of the meat. The corresponding record (CIE 5081) reads as follows: Rem zini me しumfs Rem mourns my loss. Vocabulary: Rem „Rem, the legendary ancestor of the Etruscans,‟ cf. δatin Remus „the twin brother of Romulusν‟ zin- „to mourn,‟ cf. Greek jにちhαせとにω and jにちiπすしとさちiω „to mourn togetherν‟ so, the first part of these com-pound words meaning „together‟ was borrowedν cf. also Latin singulto „to mournν‟ me „myν‟ しumf- „loss,‟ cf. the form しum- „dimν darkν disappearance.‟

According to Livy (Books from Foundation of the City, I: 4.1 to I: 7.3), the twins Romulus and Remus were the children of the god Mars and the Vestal priestess Rhea Silvia. It is well to bear in mind that Mars was the Etruscan god initially. The mythological story tells that Romulus killed Remus, and founded the city of Rome later. This narration informs that a fig tree was called ficus Romularem (Romulus‟ fig tree) at first, and it was renamed (ficus Ruminalis) later. But the term Rumi-na- „Roman‟ is quite Etruscan! It is common knowledge that Etruscan Ruma means „Rome.‟ Thus, the myth about the twins includes the hint at the initial

6 In conformity with Hoffner (2002: 6), the term wek- was presented in numerous Hittite prayers. This word could sur-vive in late Anatolian languages. For example, the Carian form wksmuW contains the root mu „strength, force‟ (Adiego 2007: 427). In my opinion, the root wk was related to Hittite wek-. Cf. also the segment wk in the end of another Carian inscription (Adiego 2007: 119). I suggest that this word could have the same origin. 7 Cf. the archaic δatin inscription meaning „The roast in hand I bring‟ and the corresponding drawing (Warmington 1940: 201).

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domination of the Etruscans in Rome, and Remus (Rem) was their mythological or real ancestor. His death in the Roman tradition indicates the end of the Etruscan authority in Rome indeed.

(4) The fresco. The priest leans over a small table. Another man plays a pipe. The corresponding re-cords (CIE 5082, 5083) read as follows: Tri しun Wunu (He) prays (to the gods about) the first meal. (Cf. the parallel segment in the book (XI: 13): Eしri sun tnam „θray about the meal, too!‟) Pazu muluane Swallow the food! Vocabulary: tri(n-), etri (e-tri) „to askν to prayν to implore‟ (Rjabchikov 2013: 31); しun „firstν oneν‟ Wun-, sun- „food, meal,‟ cf. Tocharian suwa „to eatν‟ (e)tnam „again, also,‟ cf. Etruscan etnam „and, also,‟ cf. also Hittite namma „once more, again, in additionν‟ paz- „to swallow,‟ cf. Hittite paš- „dittoν‟ muluane (mulu-ane) „sacred food‟ (acc. plur.), cf. Etruscan mul- „to sacrifice.‟

(5) The fresco. The three slaves carry some food. The first part of the fresco. The first slave carries something (the picture is damaged). The corresponding record (CIE 5088) reads as follows: Θresu penznas (It is) the bringing (slave) (with) the funeral (food). The second part of the fresco. The second slave carries a vessel; different vessels are on the table. The corre-sponding record (CIE 5087) reads as follows: Runぬl vis papnas (It is) the wine of the family for the meal. The third part of the fresco. The third slave carries something (the picture is damaged). The corresponding record (CIE 5086) reads as follows:

τklぬis muifu (It is) the June bread. Vocabulary: しre- „to carryν to bring (see above)ν‟ penzn- „funeral,‟ cf. Greek πiちしすせοな „dittoν‟ runぬ- „foodν meal,‟ cf. the form runec- in the book (II: 5, 9), cf. Hittite aruni „mealν‟ vis „wine,‟ cf. Latin visulla „a kind of vineν‟ cf. the form laivisca in the book (VI: 10) = lai visca „pour the wine!‟ (ρ)ν pap-n- „ancestralν belonged to a family,‟ cf. Etruscan papa „fatherν‟ aklぬ- „June‟ (adj.), cf. Etruscan acale, aclus „Juneν‟ muif- „bread,‟ cf. Hittite muhhila „a kind of bread.‟

Again about the Methodology of this Study

To demonstrate the possibilities of the comparative method of the study of inscriptions, consider the

following record in the book (VIII: 1-2):

VariW esvita vacl tnam culWcva spetri etnam ic esvitle ampleri

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Pour the copious libation during the rite (and), pour the libation (using) kylixes (and), because the amphorae (with the wine) are full!

The meanings of Etruscan vacl „to make a libation,‟ spet- (from Greek jπiちhω) „ditto‟ and culiぬna „vessel‟ (from Greek せにそすせちοな) are well known. The latter term has the shortened form cul- in this text. I have compared the forms ampl-eri „amphorae‟ and ampl- „amphora‟ with Greek αたlοとiにな „ditto.‟ In this context the term esvit- repeated twice means „fullν copious etc.‟ It is comparable with Greek ijωしiち „inside.‟ The term Wari correlates with Hittite šarlatt- „praiseν praise offeringν exaltation (ceremony).‟

Several Etruscan glosses are preserved in the Lexicon by Hesychius of Alexandria. That work of the 5th century A.D. contains, for instance, Etruscan ais- „deity‟ (θallottino 1963; 1976) and kapr- „goat‟ (Rjab-chikov, this article). These data allow me to treat the Lexicon as a reliable linguistic source. It also contains Etruscan arak- „hawk; falcon,‟ druna „authority,‟ and de- „fear.‟ The first term is quite probable, cf. Proto-Indo-European roots *er-, *or- „eagle‟ (θokorny 1λ4λ, 1ληλ). Cf. also Hittite hara(n)- „eagle‟ and aramni „hawk; falcon‟ (θuhvel 1λκ4: 12ι-128) < *ara mni „resembling an eagle,‟ here the latter component corre-sponds to Hittite man „like.‟ Cf. also Armenian arcui „eagle.‟ The Etruscan language lacked the sound d, hence it replaced the sound t. So, one can reconstruct Etruscan t(a)r(h)u-na „authority,‟ cf. Hittite tarh- „to conquer‟ and δydian tarv- „to belong‟ ξ *taru „ditto.‟ Cf. the Roman (Etruscan) royal name Tarquinius < Tarc-, Tarぬ-, too. Etruscan te- means „fear,‟ cf. the Proto-Indo-European root *dwei- „to fear‟ (θokorny 1949).

Read the following text with the term しe „fearν in fear‟ in the book (III: 8): Trin しe zine Ask (pray) in fear, mourn!

It is safe to say that the Etruscan language was a descendant of Anatolian (Hittite, Luwian, Lydian, Lycian etc.) languages;8 one can distinguish the samples of the early language contacts as well.

The Perspectives

Consider the following parallel records in the book (VII: 3, 5):

Ciz vacl ais valе Pour the libation thrice! The strong god! Ciz vacl vile vale Staile Pour the libation thrice for the strong god (Jupiter) Saviour! Vocabulary: ciz „thriceν‟ vacl „to make a libationν‟ ais „deityν‟ valе „to be strongν strongν‟ vile „associated withν‟ staile „saviour.‟

The meanings of the first three words are well known. In some archaic Latin inscriptions there are ap-peals to gods repeated thrice (Warmington 1940: 251-253). So, one can suppose that the Etruscan phrases were taken from the archaic Etruscan ritual which had been performed in Rome in the distant past (at least in the 6th century B.C.). Etruscan valе „strong‟ came from an Anatolian word, cf. Hittite walliwalli- „ditto‟ (the reduplicated form), cf. also the Proto-Indo-European root *wal- „to be strong‟ and Latin valeo „ditto.‟9 In this context Etruscan vile with the meaning „corresponding to, connected with‟ is related to δuwian wil- „to per-tain.‟ Etruscan Staile means „Saviour,‟ cf. δatin Stator „Ditto‟ (Jupiter‟s epithet). In my opinion, this Etrus-can term is cognate with the Proto-Indo-European roots *stā-, *ste „to stand‟ (θokorny 1ληι) as the opposi-tion to the words with the meanings „to lieν to be dead.‟ So, the fragments of the archaic Etruscan ritual dedi-

8 So, Herodotus‟ (History, I: λ4) information about the origin of the Etruscans from δydia is correct. 9 In conformity with Hoffner (2002: 107), in a Hittite hymn to the Storm-god the term „strong‟ was presented.

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cated to Jupiter as the god and planet have been decoded. The search of parallel segments in other Etruscan records is my goal in future. At least, this segment in the inscription on a tomb, svalce avil XXVI (TLE 119), with the well-known term avil „yearν years‟ lets me translate the text thus: s-val-ce avil XXVI „(he) was strong (ο lived) 2θ years.‟

Consider the following record in the book (VI: 16-17): θai niem anc εartiし sulal Give the ritual bread because (you) have bowed to Mars! Vocabulary: pai „to give,‟ cf. Hittite pai- „dittoν‟ niem „ritual bread,‟ cf. Hittite niniyami- „breadν pastry‟ (the reduplication of the form)ν anc „becauseν‟ „if‟ (ρ)ν Mar-t-iし „εars (the godν the planet)‟ (dat. sing.); sul- „to worship,‟ cf. δatin saluto „ditto.‟ Wachter (2001: 164) reads the Greek inscription Παとしiち(ο)παοな on a hydria and the Etruscan inscription θarしanapaes on a scarab as Παとしiちο-πα(す)οな. In my opinion, the component *pa(i) is an Etruscan term meaning „gift.‟10 So, one can translate both records as „The gift of the Virgin‟ (the latter word is an epithet of the Greek goddess Athena).

A careful study of the parallel texts will enable us to translate a number of unclear words.

Conclusions

The Etruscans named the classical planets after deities. They watched at least the Sun, the Moon, the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn as well as the constellations Aries, Virgo, Sagittarius and Capri-cornus. Doubtless they were aware of all the zodiacal signs. The two records about solar eclipses have been decoded. One can date the artifacts since 217 till 210 B.C. and to 507 B.C. respectively. The meanings of some Etruscan astronomical terms have been obtained with the help of cross-readings.

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10 Cf. the Lycian epithet of Apollo having the same structure (Bryce 1986: 187).

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Puhvel, Jaan, 1984. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. Vols. 1, 2. Berlin – Mew York – Amsterdam: Mouton Publishers. Rjabchikov, Sergei V., 2013. ηb etrusskoy “l‟nyanoy knige” iz Zagreba. Visnik Mizhnarodnogo doslidnogo tsentru “Lyudina: mova, kul’tura, piznannya”, 34(3), pp. 30-36. Turfa, Jean M., 2012. Divining the Etruscan World: The Brontoscopic Calendar and Religious Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wachter, Rudolf, 2001. Non-Attic Greek Vase Inscriptions. New York: Oxford University Press. van der Waerden, Bartel L., 1961. Science Awakening. New York: Oxford University Press. van der Waerden, Bartel L., 1974. Science Awakening II. Leyden: Noordhoff International Publishing. Warmington, Eric H., 1940. Remains of Old Latin. Vol. 4. Archaic Inscriptions. Cambridge: Harvard Uni-versity Press. Weeks, David M., 1985. Hittite Vocabulary: An Anatolian Appendix to Buck’s Dictionary of Selected Syno-nyms in the Principal Indo-European Languages. Ph.D. Dissertation. Los Angeles: University of California.