Lab Assignment # 01

2015

Lab Assignment # 01SAHREEN SHAMSHAD|2012-CH-401ENERGY ENGINEERINGDr. ASIM UMER

Aniline PointThe aniline point is a physical characteristic of hydrocarbon compounds, such as oils, and refers to the minimum temperature at which the hydrocarbon and the same amount of the compound aniline (C5H5NH2) are perfectly miscible. At temperatures below this point, a mixture of the compound and an equal volume of aniline will not dissolve together. The result of a test, called the aniline test, gives chemists this information about a hydrocarbon, including certain details about its composition, such as the relative content of aromatic chemicals and various paraffin.The test for finding the aniline point of a given oil or other hydrocarbon, such as a petroleum distillate, is relatively simple. A volume of the test liquid and an equal volume of aniline are placed together in a container, such as a test tube or other laboratory vessel, and slowly heated while being gently agitated. When two liquids completely dissolve into one another, the mixture turns from cloudy to clear. The sample is removed from the heat and stirred until it becomes cloudy again. The temperature at that point is the aniline point of that compound.The aniline point of a liquid will vary, depending upon the relativeconcentrationofaromatic compoundsdissolved in it. Generally, a higher aniline point means a relatively low level of dissolved aromatics. By using reference materials for a pure sample of a given substance and comparing the aniline point of the pure sample to that of the test sample, a chemist can calculate the amount of aromatics in the test sample with a high degree of accuracy. Similar techniques and calculations can be used to determine the level of paraffin compounds that are present.

__________________________________________________ Aniline point apparatus RM 445

Flash Point Theflashpointof a particular chemical refers to the lowest temperature at which that chemical, in liquid form, will produce combustible vapors that will ignite with the introduction of an ignition source. This temperature can vary, for a given chemical, based on factors including pressure, the quantity of the chemical, and the location of the ignition source in relation to the chemical. Theflashpointfor a particular chemical is, therefore, somewhat unreliable and should be used as a general guideline, rather than an absolute value.There are two basic ways in which theflashpointfor a particular chemical can be determined: open cup or closed cup experiments. Both types of experiments are based on the fact that a liquid that is combustible, such as gasoline, releases vapors that are potentially ignitable. As the temperature of the liquid increases, the amount of these vapors also increases. This means that at a certain temperature, the vapor concentration is high enough that it becomes ignitable. Chemicals with a fairly lowflashpointare referred to as flammable, while chemicals with higherflashpoints are usually referred to as combustible.Measurement apparatus are: Open cup Close cup Open cup:An open cup experiment involves a quantity of a particular chemical placed in a container that is open. The chemical is slowly heated and an ignition source, such as a small flame, is introduced above the chemical at various intervals. This process continues until a temperature is reached at which the vapors from the chemicals ignite, which establishes the flashpointfor that chemical. Once ignition occurs, the ignition source is removed and the vapors should then stop burning; if they continue to burn without the source, however, then thefire pointfor a chemical has been reached

Closed cup:In a closed cup experiment, the process is similar but the container for the chemical is lidded and the ignition source is introduced through the lid. A closed cup experiment allows for the flashpointof a particular chemical to be determined when that chemical is under increased pressure due to a closed system. This is important for determining safe handling conditions for various chemicals stored or transported in closed containers. Fire Point:Thefirepointis the temperature at which a liquid will produce enough flammable vapor to create sustained combustion, burning for at least five seconds, if the vapor is exposed to flame or a spark. It is an important parameter for safety testing, as the combustion of a fluid can create afirerisk if the flames jump to objects in the surrounding area or ignite other fluids. Safety testing for liquids known to be potentially flammable can include a test to determine thefirepoint.A number of related terms refer to the flammability of fluid components, and it is important to be aware of the differences between them. As temperatures rise, fluids produce flammable vapors through the process of evaporation. At theflash point, exposure to apointof ignition like an open flame will produce a brief flash of flame but the temperature is not hot enough to perpetuate the evaporation and maintain the flames. Thefirepoint, slightly higher, provides sustained ignition. At the auto-ignitionpoint, temperatures rise enough for the vapor to catchfirespontaneously, a considerable safety risk.Information about thefirepointis not always available. As a general rule of thumb, it falls around 50 degrees Fahrenheit (10 degrees Celsius) above the flashpoint. If there are specific concerns about sustained combustion in high temperatures, a separate test should be performed to confirm thefirepointand determine whether a flammable fluid is suitable for use. This can be done by a materials testing company, where a controlled environment for testing is available to obtain reliable and highly accurate results.

Smoke Point:Smoke pointis a term which refers to thepointat which cooking oil begins to break down and give off fumes, orsmoke. At this temperature, the oil begins decomposition, gives off noxious odor, and looks burnt. If the oil continues to rise in temperature, it can reach the flash point, when it will catch on fire.Cooking oils come from a wide variety of sources, with unique flavors, nutritional benefits and heating properties such assmokepoints. Many other factors can also lower the flashpointof oil, such as the presence of foreign organic material, the use of salt, the number of times the oil has been reused, and whether or not the product is a mixture of different oils. Saturated fats those which are solid at room temperature including lard, butter, and bacon grease, begin tosmokeat relatively low temperatures. These products are considered to be less healthy, and should only be used to saut or bake at relatively low temperatures.Another factor which affects thesmokepointof oil is the amount of refinement and processing it undergoes. Unrefined oil is generally cold-pressed and not subjected to heat or chemicals. As a result, it often contains organic material from the source, which lowers the temperature at which the product can be used effectively in cooking. One example of this is unrefinedcanola oil, which has asmokepointof under 225 degrees Fahrenheit (107.2 Celsius), while refined canola oil is an excellent cooking oil with asmokepointof close to 400 degrees F (204.4 C)

Cloud Point:In crude or heavy oils, cloud point is synonymous withwax appearance temperature(WAT) andwax precipitation temperature(WPT).A specific temperature where that fuel or oil begins to get cloudy from the appearance of wax crystals. It is important during the process that the refiner knows what this temperature is for each product. These wax particles can cause damage if left in fuel destined for combustion engines, such as gasoline.Petroleum is predominantly comprised of various hydrocarbons in gas, liquid, or solid states. Crude oil andnatural gasare members of this group. One hydrocarbon in crude oil is paraffin, which is commonly known in food preservation. During the refining process, various temperatures yield different products, and the temperature at which the wax begins to emerge in the fuel or oil is known as thecloudpoint.Wax, which appears at thecloudpoint, can be harmful and destructive if not discovered in refined fuels. Filters and fuel injector systems in fuel-powered engines can be clogged from wax build up. Even in the refinery itself, it can be a nuisance by accumulating and blocking pipelines and other pieces of equipment that operating atcloudpointtemperatures.The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) provides an outline of the goal of tests to determinecloudpoint. Standardized testing allows uniformity compliance for those offering testing methods, as well as the refineries that employ them. Generally,cloudpoints for all fuel and oil levels are analyzed in transparent layers that are 40 mm thick.

Methods for finding thecloudpointvary. Constant cooling rate is one standard method used to determine thecloudpointin both pure and blended fuels and oils. This method cools the fluid at a steady rate, such as two degrees per minute, making it easier to determine the precise temperature at which the wax crystals form, thus giving a precisecloudpoint.

Pour Point:Pourpointis the temperature above which a lubricant or fluid will move freely under normal conditions. This can be an important characteristic to determine in materials testing. For some kinds of materials, standardized tests are available to allow manufacturers to consistently determine and report theirpourpoints, and the material may need to adhere to set specifications before it can be sold. Some products come in a range of formulations, in which case the labeling can provide information about performance in various conditions, including thepourpoint.

Oil and gas companies pay close attention topourpointbecause it has an impact on drilling and transport. If a petroleum deposit has a highpourpoint, usually reflecting a high paraffin content, it may be difficult to extract. Drilling teams need the oil to flow so they can pull it up with drilling rigs. Transport can also become a problem; in some cases, oil pipelines need to be heated to keep the oil atpourpointand ensure it moves smoothly from oil fields to shipping terminals and other destinations.Manufacturers of lubricants also have concerns in this area. For products like motor oil, the lubricant may need to operate at a range of temperatures. Technicians dont want oil that flows too readily at low temperatures because it might think too much at high temperatures and cause problems with the engine. They also need to consider issues like handling engines in extreme cold, where it is sometimes necessary to heat lubricants or entire engine blocks to keep the equipment operational.To test thepourpointof a material, one simple option is to fill a sample container and place it in a cool environment. As the temperature is lowered, a technician can periodically tilt the container to see if the material moves. When tipping the container on its side results in no movement for five minutes, it is apparent that the material has dropped just below thepour point. The testing team can add several degrees to this temperature to determine the operating temperature disclosures for labeling and regulatory purposes; one standard has testers add three degrees Celsius to obtain this measurement.

Freezing Point:

Thetemperatureatanyfixedpressureatwhichtheliquidandsolidphasesofasubstanceofspecifiedcompositionareinequilibrium.The freezing point or melting point of water is the temperature at which water changes phase from a liquid to a solid or vice versa. The freezing point describes the liquid to solid transition while the melting point is the temperature at which water goes from a solid (ice) to liquid water. In theory, the two temperatures would be the same, but liquids can be super cooled beyond their freezing points so that they don't solidify until well below freezing point. Ordinarily the freezing point of water is 0 C or 32 F. The temperature may be lower if super cooling occurs or if there are impurities present in the water which couldcause freezing point depressionto occur.

Afreezingpointdepression is when the normalfreezingpointof a liquid is lowered beyond normal by the addition of a solute. Every liquid has a normalfreezingpoint; for example, pure water freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit (F) (zero degrees Celsius, or C). The salt in sea water brings sea water to a lowerfreezingpointthan that of pure water; sea water can still freeze, however, the temperatures at which it does so are lower than waters from a pure water source. This fact is what enables the making of ice cream in ice cream freezers, when the metal canister in the middle is surrounded by rock salted ice. The melting of the ice by the rock saltallows the ice cream mix to lose heat into the surrounding ice water, and thereby freezes the ice cream.

Viscosity: Viscosityis a scientific term that describes the resistance to flow of a fluid. The fluid can be a liquid or a gas, but the term is more commonly associated with liquids.As a simple example, Syrup has a much higherviscositythan water; more force is required to move a spoon through a jar of syrup than in a jar of water because the syrup is more resistant to flowing around the spoon. This resistance is due to the friction produced by the fluids molecules and affects both the extent to which a fluid will oppose the movement of an object through it and the pressure required to make a fluid move through a tube or pipe.Viscosityis affected by a number of factors, including the size and shape of the molecules, the interactions between them, and temperature.

Theviscosityof a liquid can be measured in a number of ways by devices called viscometers. These can either measure the time it takes for a fluid to move a particular distance through a tube or the time taken for an object with a given size and density to fall through the liquid of interest. The SI unit of measure for this is the Pascal-second, with the Pascal being the unit of pressure. This quality is therefore measured in terms of pressure and time, so that, under a given pressure, a viscous liquid will take more time to move a given distance than a less viscous one.

Vapor Pressure:By definition, vaporpressureis the amount ofpressurewithin a vapor or gas when the substance is in an equilibrium state. In other words, when a liquid or solid is in a closed container and some molecules evaporate while others return to the liquid or solid state, the pressurethat can be measured within that container relates to the vapor. Vaporpressureis expressed in terms of atmospheres (atm) and may be affected by temperature changes, container size and molecular bond strength. When water transforms into steam and the steam is trapped in a container, thewater vapor pressurewill increase until it reaches a point of equilibrium. At that point, the rate of evaporation is equal to the rate of condensation. In other words, when steam is captured in a closed area, the rise in temperature resulting from an increase in steam leads to condensation inside the container. The water molecules are trapped within the container walls and cannot escape. As a result, the molecules begin to collide and bond and return to a liquid state.As temperature increases, the rate of evaporation also increases. Molecules will continue to evaporate until the point of equilibrium is reached. The point of equilibrium also is known as the saturation vaporpressure, because the vapor is completely saturated. The process of condensation commences once the point of equilibrium has been reached.

American Petroleum Institute(API):

TheAmerican Petroleum Institute(API) is the largest U.Strade association for the oil and natural gas industry. It claims to represent about 400 corporations involved inproduction,refinement,distribution, and many other aspects of thepetroleum industry.API also defines and drafts standards for measurement for manufactured products such as Precision thread gauges Plain plug and ring gauges Thread measuring systems Metrology and industrial supplies Measuring instruments Custom gauges Precision machining and grinding ISO 17025registered calibrationAcid Number:Theacidnumberis a chemical measurement used to represent the acidity of an oil, such as petroleum or cooking oil. It is calculated from the mass of base, measured in milligrams of potassiumhydroxide, needed to neutralize the acids in one gram of the oil.Acidnumber, also calledacidvalue, is often an important guideline in determining the degradation of oil products.The test foracidnumberuses the principles ofacid-base chemistry to determine the acidity of the oil being tested. Acids and bases are opposing substances that can cancel each other out when mixed. When a base, such as the potassium hydroxide, is added to an acidic substance, a neutralization reaction occurs. By measuring how much potassium hydroxide is required to complete the neutralization reaction, it is possible to deduce the amount ofacid in the test sample. Acids and bases are chemical compounds that dissociate in water into their constituent ions atoms with a positive or negative overall charge. Bases give off hydroxide ions, while acids give off hydrogen ions. For example, the base potassium hydroxide, represented by the chemical formula KOH, dissociates in water into positively-charged potassium ions (K+) and negatively charged hydroxide ions (OH-). Hydrochloricacid(HCl), on the other hand, dissociates into positively charged hydrogen ions (H+) and negatively charged chlorine (Cl-) ions.TAN value can be deduced by various methods, including: Potentiometric Titration: The sample is normally dissolved intolueneandpropanolwith a little water and titrated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide (if sample is acidic). A glass electrode and reference electrode is immersed in the sample and connected to a voltmeter/potentiometer. The meter reading (in millivolts) is plotted against the volume of titrant. The end point is taken at the distinct inflection of the resultingtitration curvecorresponding to the basic buffer solution. Color Indicating Titration: An appropriatepHcolor indicator e.g.phenolphthalein, is used. Titrant is added to the sample by means of a burette. The volume of titrant used to cause a permanent color change in the sample is recorded and used to calculate the TAN value. Spectroscopic methods: As with many chemical parameters, spectroscopy can be used to make fast, accurate measurements once calibrated by a reference method. Midand near infrared spectroscopy are most commonly used for this purpose. Spectroscopic methods are valuable as they can also be used to simultaneously measure a number of other parametersand do away with the need forwet chemistry.Octane Number:

Anoctanenumberis anumberwhich reflects a fuel's resistance to knocking. Knocking occurs when fuel combusts prematurely or explodes in an engine, causing a distinctive noise which resembles knocking, rattling, or pinging. Engine knock can cause damage to the engine, and it indicates that the engine is not running as efficiently as it could be. Many engines come with specificoctane ratingrecommendations.Octanenumbers are obtained by testing a fuel in controlled circumstances. Two different types ofoctanenumbercan be obtained: the researchoctanenumber(RON) or motoroctane number(MON). These numbers are obtained by testing fuels in different circumstances, with the MON putting more stress on the engine to see how fuels perform in challenging circumstances. Theoctanenumberratings on a gas pump often reflect an average value.These numbers are calibrated against a scale. Octane numbers can be adjusted by putting additives in the fuel which will adjust the level of knock.It is possible to have anoctanenumberbeyond 100, as iso-octaneis just a point on the scale. High performance fuels often have veryhigh octanenumbers; rocket fuels, for example, have octanenumbers over 100. The higher theoctanenumber, the more pressure the fuel needs to combust.

Specific Gravity:

Specificgravityusually refers to a material's density when compared to the density of water. This number is given as a ratio which means that there are no units when discussing it.By using a knownspecificgravityfor a particular substance, it is possible to determine what sample of the substance is pure or how concentrated it is. In some industries, the density of two substances can be compared with each other instead of with water when determining this measurement.In most cases,specificgravityis given as the ratio of a certain substance's density compared to the density of the same amount of fresh water at 39 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees Celsius). At this temperature, fresh water is at its greatest density, which is 1 gram per milliliter. A substance with aspecificgravitylower than that of water will float on top of water, while an object with a higher one will sink.

Specific gravity meter specific gravity measurement kit

Emulsification: The breakdown of fat globules in the duodenum into tiny droplets, which provides a larger surface area on which the enzyme pancreaticlipasecan act to digest the fats into fatty acids and glycerol. Emulsification is assisted by the action of the bile salts.Some emulsifying waxes are produced from petroleum-based compounds. Many major cosmetics manufacturers utilize this form of emulsifying wax. Petroleum-derived wax is often cheaper and more readily available than its vegetable-sourced counterpart.Vegetable-based emulsifying wax, however, is becoming more and more popular. Soy and carnauba are two types of waxes harvested from plant sources. They offer the same benefits foremulsification, and when used in candles, often burn cleaner and more evenly than petroleum wax. They consist of the natural fats and esters found in plants. It is processed into a flake-like form that is then marketed and sold. These flakes can be easily purchased in bulk to make products at home.

Phenomenon Emulsifier 1 | ENERGY ENGINEERING