ASSESSMENT OF QUALITY OF WATER FROM PRIVATE HAND …

i

ASSESSMENT OF QUALITY OF WATER FROM PRIVATE HAND DUG WELLS

AND BOREHOLES WITHIN THE KWABENYA LOCALITY IN GREATER ACCRA

REGION OF GHANA

THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN

PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL

NUCLEAR AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION DEGREE

BY

EVELYN DUODU

(10362758)

B.Ed (UCC), 2007

JULY, 2014

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh

ii

DECLARATION

This thesis is the result of research work undertaken by Evelyn Duodu in the Department

of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences, University

of Ghana under the supervision of

EVELYN DUODU ……………………… …………………………..

(Student) Date

DR T. T. AKITI ……………………… .…………………………

(Supervisor) Date

DR J. R. FIANKO ………………………. ………………………

(Supervisor) Date


iii

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my dear husband, Rev. Emmanuel Ofosu Sarfo, my lovely son

Ebenezer Ofosu Appiah and my late father Mr. Charles Duodu. You truly inspired me.


iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I am most grateful to the almighty God for his mercies, love and kindness toward me,

without him this work would not have been completed successfully.

I sincerely appreciate the wonderful help of my two most formidable supervisors, Dr T T

Akiti and Dr J R Fianko. I want to thank them for their time, advice, guidance and

tolerance throughout the writing of the thesis.

My profound gratitude also goes to all the staff of National Nuclear and Research

Institute (G.A.E.C), especially Mr. Courage Argbey, Mr. David Saka, Mr Gibrilla Abass,

Mr. Peter Osei, Mr. Godfred Ayanu and Miss Ruby Torto for their immensely

contributions toward the success of this work. I wish to also thank Mr. Mark Aboagye of

Water Research Institute (CSIR-WRI), Accra for his support.

I am highly indebted to my siblings for supporting me financially. Lastly, to my dear

husband, Rev. Emmanuel Ofosu Sarfo for his prayers, encouragement and inspirational

words. It has really helped me. May the almighty God bless you all and meet you at the

point of your needs.


v

TABLE OF CONTENT

DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT................................................................................................................. iv

TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................................... v

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION ............................................................................................................ x

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... xi

CHAPTER ONE .............................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................. 5

1.3 Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 7

1.4 Justification ............................................................................................................................ 7

LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................ 9

2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 9

2.2 Groundwater and hydrologic cycle ........................................................................................ 9

2.3 Groundwater Geochemistry ................................................................................................. 11

2.4 Groundwater Development in Ghana .................................................................................. 12

2.5 The Importance and uses of Groundwater in Ghana ............................................................ 13

2.6 Groundwater Quality in Ghana ............................................................................................ 17

2.7 The Use of Nuclear Technique in Groundwater Studies ..................................................... 22

METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................... 25

3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 25

3.2 The Study Area .................................................................................................................... 25

3.2.1 Location ........................................................................................................................ 25

3.2.2 Climate .......................................................................................................................... 27


vi

3.2.3 Geology ......................................................................................................................... 28

3.5 Sampling .......................................................................................................................... 32

3.6 Field analysis ....................................................................................................................... 33

3.7 Laboratory analysis .............................................................................................................. 34

3.7.1 Physico-chemical analysis ................................................................................................ 34

3.7.2 Analysis of Trace Metals .............................................................................................. 35

3.8 Bacteriological Analysis ...................................................................................................... 36

3.8.2 Analysis of Total Heterotrophic Bacteria using Pour Plate Method ................................. 38

3.9 Analysis of Stable Isotopes .................................................................................................. 38

3.10 Water Quality Index ........................................................................................................... 39

3.11 Quality Control /Quality Assurance ....................................................................................... 42

3.12 Statistical Analysis ............................................................................................................. 42

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................................ 43

4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 43

4.2 Hydrochemistry.................................................................................................................... 43

4.3 Nutrients in Groundwater .................................................................................................... 52

4.4 Hydrochemical Facies of Groundwater ............................................................................... 57

4.5 Bacteriological Indicators for Groundwater samples .......................................................... 58

4.6 Trace Metals ........................................................................................................................ 67

4.7 Isotopic Composition of Groundwater ................................................................................. 70

4.8 Water Quality Index (WQI) ................................................................................................. 73

CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................... 76

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................ 76

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................................... 80


vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Water Quality Parameters, their Standard Values and

the Assigned Weighting Factors……………………………… 40

Table 2: Water Quality Index Scale…………………………………… 43

Table 3: Statistical Summary of Bacteriological Indicator Results

of Hand Dug Wells and Boreholes for the Wet Season………… 59

Table 4: Results of the calculated WQI of the sampling points……………. 71


viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Plot of 2H against

18O showing the Global Meteoric Water Line (GMWL)

and some processes which can modify the isotopic composition of

groundwater……………………………………………………… 26

Figure 2: Map of the Study area…………………………………………….. 26

Figure 3: Geology of the study area…………………………………………. 29

Figure 4: Map showing the sampling locations of the study area…………… 31

Figure 5: pH of groundwater samples from the study area................................ 44

Figure 6: Map showing conductivity in the groundwater samples of the study area 47

Figure 7: Levels of SO42-

and Cl- in groundwater samples…………………. 49

Figure 8: Map showing chloride concentration in groundwater samples of the

study area…………………………………………………………… 51

Figure 9: Nitrate (mg/L) values in hand dug wells and stream for the wet

and dry seasons……………………………………………………… 52

Figure 10: Nitrate levels in borehole samples for the wet and dry seasons…… 53

Figure 11: Map showing nitrate concentration in groundwater samples of the

study area………………………………………………………… 54

Figure 12: Map showing sodium concentration in groundwater samples of

the study area……………………………………………………… 56


ix

Figure 13: Classification of hydrochemical facies using the Piper Plot……………..58

Figure 14: Total coliform values in hand dug wells and a stream for the wet season 60

Figure 15: Total coliform values in boreholes for the wet season………………… ..61

Figure 16: THB (/1ml) values in hand dug wells and stream for the wet season…….62

Figure 17: THB (/1ml) values in boreholes for the wet season…………………… …61

Figure 18: Map showing total coliform in groundwater samples of the study area… 65

Figure 19: Levels of iron in hand dug wells and a stream for the wet and the dry

seasons……………………………………………………………… 67

Figure 20: Levels of iron in boreholes for the wet and the dry seasons…………… 68

Figure 21: Relationship between hydrogen-2 and oxygen-18 isotopes for

Hand dug wells and boreholes in the study area during the wet season. 71

Figure 22: A Plot showing the relationship between Conductivity and δ18O for

groundwater samples and surface water……………………… 72


x

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

APHA - American Public Health Association

CSIR - Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

DA - District Assembly

EDTA - Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid

EPA - Environmental Protection Agency

GIS - Geographical Information System

GSA - Ghana Standard Authority

GMA - Ghana Meteorological Agency

GWCL - Ghana Water Company Limited

MDGs - Millennium Development Goals

TDS - Total Dissolved Solids

U.S.A - United States of America

UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme

UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

WHO - World Health Organisation

WRC - Water Resources Commission

WRI - Water Research Institute

KVIP - Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit

KHD - Kwabenya Hand Dug Well

KBH - Kwabenya Borehole


xi

ABSTRACT

Groundwater resource development in Ghana contributes substantially to the socio-

economic development of Ghana. Utilization of water for domestic, irrigation and

industrial purposes for about 80% of the rural – urban population in the Kwabenya

Community within the Ga East Municipality are primarily dependent on existing

groundwater resources. However, groundwater potential is under serious threat and run a

high risk of pollution by agrochemicals, municipal, industrial, and domestic wastes due to

population explosion. The indiscriminate sitting of boreholes and hand dug wells in the

Kwabenya community without proper planning have raised concerns about potentially

adverse effects on human health and the environment.

In this study, the quality of water from private hand dug wells and boreholes within

Kwabenya community in Greater Accra region of Ghana were assessed. The

physicochemical, bacteriological and nutrient levels, as well as, the seasonal trends in the

groundwater were also evaluated. The study also assessed the origin and mixing pattern

of the groundwater in the Kwabenya locality using stable isotopes and determines the

water quality index of groundwater within the community.

The results of the study revealed that water from boreholes and hand dug wells sampled

were slightly acidic to basic with few localized areas showing strong acidic groundwater.

Majority of the groundwater samples analyzed (85 %) were found to be fresh since their

total dissolved solids (TDS) did not exceed 1000 mgL-1

(WHO, 2011). The total

dissolved solids (TDS) of the hand dug wells varied from 256 mg/L to 761 mg/L while

that of the borehole varied from 120.50 mg/L to 1003 mg/L.


xii

Relatively low concentrations of inorganic constituents were found in water from hand

dug wells and boreholes from the study area. Generally, the major anions (chloride [Cl-],

nitrate [NO3-], and sulphate [SO4

2-]) in the groundwater samples were low. The low

values suggested minimal anthropogenic influence because of the minimal industrial

activity in the Ga East District. The hand dug wells were found to have higher nitrate

content than the boreholes. Hand dug wells and boreholes which were closer to septic

tanks, soakaway and KVIPs measured nitrate concentration above the WHO limit (2011).

The concentration of the major cations were in the order of Na+>Ca

2+>K

+>Mg

2+. The

hydrochemical facies identified Na-Cl as the main water type within the locality.

Hand dug wells and boreholes which were less or about 10 m away from septic tanks,

soakaway and KVIPs were found to be highly contaminated with total coliform, faecal

coliform, E. coli and total heterotrophic bacterial.

Stable isotope composition of δ18

O and δ2H of hand dug wells and boreholes showed that

recharge is by direct precipitation of -3.5 δ 18

O ‰ VSMOW rainfall infiltration and plot

of conductivity versus δ18

O confirm complete dissolution as precipitation dissolves

materials of the aquifer.

The results of the computed water quality index (WQI) indicated that most of the

groundwater in the study area (63.64% hand dug wells and 68.42% boreholes) showed

‘excellent water’ quality and 32.25% were found to be of poor quality and unsuitable for

drinking without treatment.


1

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Introduction

The exploitation of groundwater for water supply needs of many urban and rural

communities in Africa has been on the increase in the last decade. In Ghana, groundwater

continues to play an important role in the socio-economic development of the country. In

many rural and urban communities such as the Kwabenya locality in the Ga East District,

utilization of water for domestic, irrigation and industrial uses are primarily dependant on

existing groundwater resources. However, groundwater resources potential is under

serious threat due to increasing population density, growing interest in mechanized

agricultural practices and rapid urbanization, as well as, domestic and industrial usage.

In Ghana, most of the drinking water in the urban areas is through the collection,

treatment, and purification of surface water from rivers such as Densu, Pra, Birim,

Ayensu, and Volta. Most rural settlements traditionally rely on raw surface water from

sources such as streams, lakes, rivers, ponds, and unpondered reservoirs. The quality of

which is in doubt hence the manifestation of waterborne-related diseases such as

diarrhea, guinea worm, river blindness, dysentery, etc. The idea of providing groundwater

as a replacement for seemingly pathogen infested surface water resources was mooted

from the fact that groundwater being scheduled from the atmosphere would be less

vulnerable to pollution. Nevertheless, Ghana water management study in 1997 revealed

that groundwater is also vulnerable to pollution due to anthropogenic and natural

processes (Nii Consult, 1998). Additional groundwater from hard rock areas is known to


2

be vulnerable to low quality problems that may have serious impacts on human health

(Smedley et al, 1995).

Urban population growth in Ghana has been an interruption and accelerating phenomena

throughout this century. The rapid urbanization growth of the Kwabenya Community in

the GA East District of the Greater Accra Region has put a lot of pressure on the limited

resources available in the district, notable among them being water. The increase demand

in housing has resulted in mushrooming of unplanned settlements and slums with

inadequate or lack of potable water supply and sanitation services. The Kwabenya

community in the Ga East District of the Greater Accra region is a rapidly developing

community with increasing population growth but lacks potable water supply. Access to

safe drinking water which is a pre-requisite to good health is lacking in the community.

The only stream, known as Onyasia (tributary of Odaw River) in the locality that serves

as the source of drinking water to the community is vulnerable to pollution from

anthropogenic activities in its catchment. Many of the inhabitants have therefore resorted

to the use of groundwater for their domestic water needs. The water for household and

domestic activities are extracted from hand dug wells and boreholes. Others draw water

from newly constructed septic tanks which have water intruded into them and any other

source of water in the community whose quality cannot be guaranteed.

The emphasis or reliance on groundwater supplies in the Kwabenya locality stems from

the fact that groundwater sourcing is not only feasible but also the most economic source

of potable water. It is perceived to be a safer source of drinking water with adequate

protection and excellent microbial and chemical quality that requires minimum treatment.


3

Groundwater development in the Kwabenya locality have often been hampered among

other things by the improper waste disposal, leakage of underground storage tanks, and

seepage of agrochemicals from vegetable farms. Chemical and microbiological activities

are the major threats to the effect of total reliance on groundwater as source of drinking

water.

In developing countries, thousands of children under five years die daily due to drinking

contaminated water (WHO, 2004). Thus, lack of safe drinking water supply, basic

sanitation and hygienic practices is associated with high morbidity and mortality from

excreta related diseases such as cholera, diarrhea, burulli ulcer, river blindness, dysentery,

and typhoid. Even though, Ghana is greatly endowed with numerous water resources, the

quantity of available potable water changes markedly from season to season as well as

from year to year. The availability of water is also decreasing mainly due to rainfall

variability (climate change), rapid population growth, increased environmental

degradation, pollution of rivers from galamsey activities in Ghana and draining of

wetlands (WRC, 2008; Ackah et al., 2011).

The primary goal of water quality management from health perspective is to ensure that

consumers are not exposed to pathogens that are likely to cause diseases. Protection of water

sources and treatment of water supplies have greatly reduced the incidence of these diseases

in developed countries (Craun, 1986; Grabow, 2000). One of the goals of the United

Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDG’s) is to reduce persistent poverty and

promote sustainable development worldwide especially in developing countries through

the improvement of drinking water supply and sanitation. The MDG target for water is to


4

half by 2015 the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water

and basic sanitation. The WHO (2004) estimates that if these improvements were to be

made in sub-Saharan Africa alone, 434,000 child deaths due to diarrhoea would be

averted annually.

Ghana’s, groundwater resources are under increasing pressure in response to threats of

rapid population growth, coupled with the establishment of human settlements lacking

proper water supply and sanitation services (Anim et al., 2011). Pollution of groundwater

has become alarming in response to increasing knowledge on their effect to human health

(Anazawa et al, 2004). Research has found chlorides, nitrogen compounds, heavy metals,

organic carbon, hydrocarbons, chlorinated-aromatic-halogenated hydrocarbons, fecal

coliform and fecal streptococci, pesticides, ethylene glycol and many other contaminants

items as constituents of runoff from urban impervious surfaces. Surface water or runoff

water can carry numerous contaminants from legal and illegal sources; dumping, leaky

tanks and infiltration of human wastes, both fecal and household, from septic tanks or

direct waste dumping into aquifer (Foster, 1990).

Disposal of liquid effluent, sludge and landfills have been identified as one of the major

threats to groundwater resources (US EPA, 1984). Waste from urban, municipal and

domestic communities placed in landfills or open dumps are subjected to either ground

water underflow or infiltration from precipitation. The dumped wastes gradually release

its initial interstitial water and some of it’s decomposed by- products get into water.

Areas near effluent and refuse disposal sites have a greater possibility of groundwater


5

contamination because of the potential pollution source of leachate originating from the

nearby site. The leachate which contains innumerable organic and inorganic compounds

accumulates at the bottom of landfill and percolates through the soil in the groundwater

system. Such contamination of groundwater resources poses substantial risks to local

resource and user and natural environment. Water has been identified as the major means

of the spread of infectious diseases such as typhoid, dysentery and cholera and therefore,

needs to be constantly monitored, (USEPA, 2005). Rapid urbanization in Ga East District

with indiscriminate use of the ground for liquid effluent and solid waste disposal present

a complex array of potential nonpoint pollution source to groundwater in the district.

1.2 Problem Statement

In many rural – urban communities in the Ga East Municipality, utilization of water for

domestic, irrigation and industrial are primarily dependant on groundwater resources.

However, groundwater resources are under a serious threat due to high population growth

density, high interest in mechanized agricultural practices and rapid urbanization, as well

as, domestic and industrial usage. Due to rapid population growth and lack of proper

water supply and sanitation services in the Kwabenya locality, groundwater resources are

under increasing pressure. There has been an increase in indiscriminate drilling of hand

dug wells and boreholes by individuals without proper regulations. Some hand dug wells

and boreholes are sited near septic tanks. Septic systems that are improperly sited,

designed, constructed, or maintained can contaminate groundwater with bacteria, viruses,

nitrates, detergents, oils, and other chemical substances.


6

The idea of providing groundwater as an alternative for seemingly polluted (pathogen

infested) surface water resource was mooted from the fact that groundwater being

secluded from the atmosphere would be less vulnerable to pollution. Nevertheless, Ghana

water management study in 2007 revealed that groundwater is also vulnerable to

pollution due to anthropogenic and natural processes. Contaminated groundwater

resources have important implications on health and the environment. Groundwater

quality can be affected by varied pollution sources.

A connection between agricultural and groundwater pollution is well established.

According to Fianko (2010), applications of nitrogen-phosphorous-potassium (NPK)

fertilizers have been increasing in the Ga East Municipality over the last few decades; as

a result, high concentration of NO3-N has been reported to be common in groundwater

sources in Kwabenya and its environs.

The demand for adequate water to satisfy the ever-increasing needs for domestic,

industrial and agricultural uses in Kwabenya and its environs is high. It is, therefore,

imperative for the existing water bodies to be protected from contamination. The siting of

refuse damp and other human activities have been observed as having effect on the

quality of groundwater. Despite the popularity of groundwater in the Kwabenya

Community and its environs in the Ga East District, only little knowledge is available on

the geochemical and biogeochemical processes that directly or indirectly affect its

quality. It is envisage that the study will produce credible data to assist in the proper

management of the groundwater resources in the Ga East District of the Greater Accra

Region of Ghana.


7

1.3 Objectives

This study seeks to assess the quality of water from private hand dug wells and boreholes

within the Kwabenya Locality in Greater Accra region.

The Specific Objectives are to;

• Determine the levels of physicochemical parameters and heavy metals in ground water.

• Determine the effects of seasonal variation on the parameters.

• Determine the levels of bacteriological contaminants of the hand dug wells and

boreholes, as well as, other water sources from the locality.

• Investigate the origin and the mixing pattern of the groundwater in the Kwabenya

locality using stable isotopes.

•Determine the overall quality of the groundwater samples in the locality using water

quality index.

1.4 Justification

Water is life, and clean water is a necessity for the survival of every living organism. This

is because many water borne diseases such as diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, and typhoid

occurred as a result of using contaminated water. The importance of groundwater quality

in human health has recently attracted a great deal of interest (Vasanthavisar, et, al,

2010). About 80% of all illness in developing countries is related to water and sanitation

and 15% of all child mortality below the age of five years in developing countries is

attributed to diarrhoeal diseases (WHO, 2004; Thompson and Khan, 2003).


8

Groundwater is the most important source of domestic, industrial and agricultural water

supply in the world. Many communities in Africa depend greatly on groundwater. Due to

increase in surface water pollution and expensive nature of treatment, its exploitation has

reduced, resulting in an increase dependent on groundwater abstraction (Kortatsi, 2007).

Septic systems that are not properly sited, designed, constructed, or maintained can

contaminate ground water with bacteria, viruses, nitrates, detergents, oils, and other

chemical substances that may have adverse effects on human life, more especially

pregnant women, nursing mothers and children which can result in methemoglobinaemia

“blue babies syndrome’’.

The results obtained from this investigation would be used to assess groundwater quality

in Kwabenya community in Greater Accra region of Ghana. It will also provide the

baseline data for future investigation which will aid in assessing the potential risk to

human and the environment.


9

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

People living in both rural and urban communities across the globe are resorting to the

use of groundwater as the source of potable water supply due to the intermittent surface

water shortage and pollution as well as reduction in rains and climate change. It has been

estimated that lack of clean drinking water and sanitation services leads to water-related

diseases globally and between five to ten million deaths occur annually (Snyder and

Merson, 1982). Drinking water supply in urban areas is through the collection, treatment,

and purification of surface water from rivers, streams and dams while most rural

settlements traditionally rely on raw and untreated surface waters whose quality is always

in doubt hence the manifestation of numerous water-related diseases in most rural

communities around the globe. Notwithstanding, the anticipated cost of treating polluted

surface water, many countries have shifted attention to groundwater resource

development to meet the ever increasing rural and urban population water requirements,

thus making groundwater the principal source of potable water supply in many countries.

2.2 Groundwater and hydrologic cycle

Groundwater is the water that occurs naturally beneath the Earth’s surface and constitutes

about two thirds of the freshwater resources of the world (Smith, 2005). Groundwater

occurs in many different geological formations. The interaction between groundwater and

surface water system is a key component of the hydrological cycle and an understanding

of their connectivity is fundamental for sustainable water resource management. The


10

infiltration of water into the ground is the transition from surface water to ground water

and it depends upon soil or rock permeability as well as other factors. Infiltrated water

may reach the aquifer which stores and transmit significant quantities of water (Gunn,

2004).

Groundwater recharge is an essential part of the hydrologic cycle, in which water from

the surface works its way into the subsurface, replenishing groundwater supplies (De

Vries and Simmers, 2002). The most important factor in groundwater recharge is the time

delay between the time when the meteoric water enters the soil profile, and the time it is

manifested as an effectively exploitable groundwater source. The actual recharge rate is

controlled by several factors, such as the amount and rate of rainfall that infiltrate into the

soil without being lost to surface runoff or evapotranspiration, the initial amount of water

in the soil, the elevation of the recharge surface relative to the discharge area, the

horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer being recharged and its hydraulic

gradient, the vertical hydraulic conductivity of the soil being recharged, and the presence

of man – made alterations to the subsurface, such as drainage tiles that carry water away

as runoff into rivers and streams (Leap, 1999).

Groundwater discharge may occur in low land areas in the form of seepage and potential

spring discharge. Naturally, groundwater discharge systems are not only the flow of

spring’s water into streams or wetlands but also evaporations from upper parts of

capillary fringe where groundwater is very close to the surface (Jenkins et al., 1994).

When groundwater discharge exceeds recharge of the system, declining of the water


11

table can occur, resulting in springs drying up and wells having to be dug to deeper levels

(Balek, 1989). If water is over abstracted out of a confined aquifer, pore pressure reduces

in the aquifer and that could result in compaction of the now dry aquifer resulting in land

subsidence.

2.3 Groundwater Geochemistry

The assessment of groundwater resources involves a greater understanding of various

parameters related to groundwater formation, movement and distribution in the prevailing

hydrogeologic environment. It involves identification and characterization of

hydrogeologic units, type of aquifer, groundwater flow system as well as the interaction

of surface and groundwater. Groundwater geochemistry is governed by reactions between

water and the minerals present in the rock. These minerals include silicon, aluminium,

and oxygen, with varying amount of alkalis and alkaline earth elements (McSween,

2003). The other minerals commonly found in groundwater reservoirs are carbonates

such as calcite and dolomite. Once rainwater percolates into the earth’s crust, it reacts

with the minerals in the groundwater reservoirs. The composition of the water thus

reflects the composition of the rocks (Ragnarsdottir, 2010).

The concentrations of inorganic constituents in groundwater are controlled by chemical

equilibria which can be described in terms of the solubility of a given mineral (Elango,

2010). The ionic composition and pH of groundwater are governed by the mineralogy of

the rock in the groundwater reservoir. Waters that are rich in dissolved constituents are


12

often referred to as ‘mineral waters’. When they contain calcium carbonate gas (CO2)

they are described as carbonated (Ragnarsdottir, 2010).

2.4 Groundwater Development in Ghana

Groundwater exploitation has been in existence way back in the ancient times when the

first artesian well was successfully drilled in the 12th

Century (Osiakwan, 2002).

Groundwater development in Ghana can be traced to the 19th

Century when the colonial

government introduced a national hand dug well program under the Rural Water

Division, a wing of the Gold Coast Survey Department where communities solely

depended on hand dug wells for their potable water supply. This was to supply water to

the urban and rural areas where they operate due to the periodic droughts, population

growth and congestion of larger communities.

The first reference to a modern well in Ghana was in 1915 (Gyau-Boakye and Dapaah-

Siakwan, 1999). This well was dug at the Accra Railways Station through clay and shale

to about 22 m depth and gave a yield of 90 l/h of brackish water. It was then drilled to a

depth of 52 m through shale and hard rock. Fresh and potable water was struck in the

interval of 40 to 52 m, with a yield of 450 to 545 l/h. In 1937 a water supply division of

the Geological Survey Department was set up to deal with the magnitude of water supply

problems in northern and southeastern parts of the country.

The main construction of boreholes in Ghana started in the 1940’s through the

interventions of both local and international donors, government, non-governmental

organizations and individuals in order to increase the water supply to rural and urban


13

communities across the country. The Ghana Water Company Limited by the year 2000

had constructed 25,000 boreholes all over the country. Through the help of the German

government, another 3,000 boreholes were drilled in southern Ghana between 1978 and

1983 (Issah, 2000). The World Vision International (WVI) between 1985 to June 2000

drilled 1,523 boreholes throughout the country (WVI, 2000). The governments of Ghana

through the Community Water and Sanitation Agency in collaboration with non-

governmental organizations such as Catholic Relief Agency, World Vision International

and many others drill hundreds of boreholes yearly throughout the country.

2.5 The Importance and uses of Groundwater in Ghana

Groundwater is one of the most important fresh water resources in Ghana. It has a special

economic significance, representing the country’s greatest hydrostructure with

freshwater. In many rural and urban communities water supplies for domestic, irrigation

and industrial uses are primarily dependent on existing groundwater resources. However,

groundwater potential is under serious treat, due to increasing population density,

mechanized agricultural practices, rapid urbanization, as well as domestic and industrial

usage.

Freshwater resources in Ghana are classified into groundwater and surface water. The

surface water resources are further classified into three river basins, which are the Volta

Basin system (Daka, Oti, Black, White and Lower Volta Rivers), the Southwestern Basin

System (Bia, Tano, Ankobra and Pra rivers) and the coastal basin system (Tordzie,

Densu, Ayensu, Ochi-Nakwa and Ochi-Amissah rivers). However, these surface water


14

resources are unable to satisfy the ever increasing water demand for socio-economic

development of the country.

The river basin system is one of the largest contributors to replenishment of groundwater

reserves in Ghana but this river systems are known to be polluted (WRC, 2003). The

basins are primarily agriculture although the growth of relatively large cities and

urbanization of rural lands throughout have led to the development of expanding urban

watershed. Rural and urban regions are frequently in close proximity to each other

leading to the potential for nutrient and other contaminant loading from surface runoff.

Pressure exerted on the water resources in the basins as a result of population increase in

addition to poor agricultural practices has raised the question of sustainability and quality

of water from the basins. Besides direct pollution of the surface water, agriculture has

placed an extremely heavy burden on the world’s water resources (State of the World,

2002).

The exploitation of groundwater for most water supply needs of many rural and urban

communities in Ghana has been on the increase in the last decade. The reliance on

groundwater supplies for rural and urban communities stern from the fact that

groundwater resourcing is not only feasible but also the most economic source of potable

water. The major consumptive water sectors of the country are Agriculture, domestic

water supply and industry. Agriculture and Industry are the largest and least users of

water, respectively.


15

It is estimated that over 95% of groundwater use in the country is for domestic purposes

(Gyau-Boakye et al., 2008). Data from the population census in the year 2000 reveal that

groundwater sources (mainly boreholes and hand-dug wells) constitute 33% of the main

sources of drinking water supply in Ghana. As at 1994, there were over 55,500

abstracting systems in the country. This was made up of about 10,500 boreholes, 45,000

hand-dug wells and some dugouts (Kortatsi, 1994). The number of abstraction systems

increased to 71,500 in the year 2000 and consist of 11,500 boreholes and 60,000 hand-

dug wells (Dapaah-Siakwan and Gyau-Boakye, 2000). About 50% of the total number of

borehole and hand dug wells in the country is used solely for drinking and domestic

water supply (Kortatsi, 1994). The rest are used for irrigation and watering of livestock.

Groundwater irrigators are mostly small-scale farmers who produce vegetables like

cabbage, spring onions, carrots, tomatoes, green pepper, okra and shallots to feed the

local markets.

In the southeastern part of the Volta Region, more than 60% of the shallow hand-dug

wells drilled in the recent times are used solely for irrigation. Laube et al, (2008)

estimated that about 100-200 ha of land are cultivated in the dry season with groundwater

by small-scale farmers in the Atankwidi-Anayare catchment area in the Upper East

Region. Farmers using buckets for irrigation cultivate average farm size of 600 m² (0.06

ha), while those using pumps cultivate an average farm size of 2000 m² (0.2 ha). In the

Accra plains, about 70% of the boreholes were drilled for agricultural purposes and 33%

are used for irrigation (Kankam-Yeboah, 1987). Groundwater is used for growing leafy


16

vegetables in urban and peri-urban areas of Accra, Kumasi, Tamale and Takoradi

(Cornish and Aidoo, 2000).

The watering of livestock with groundwater is mostly done in the Upper East, Upper

West, Northern and the Greater Accra regions of Ghana. In the Northern, Upper East and

Upper West regions, animals are not restricted but are allowed to move in search of food

and water. Watering troughs are constructed between 5 and 10 m from boreholes.

Spillways are constructed from the drainage aprons of the borehole to the watering

troughs. Spilled water from the boreholes collect in these troughs are used by livestock

mainly goat, sheep, cattle and pigs. About 70% of Ghana’s 1.34 million head of cattle

and 40% of other livestock and poultry (sheep-3.02 MH; goats-3.56 MH; pigs-3.03 MH;

and poultry-2.64 MH) are produced in these three regions and are watered exclusively

using groundwater (MOFA, 2004; Kortatsi, 1994).

Industrial use of groundwater in Ghana is very recent but the interest to do so is steadily

rising. A number of boreholes have been drilled purposely for the large scale commercial

bottled water industries in the south of the country (Gyau-Boakye et al., 2008). Previous

investigation on groundwater uses in the Densu Basin in the south of the country revealed

that all the major commercial bottled water industries in Ghana got their water supplies

from groundwater sources in the Densu basin and that industrial uses of groundwater

constituted about 85% of all groundwater uses in the basin (Darko et al., 2003).


17

2.6 Groundwater Quality in Ghana

Groundwater quality has special economic significance in Ghana. Groundwater in the

Greater Accra region of Ghana especially Kwabenya Community in the Ga East District

runs a high risk of pollution with agrochemicals, municipal and domestic waste because

of the high density of urbanization and intense urban agricultural activities.

Anthropogenic loading of nitrogen and phosphorous from industrial, municipal and

agricultural sources has increased nutrient load in the aquifers.

The development of industrial and agricultural activities as well as general social welfare

has led to an increase in the demand for potable water in Ghana. The government of

Ghana has been providing groundwater by means of boreholes and hand-dug wells to

communities in order to curb the ever increasing incidence of water-borne diseases in the

country (WRI, 2005). The idea of providing groundwater as a replacement for seemingly

pathogen-infested surface water sources was mooted from the fact that groundwater

being secluded from the atmosphere would be less vulnerable to pollution (WHO, 1993).

Nonetheless, Ghana water management study in 1997 revealed that groundwater is also

vulnerable to pollution due to anthropogenic and natural processes (Nii Consult, 1998).

The chemical quality of groundwater depends on the characteristics of the soil and rock

media through which it passes en route to the groundwater zone of saturation (Foster et

al. 2000). It is also dependent on the length of time the water is stored in the ground

(residence time) (MacDonald et al., 2002). As water infiltrates through the soil layer and

comes into contact with the soil air, considerable changes occur. The chemistry of the

water at the infiltration zone is modified as it flows through the aquifers. Hence,


18

evaluation of groundwater resources for development requires an understanding of the

hydrogeologic and hydrochemical properties of the aquifers (Acheampong and Hess

1998). Groundwater from hard rock areas is known to be vulnerable to quality problems

that may have serious health effect on human due to the carbonate-deficient leading to

poorly buffered groundwater (Smedley et al., 1995). Furthermore, some hard rocks are

known to contain sulphide minerals such as pyrite and arsenopyrite.

Suitability of water for various uses depends on type and concentration of dissolved

minerals (Mirribasi et al., 2008). Apart from natural factors influencing water quality,

human activities such as domestic, industrial and agricultural practices impact negatively

on groundwater resources. The type and extent of chemical contamination of the

groundwater is largely dependent on the geochemistry of the soil through which the water

flows prior to reaching the Aquifers (Zhang et al., 2011).

Chemical and microbiological activities are the major threats to the effect of total

reliance on groundwater as a source of drinking water. As groundwater comes into

contact with ore-bearing rocks, dissolution of elements into the water course occurs.

Groundwater development in Ghana is further hampered by improper disposal of

hazardous and solid wastes, leakage of underground storage tanks, and seepage of

agrochemicals from agricultural farms. Available data from previous studies (e.g.,

Amuzu, 1975; Andah, 1993; Kortatsi, 1994; WARM, 1998; Darko et al, 2003;

Amankona, 2010) indicate that the quality of groundwater abstracted from boreholes in


19

some parts of Ghana is generally of good chemical and microbiological quality.

However, groundwater quality problems in certain localities exit. The problems include

low pH (3.5-6.0) waters found mostly in the forest zones of southern Ghana, high

concentration of iron in many places throughout the country, high concentration of

manganese and fluoride mostly in the Northern part of Ghana as well as high

mineralization with TDS in the range 2000-14,584 mg/l in some coastal aquifers

(Kortatsi, 1994).

Research conducted on groundwater by Amfo-Outo et al, (2012), Ackah et al. (2011),

Saka (2013) and Nyarko (2008) in the Togo formation, of Greater Accra region revealed

water with pH values mostly less than 7.0 which is acidic in nature. In the Densu basin

pH values obtained for groundwater ranged from 6.40 to 6.70 (Tay and Kortatsi, 2008). A

major groundwater quality problem identified in Ghana is the presence of high

concentration of iron in nearly all geological formations in the country. High iron

concentrations are normally associated with acidic or anaerobic groundwater. According

to Ayibotele (1985), about 30% of all boreholes in Ghana have iron problem. High iron

concentrations in the range 1 – 64 mg/l have been observed in boreholes in all aquifers in

the country (WARM, 1998). In a study conducted in the Oyibi area of the Greater Accra

Region, Fe concentrations as high as 57 mg/l were found in groundwater in some

boreholes. The high concentrations of Fe in groundwater in Ghana have been partly

attributed to the bedrock of aquifers as they have relatively high iron proportion and

partly to corrosive pump parts as a result of the attack of low pH waters on those parts.


20

High fluoride concentrations in groundwater occur mostly in the Upper Regions of

Northern Ghana where the geology is dominated by granite. High fluoride concentrations

in the range of 1.5-5.0 mg/l have been found in boreholes situated in granitic formations

in the Upper East and West Regions (Pelig-Ba, 1989). In the Bolgatanga and Sekoti areas

of the Upper east Region, Smedley et al., (1995) reported fluoride concentration in excess

of the World Health Organisation guideline value of 1.5 mg/l (WHO, 2004) with up to

3.8 mg/l in some boreholes. High fluoride concentrations are attributed mostly to the

dissolution of mineral fluorite in a type of granite locally known as the Bongo granite

(HAP, 2006). Smedley et al., (1995) observed significant variation in fluoride

concentration with depth in groundwater from the Bongo granite in the Bolgatanga area.

Groundwater from shallow hand-dug wells was noted to have much lower fluoride

concentrations compared to groundwater from deep boreholes due to dilution by recent

recharge. Excess fluoride in drinking water (> 2.0 mg/l) can result in dental fluorosis and

concentrations above 5.0 mg/l can cause skeletal fluorosis.

Studies on groundwater quality in the Eastern Region of Ghana by Fianko et al, (2011)

identified that there are multiple anthropogenic influences on the aquatic ecosystem of

Ghana. It ranges from improper waste disposal to bad agricultural practice in the country.

Majority of the groundwater sampled from the Region were found to be weakly to

moderately mineralize with Na+, HCO3

− and Cl

− being the dominant ions. Hydrochemical

data indicate that intensive use of land for agricultural and industrial activities impact

greatly on the groundwater quality of the region. Elevated level of NO3–N was recorded

in about 50% of the boreholes sampled.


21

Physicochemical data obtained by Saka (2013) on groundwater quality in the Ga West

Municipal Area revealed high levels of TDS, electrical conductivity, salinity, sodium and

chloride ions and this was attributed to dissolution of minerals in the rocks. The problem

of high levels of arsenic (As) in groundwater in Ghana is not widespread but a localized

situation has been found in gold mining areas. Arsenic comes mainly from arsenic-

bearing minerals such as arsenopyrite and pyrite that occur in close association with gold

(Smedley et al., 1995). In a study of As in groundwater samples taken from the gold

mining areas in Obuasi in the Ashanti Region and the Bolgatanga area in the Upper East

Region, Smedley et al, (1995) reported that As concentrations in 78 samples taken from

the Obuasi area ranged from < 0.001 mg/l to 0.064mg/l. whiles those from Bolgatanga

(118 samples) had As concentrations ranging from <0.001 mg/l to 0.141 mg/l.

Nutrient and bacteriological problems in groundwater have mostly been associated with

shallow groundwater which is taped in hand-dug wells or dugout. In many hand-dug

wells throughout the country, the water were identified to be turbid and polluted in terms

of nutrient and coliform bacteria (Kortatsi, 1994). High nitrate concentrations have been

found in shallow groundwater mostly near towns and villages and could have originated

from anthropogenic sources including improper sitting of sanitation facilities and

inadequate protection of well from contamination from surface runoff and animal

droppings.

According to WHO (2006), the main sources of nitrogen in groundwater are nitrate

runoff or seepage from fertilized agricultural lands, municipal and industrial waste water,

refuse dumps, animal feedstuffs, septic tanks, private sewage disposal systems and urban


22

drainage. Research conducted by Nyarko (2008), Tiwari (2011), Ackah et al (2011), Saka

(2013) in Ghana revealed high levels of nitrate in ground water samples taken from hand

dug wells sited closer to septic tanks and pit latrines. Exposure to high levels of nitrates

for a long time could lead to methemoglobinaemia) or “blue-baby syndrome’’ (WHO,

2006).

The highest risk from microbes in groundwater is associated with consumption of

drinking-water that is polluted with human and animal excreta, although other sources

and routes of exposure may also be significant. Groundwater from a shallow origin is

particularly susceptible to contamination from a combination of point and diffuses

sources (Fuest et al, 1998; Nolan and Stoner, 2000). Studies on hand dug wells and

boreholes by Amin et al (2012), Obiri-Danso (2008), Nyarko (2008) and Hamida et al

(2006) revealed high levels of total coliform, faecal coliform and E. coli in the water.

2.7 The Use of Nuclear Technique in Groundwater Studies

In recent time, nuclear techniques have been employed in groundwater resource

management. Stable isotopes have contributed immensely to the investigations of

groundwater origin, recharge mechanism and rock-water interaction (Fontes, 1980). In

hydrological studies, the stable isotopes which are of most interest to hydrogeologists are

those of hydrogen and oxygen. The stable isotopes of 18

O (oxygen-18) and 2H

(deuterium) are used to provide information on hydrological processes, such as the

interaction of surface water with groundwater while 15

N is used to study the origin of


23

pollutants such as nutrients. Nuclear techniques have also been employed in the study of

recharge of groundwater (Adomako, 2010).

The process by which the isotope content of water changes as a result of evaporation,

condensation, freezing, melting, chemical reactions or biological processes is known as

isotope fractionation. Evaporation of water results in isotope fractionation of hydrogen

and oxygen such that 16

O and 1H preferentially enter the vapour phase, while

18O and

2H

are concentrated in the liquid phase (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). The rate of evaporation at

a given temperature is a function of the vapour pressure of H2O, which is a function of

the hydrogen bond strength between water molecules. Since an 18

O-H bond between

molecules is stronger than a 16

O-H bond, the H218

O has a lower vapour pressure than

H216

O. The greater vapour pressure or flux of H216

O leads to an enrichment of 16

O in the

vapour phase. Conversely, heavier H218

O accumulates in the liquid phase. When the

system has reached isotopic equilibrium, the greater vapour pressure of 16

O causes an

overall enrichment in the vapour, and depletion for 18

O (Clark and Fritz, 1997).

Isotopic fractionation of water molecules due to evaporation of seawater and later

precipitation in rainfall was recognized by Craig (1961). He collected about 400 water

samples from rivers, lakes and precipitation, and established a linear relationship between

deuterium and oxygen-18 for average global meteoric waters. This relationship

(δ2H=8δ

18O+10) is known as the Global Meteoric Water Line (GMWL) and provides a

useful relationship against which regional or local waters can be compared and their

isotopic composition interpreted (fig.1). Local Meteoric Water Lines (LMWL) can be


24

established from isotopic analysis of local precipitation events. The LMWL for Southern

Ghana [LMWL, δ2H = 7.86δ

18O + 13.61] was established by Akiti (1980).

Fig. 1 Plot of 2H against

18O showing the Global Meteoric Water Line (GMWL) and

some processes which can modify the isotopic composition of groundwater.


25

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with the description of the research methodology used for the study. It

describes the study area, the population and sample, sampling techniques and sample

preparation. It also looks at the procedures followed in sample analysis, data collection

and analysis.

3.2 The Study Area

3.2.1 Location

The Kwabenya community is located in the Ga East Municipality of Ghana and is

characterized by undulating topography with hills of craggy summits, giving a striking

appearance to the landscape. The study area lies between latitude 5°

30’ N – 6°

20’ N and

longitude 0°

10’ W – 0°

35’ W (Fig. 2). The district has a growth rate of 4.5% and

bordered on the North by the Akwapim South Municipality, on the south by Greater

Accra metropolitan Assembly, and the west by the Ga West District. The Onyasia River,

which is a tributary of the Odaw River passes through Kwabenya and its environs. The

mainstay of the inhabitants of Ga East District is petty trading with isolated agricultural

activities. They are involved in batik, tie and dye making, metal processing, vehicle

maintenance, laundry services and photo processing as well as vegetable farming. Small

scale industries and rapid urbanization is the order of the day. There are stone quarries in

the upper parts of the study area. The major towns include: Abokobi, Dome, Madina,

Taifa, Ashongman, Ayi Mensa, Bansa, Haatso, Kwabenya, Oyarifa and Pantang.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abokobi

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dome,_Ghana

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madina,_Ghana

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taifa,_Accra

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashongman

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayi_Mensa

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bansa

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haatso

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwabenya

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oyarifa

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantang

26

Fig. 2: Map of the Study area


27

3.2.2 Climate

Ghana’s climate is influenced by three air masses, namely; the South-West Monsoon, the

North-East Trade Winds (Tropical Continental Air Mass) and the Equatorial Easterly

Winds. The warm but moist South-West Monsoon originates from the Atlantic Ocean

and the warm, dry and dusty Tropical Continental Air Mass (Harmattan) from the Sahara

Desert approach the tropics from opposite sides of the equator and flow towards each

other into a low pressure belt known as the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The

slow and irregular north-south oscillations of the ITCZ gives rise to the regime of the wet

and dry seasons of the sub-region. The climate ranges from the bimodal rainfall

equatorial type in the south to tropical unimodal monsoon type in the north (Dickson and

Benneh, 1980).

The study area lies between two distinct climatic zones; the dry equatorial climate of the

south east coastal plains, and the wet semi-equatorial climate further north from the coast.

Both climatic zones are characterized by two rainfall seasons with different intensities

(Dickson and Benneh, 1980). The major rainy season extends from April to July and

peaking in June when the maritime instability causes a surge of the moist south-westerly

air stream resulting in the intensification of the monsoon rain. The second rainfall period

is a minor one that occurs between September and November. The study area falls in the

coastal-savannah agro-ecological zone and experiences two wet seasons. The annual

rainfall ranges between 740-890 mm and the mean annual temperature is about 27oC with

an average relative humidity of 77% (DA, 2006).


28

3.2.3 Geology

The study area is underlain predominantly by Precambrian granitoids comprising mostly

Cape Coast granite and granodiorites with associated gneisses (Fig. 3). The Togo

formation in the area is highly folded and jointed and consists of sandstones, quartzite,

quartz, schist, shale, phyllites and some talc mica schist. The Cape Coast granitoids are

well foliated, often magmatic, potash rich granitoids that often come in the form of

muscovite biotite granite and granodiorites (Kesse, 1985). The Ga East District can be

classified as low lying plains. The area is generally undulating and in some areas steep

hills are encountered with altitudes over 350 m above sea level. The plains occur mostly

on top of these high altitudes and are bordered by ridges and escarpments whose

minimum average elevations are 500 m above mean sea level; and in some places the

elevations are higher as 700 m above mean sea level. The rocks themselves are

impervious but contain openings along joint, bedding and cleavage planes. Where these

openings are extensive, good suppliers of groundwater can be developed from boreholes.

Where quartzites are in contact with argillaceous rocks of the valleys, springs can usually

be found such as the springs that do occur in the Akwapim Range (Kesse, 1985).

The depth of boreholes varies from 28.0 m to 41.0 m. Borehole yields in cubic meters per

hour are highly variable and range between 0.6 m3h

-1 and 6.0 m

3h

-1 with a mean value of

2.8 m3h

-1.


29

Fig. 3: Geology of the study area


30

3.3 Sampling site selection

A field survey reconnaissance visits were undertaken to the entire study area to identify

sampling locations. The field survey, spanned over a period of four (4) months, included

visits to various public water abstraction points, the municipal assembly, individual

homes where water is been sold to the public as well as the banks of river Onyasia,

vegetable farms and small scale industries. The choice of sampling sites was due to their

strategic location, the bulk of human activities as well as population densities. Sampling

locations (fig. 4) targeted the major water abstraction points, water vending points, rural

settlements that use water from uncompleted septic tanks and surface water (stream).

Topographic and geological maps, as well as aerial photographs and satellite images of

the project area were acquired and studied. Lineaments were inferred and areas of

intense anthropogenic activity were demarcated sampling.


31

Fig. 4: A Map showing the sampling locations of the study area.


32

3.4 Treatment of sample containers

New high density polyethylene (HDPE) containers (1L) were used to take samples for

physico-chemical analysis while 80 mL polyethylene bottles with tight caps were used

for isotope samples and 500ml sterilized high density polyethylene bottles for

bacteriological samples. The bottles for bacteriological samples were washed thoroughly

with soap and rinsed with hot water to remove traces of any washing compound and

finally rinsed with distilled water. The bottles were then sterilized in the Gallenkamp

autoclave at a temperature of 170oC for three (3) hours. The high density polyethylene

(HDPE) bottles were immersed in a warm liquid soap bath for two days and then rinsed

with de-ionized water, immersed in 10 % HNO3 at room temperature for three days.

Bottles were again rinsed three times with de-ionized water, and then immersed in 50 %

HNO3 bath at 90 ºC for 24 hours. Bottles were further rinsed with de-ionized water and

dried overnight in a clean oven at 60 ºC. The bottles were then removed from the oven

and allowed to cool-down, capped tightly and double bagged in re-sealable new

polyethylene bags and stored.

3.5 Sampling

Sampling was designed to cover the dry and wet periods of 2013 and 2014. The

groundwater samples were collected on monthly intervals. Overall, 11 hand dug wells, 19

boreholes and 1 surface water were sampled. The samples were collected employing the

ultraclean free-metal sampling protocol (APHA, 1998). Groundwater samples were

collected separately from domestic and private water collection points into acid cleaned

1L high density polyethylene (HDPE) bottles. Groundwater samples were collected using

existing infrastructure. Prior to sampling, boreholes were purged by pumping water out


33

for at least 20 minutes. Samples were filtered in the field using Sartorius polycarbonate

filtering apparatus and 0.45µm cellulose acetate filters membrane. At each point, four

samples were collected for cations, anions, bacteriological and isotope analysis. Samples

for trace metal analyses were acidified to pH < 2 after filtration with 2 ml of 10%

analytical-grade HNO3. Groundwater samples for Stable isotopes (oxygen-18 and

deuterium) were collected into 80 mL polyethylene bottles by immersing and tightly

capped in the water to prevent evaporation. Samples for bacteriological analysis were

collected into sterilized 500 ml conditioned bottles, covered with aluminum foil and

indicator tape placed across the foil. Water samples were transported in ice cooler on ice

to the laboratory for analyses.

3.6 Field analysis

Water samples collected were analyzed by both classical and automated instrumental

standard methods for the analysis of water and wastewater (APHA, 1998). Water

temperature, electrical conductivity (Ec), total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity and pH

were measured at each sampling site using portable (field-type) instruments (HACH

conductivity meter and Metrolin model 691-pH meter). Alkalinity was determined in the

field using HACH Digital Multi-sampler titrator Model 1690 and estimated as mgL-1

of

CaCO3.


34

3.7 Laboratory analysis

3.7.1 Physico-chemical analysis

Physico-chemical parameters in groundwater samples were analysed using standard

protocol as stated in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water

(APHA, 1998)

Total hardness of water sample (100 ml) was estimated titrimetrically using 0.01 M

EDTA (Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid) and ammonia buffer and calculated as mgL-1

.

The concentrations of major ions; sulphate (SO42-

), nitrate (NO3

- - N), chloride (Cl

-), and

phosphate (PO43-

-P) were determined using ion chromatographic techniques (Dionex

ICS-90 ion chromatograph) (Welch et al., 1996) and spectrophotometric techniques in the

laboratory. Sodium (Na) and potassium (K) were measured by flame photometer

(Sherwood model 420) where groundwater samples (5ml) were mixed thoroughly with

2ml of Li standard (100mgL-1

). Before the samples were analysed for major ions, the

Dionex ICS-90 was calibrated using a standard anion solution (seven anion standard II).

The samples were filtered with a 0.45 μm size pore filter paper. Samples with

conductivity above 700 μS/cm and salinity above 0.1mgL-1

were diluted. Aliquot of

groundwater samples were interspersed with analytical standards of interest, placed on

auto sampler with standards at the start, between every 15 samples and the last on the ion

chromatograph sample run. The major ion components were identified by comparing

their retention times with those of the standard mixture. Quantification was based on

comparison with calibration curves drawn with the standards.


35

3.7.2 Analysis of Trace Metals

Trace metals were determined using a Varian AA240 Fast Sequential Atomic Absorption

Spectrometer. Samples were acid microwave digested using HCl, HNO3 and H2O2.

The groundwater samples were microwave digested following Milestone Application

protocol. For each groundwater sample, 5 ml was measured into a labeled acid cleaned

polytetrafluoroethylene (PTEF) Teflon vessel (bomb) of ETHOS 900 Labstation

microwave digestor. The volumes of 6 ml of 65% v/v HNO3, 3 ml of HCl and 0.25 ml

H2O2 were added respectively to each vessel containing the samples in a clean fume

chamber. The vessels were swirled gently to mix, loaded vertically onto the microwave

carousel and the vessel capped tightly using an appropriate screw tools. The complete

assembly was fitted into the Milestone ETHOS 900 Microwave Labstation and irradiated

for 21min in a Milestone microwave Lab station (Ethos 900) using the following

operation parameters: 250 W for 5 min, 0 W for 1 min, 250 W for 10 min, 450 W for 5

min, and 5 min allowed for venting. After digestion the Teflon bombs mounted on the

microwave carousel were cooled in a water bath to reduce internal pressure and to allow

volatilized material to re-solubilize. The digestates were analysed for trace metals using

both classical and automated instrumentation method as appropriated in standard methods

(APHA, 1998). The VARIAN AA-240 Fast Sequential Atomic Absorption

Spectrophotometer (AAS) was employed in the trace metal analysis using acetylene gas

as fuel and compressed air as oxidant. Each sample was analysed in triplicate. The

sample concentrations were verified using a series of standards of known concentrations

for each element. All reagents used were of analytical grade and equipment pre-calibrated

appropriately prior to measurement.


36

3.8 Bacteriological Analysis

The membrane filtration technique was employed in the determination of three indicator

bacteria (Total Coliform, Faecal Coliform, and Escherichia Coli (E. Coli) as enshrined in

the standard method of analysis of water and wastewater (APHA, 1998), at the

laboratories of Water Research institute of CSIR, Accra.

In the membrane-filtration (MF) method, a minimum of 10 ml sample (or dilution of the

sample) is introduced aseptically into a sterile or properly disinfected filtration assembly

containing a sterile membrane filter (nominal pore size 0.2 or 0.45 μm). A vacuum is

applied and the sample is drawn through the membrane filter. All indicator organisms are

retained on or within the filter, which is then transferred to a suitable selective culture

medium in a Petri dish. Following a period of resuscitation, during which the bacteria

become acclimatized to the new conditions, the Petri dish is transferred to an incubator at

the appropriate selective temperature where it is incubated for a suitable time to allow the

replication of the indicator organisms. Visually identifiable colonies are formed and

counted, and the results are expressed in numbers of “colony forming units” (CFU) per

100 ml of original sample. This technique is inappropriate for waters with high turbidity

that would cause the filter to become blocked before an adequate volume of water had

passed through. When it is necessary to process low sample volumes (less than 10 ml), an

adequate volume of sterile diluent must be used to disperse the sample before filtration

and ensure that it passes evenly across the entire surface of the membrane filter.


37

3.8.1 Procedure

The porous plate of the membrane filtration unit and the membrane filter forceps were

sterilized by being applied with 98% alcohol which was burnt off in a Bunsen flame. The

sterile forceps were then used to transfer the sterile membrane filter onto the porous plate

of the membrane filtration unit with the grid side up and a sterile meshed funnel placed

over the receptacle and locked in place. Groundwater sample (100 ml) was added to the

membrane filtration unit using the funnel measure. The flame from the Bunsen burner

was kept on throughout the whole analyses and the forceps was flamed intermittently to

keep it sterile. The sample was filtered through the membrane filter under partial pressure

created by a syringe fitted to the filtration unit. The filtrate was discarded and the funnel

unlocked and removed. The sterile forceps were then used to transfer the membrane filter

onto sterile labeled Petri plates of HiCromeTM

Coliform Agar which is a selective

chromogenic medium for the simultaneous detection of total coliform and Escherichia

coli. It contains sodium lauryl sulphate which inhibits gram- positive bacteria and two

substrates; salmon-GAL and X-glucoronide. The salmon-GAL stains coliform colonies

red whereas the X-glucoronide stains E. coli dark blue. The membrane filter was placed

on the medium by rolling action to prevent air bubbles from forming at the membrane-

medium interface. The Petri dishes were incubated upside down at the appropriate

temperatures, (37oC for total coliforms and 44

oC for faecal coliforms) for 24 hours. After

incubation, typical colonies were identified and counted and the results expressed as

colony forming units per 100 ml of sample analysed (c.f.u/100 ml).


38

3.8.2 Analysis of Total Heterotrophic Bacteria using Pour Plate Method

This method was based on the serial dilution of water sample, which were then pipetted

into each sterile Petri-dish. About 20 ml of molten nutrient and MacConkey agar was

cooled to 450C and poured into each Petri-dish containing 1ml of the groundwater

samples. Plates were allowed to cool, after which they were incubated in inverted

position at 370C. After 24 hrs of incubation, the plates were counted by colony counter

and expressed as colony forming units per 1ml of sample analysed (c.f.u/1 ml) to obtain

the total heterotrophic bacteria.

3.9 Analysis of Stable Isotopes

Samples were analysed for oxygen-18 and deuterium in the Isotope Hydrology

Laboratory of the Nuclear Chemistry and Environmental Research Centre, Ghana Atomic

Energy Commission using the IAEA Laser Spectroscopic Analysis of Liquid Water

Samples for Stable Hydrogen and Oxygen Isotopes method (IAEA, 2009). The samples

were analysed using the off-axis integrated cavity output spectroscopy (OA-ICOS) Los

Gatos Research DT-100 Liquid-Water Isotope Analyser (Model 908-008-2000). The

samples were shaken to equilibrate and then pipetted into vials. The tray was placed on

the auto sampler and the run configured on the laser instrument. When the run was

completed the run results were transferred, archived and post processed. All stable

isotope data are reported in the usual δ notation, where δ = (R/RSTD - 1)1000, R

represents either the 18

O/16

O or D/H ratio of the sample, and RSTD is the isotope ratio of

the SMOW, a reference standard.


39

3.10 Water Quality Index

Water Quality Index (WQI) is a very reliable, useful and efficient method for assessing

and communicating the information on the overall quality of water (Asadi et al., 2007;

Pradhan et al., 2001). The determination of WQI helps in deciding the suitability of

groundwater sources for its intended purpose. From the early 1960s, different WQI

methods have been developed (Harkins, 1974; Horton, 1965; etc.).

This work employed the use of WQI proposed by Tiwari and Mishra (1985) in assessing

the suitability of the water in the study area for drinking.

WQI=Antilog [∑W n=1log10qn] (1)

Where;

Wn = Weighting factor, calculated from the following equation:

Wn = K(Si ) -1

(2)

K= the proportionality constant derived from

K = [∑ (Si)-1

]-1

(3)

Si = the standard values of the water quality parameter (WHO, 2004; ICMR, 1975). The

calculated Weighting factors of each parameter are given in Table 1.


40

Table 1: Water quality parameters, their standard values, their ideal values and the

Assigned weighting factor

Parameter

Standard value,

Si Ideal value, Cid 1/Si

Assigned

Weighting

Factor, Wi

pH 8.5 7 0.117647 0.001106

TDS 1000 0 0.001 9.4E-06

Conductivity 1500 0 0.000667 6.27E-06

Alkalinity 200 0 0.005 0.000047

T. hardness 500 0 0.002 1.88E-05

Bicarbonate 380 0 0.002632 2.47E-05

Chloride 250 0 0.004 3.76E-05

Sulphate 500 0 0.002 1.88E-05

Nitrate 50 0 0.02 0.000188

Sodium 200 0 0.005 0.000047

Potassium 30 0 0.033333 0.000313

Calcium 200 0 0.005 0.000047

Magnesium 200 0 0.005 0.000047

Iron 0.3 0 3.333333 0.031333

Copper 2 0 0.5 0.0047

Manganese 0.5 0 2 0.0188

Zinc 3 0 0.333333 0.003133

Lead 0.01 0 100 0.94

106.3699 0.999877

1


41

Quality rating (qn) was calculated using the formula

Qn = x 100

where, qn = Quality rating of ith parameter for a total of n water quality parameters;

Vactual = The value of the water quality parameter obtained from laboratory analysis;

Videal = The value of that water quality parameter which can be obtained from the

standard tables

Videal for pH = 7, and for other parameters it is equivalent to zero;

Vstandard = the standard of the water quality parameter (WHO 2004; ICMR 1975).

The calculated WQI values were then used to rate the groundwater quality as excellent,

good, poor, very poor and unfit for human consumption (Table 2).

Table 2: Water Quality Index Scale

Quality Description

O – 25 Excellent

26 – 50 Good

51 – 75 Poor

76 – 100 Very Poor

>100 Unfit for drinking (UFD)


42

3.11 Quality Control /Quality Assurance

Quality assurance measures applied in the laboratory included rigorous contamination

control procedures (strict washing and cleaning procedures), monitoring of blank levels

3.11 Quality Control /Quality Assurance

Quality assurance measures applied in the laboratory included rigorous contamination

control procedures (strict washing and cleaning procedures), monitoring of blank levels

of solvents, equipment and other materials, analysis of procedural blanks, monitoring of

instrument response, linearity and quality of analysis. During analysis, blanks and

duplicates were included and re-calibration standards ran frequently to check the integrity

of the calibration. Analysis of all blank samples showed no inherent bias in the method of

analysis for analytes of interest. All differences measured in concentrations between

replicate pairs were within the precision of the method for all analytes of interest. The

Standard Mean Ocean Water (SMOW) was used as the external standard for both

deuterium and oxygen. Acceptable values were within 0.01–0.05‰ vs. VSMOW for 18

O

and 0.1–0.5‰ vs. VSMOW for 2H.

3.12 Statistical Analysis

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine the apparent differences in

observed data between the different sampling location in hand dug wells and boreholes.

Significant difference was tested at 95% confidence le


43

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter, the physico-chemical constituents of groundwater samples from the

Kwabenya locality are presented in tables and figures. The results are compared with

World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water (WHO, 2011), and the

international average for fresh water (Stumm et al, 1981), since communities in the

Kwabenya locality use the untreated water for domestic purposes. To this end, the

concentrations that are below and above the guideline values are identified and discussed.

4.2 Hydrochemistry

Groundwater derives its mineral character essentially from reactions between rainwater

and the host rock over a time scale of days, months, or years during percolation. The

extent of this water – rock interaction is controlled by the residence times of the water

and the mineralogy of the aquifer matrix. Modification of water chemistry in

groundwater can occur through physical, chemical, and biological processes.

Anthropogenic activities through excessive application of agrochemicals, release of

septic tank effluent, industrial and domestic waste also have considerable effect on

groundwater quality (Celle-Jeanton et al., 2007).

pH of groundwater sampled fluctuated between 5.00 – 8.10 for hand dug wells and 3.10

– 10.50 for the boreholes. Water samples were slightly acidic to basic with few localized


44

areas showing strong acidic groundwater. About 29% of groundwater samples were

slightly acidic. The lowest pH value (3.1) was recorded in water samples from BH 10

(Figure 5). The observed variation in pH of groundwater samples may be attributed to the

differences in the geological materials and chemistry of the groundwater. Similar results

were obtained by Amfo-Outo et al, (2012), Ackah et al. (2011), Saka (2010) and Nyarko

(2008) in the Togo formation, which is acidic in nature.

pH generally plays an important role in metal bioavailability, toxicity and leaching

capability. Therefore, such pH values in the groundwater could leach metal ions such as

iron, manganese, copper, lead, and zinc from the aquifer into the water (Stumm and

Morgan, 1981).


45

Hand Dug Wells

Boreholes

Fig. 5: pH of groundwater samples from the study area


46

The electrical conductivity (Ec) of the sampled groundwater ranged between 274 μS cm−1

and 2010 μS cm−1

. Water from borehole had conductivity ranging between 239.5 μS cm−1

and 1777 μS cm−1

in the wet season while in the dry season the electrical conductivity

was 274 – 2010 μS cm−1

. The conductivity of the hand dug wells were higher than the

boreholes especially in the wet season (Figure 6). The hand dug wells had values from

517.1 – 1841 μS cm−1

and 325 - 1522 μS cm−1

in the wet and dry seasons respectively.

The EC values for all the sampling points were within the WHO (2011) permissible limit

of 1500 μS cm−1

except KHD4, KHD9 and KBH10. The large values at KHD4 and

KHD9 could be the result of the open nature of the well allowing increased atmospheric

particulate matter deposition unlike the rest of the sites where boreholes were enclosed.

The conductivity range indicated large variability in salinity of the groundwater. A

sizable proportion of boreholes were low in salinity. Research work conducted by Ackah,

(2011) showed low conductivity values with the exception of one of the boreholes which

recorded a higher value of 2830 μS cm−1

.


47

Fig. 6: Map showing conductivity in the groundwater samples of the study area


48

Majority of the samples (85 %) were fresh water since their total dissolved solids (TDS)

did not exceed 1000 mgL-1

recommended for domestic water (Kattan, 1995). The total

dissolved solids (TDS) concentrations of the HD varied from 256mg/L to 627mg/L and

112mg/L to 761mg/L for the wet and dry seasons, respectively, while that of the borehole

BH varied from 120.50 mg/L to 888.80 mg/L and 137.60 mg/L to 1003 mg/L for the wet

and dry seasons respectively. All the samples recorded values within the recommended

guideline value of 1000 mg/L (WHO, 2011) except water samples from borehole BH10

(1003 mg/L). This could be resulting from urbanization. Effluents from domestic,

agricultural and small-scale industries might have contributed to the elevated TDS. The

low overall TDS concentrations suggested that the waters had short contact times with

host rock materials, rock dissolution had been relatively small, and the borehole waters

have undergone the greatest amounts of reaction.

Relatively low concentrations of inorganic constituents were found in wells and in the

borehole water. Generally, the major anions (chloride [Cl-], nitrate [NO3

-], and sulphate

[SO42-

]) in the groundwater samples were low. The low values suggested minimal

anthropogenic influence because of the minimal industrial activity in the Ga East District.

The highest mean level of SO42

(87 mg/L) was recorded at sample point KBH 11 while

the highest mean chloride level (161.95 mg/L) was registered in KHD 8 (Figure 7). Both

Cl- and SO4

2- showed strong positive correlation with TDS which indicated that these

conservative constituents of groundwater were steadily enriched up to high overall

mineralization. These facts once again revealed that very little solute was lost through

drainage and that lateral movement of groundwater was minimal (Verhagen et al., 1995).


49

Research works conducted by Amfo-Outo et al, (2012), Ackah et al. ,(2011), Saka (2010)

and Nyarko (2008) on groundwater recorded low inorganic ions values, except few

groundwater samples in which high chloride values were recorded.

Fig. 7: Levels of SO42-

and Cl- in groundwater samples

SO42-

and HCO3- were more enriched in the hand dug wells than the boreholes and this

occurs at locations where agricultural activities especially vegetable farming was

intensive with the use of more agrochemicals (KHD4 and KBH10). Bicarbonate and

sulphate concentrations were evenly distributed over the entire study area. The highest

level of bicarbonate (170.69 mgL-1

) was recorded at site KDH 5 while appreciable levels

were registered at sites KHD 4, KBH 9 and KBH 12. Bicarbonates levels measured could

be the result of granite formations and agriculture activities. The SO42-

in the water

samples might not be due to dissolution of evaporites since none of the levels registered


50

in the samples was near the high concentration of 275 mgL-1

(Verhagen et al, 1995).

Thus, the influence of agricultural and other anthropogenic activities could be the

probable source of SO42-

in the groundwater. The highest mean concentrations of Cl-

(347.89 mg/L was found at site KBH 10 with significant levels recorded at sites KHD 4,

KHD 5, KHD 2, KHD 3, KHD 8 and KHD 9 (Figure 8). These wells were found in

agricultural and high density residential areas.


51

Fig. 8: Map showing chloride concentration in groundwater samples of the study area.


52

4.3 Nutrients in Groundwater

In this area of high population density and vegetable cultivation, relatively high

concentrations of nutrients were expected. Nitrate concentrations of the hand dug wells

varied from 0.56 to 90.55 mg/L for the wet season and 0.37 to 88.23 mg/L (Figure 9) for

the dry seasons. Three out of the twelve hand dug wells sampled (KHD2:89.97 mg/L,

KHD3:81.79 mg/L, KHD7:90.55 mg/L,) and the stream registered nitrate concentrations

above the recommended limit of 50mg/L (WHO, 2011).

Fig. 9: Nitrate (mg/L) values in hand dug wells and stream for the wet and dry seasons

The levels registered in the borehole samples varied from 0.15 to 68.02 mg/L and 0.19 to

62.07 mg/L for the wet and the dry seasons respectively. Two out of the nineteen

borehole samples KBH4 (51.79 mg/L), KBH6 (68.02 mg/L) registered nitrate


53

concentrations above the WHO acceptable limit of 50 mg/L during both seasons (Figure

10).

Fig. 10: Nitrate levels in borehole samples for the wet and dry seasons.

Hand dug well samples analysed had higher nitrate levels than boreholes samples. This is

because the hand dug wells are more exposed to the atmosphere than borehole (Figure

11). The results of the analysis indicated that nitrogen from agricultural and septic

systems could cause nitrate concentration to increase in the sampled groundwater. The

study area is noted for the large scale cultivation of vegetables and other non-traditional

export crops where inorganic fertilizer is used extensively. The elevated nutrient levels

could be attributed to the use of chemical fertilizers by the farming communities. Poor

drainage and the spreading of animal manure, sewage sludge, and effluent could also

contribute to nitrate leaching common in the study area.


54

Fig. 11: A Map showing nitrate concentration in groundwater samples of the study area


55

Similar studies conducted by Nyarko (2008), Ackah et al (2011), and Saka (2011) in

other parts of the municipality revealed the presence of high nitrate levels in some of the

ground water samples which were closer to septic tanks and pit latrines. Exposure to high

levels of nitrates for a long time could lead to methemoglobinaemia) or “blue-baby

syndrome’’ (WHO, 2006). This occurs when nitrate is reduced to nitrite in the stomach of

infants. The nitrite is able to oxidize haemoglobin (Hb) to methemoglobin (metHb),

which is unable to transport oxygen around the body. This reduces oxygen-transport

which becomes clinically manifested when metHb concentrations reach 10% or more of

normal Hb concentrations. It causes cyanosis and asphyxia at higher concentrations.

Generally, the study recorded low levels of Na+, Ca

2+ and K

+ in the groundwater samples.

This may be attributed to the minimal industrial activities in the Ga East District. The

concentration of sodium in hand dug wells ranged from 35.80 mg/L to 225.50 mg/L with

a mean value of 80.68 mg/L in the wet season while in the dry season the levels recorded

were between 32.50 and 499 mg/L with a mean value of 178.59 mg/L. The highest value

was recorded in KHD5. All the values recorded in the wet season were below the WHO,

(2011) acceptable limit of 200 mg/L except KHD5 (225.50 mg/L) but in the dry season,

eleven out of thirty values exceeded the WHO recommended limit. In the borehole water

samples the levels ranged from 32.50 mg/L to 385 mg/L for the entire sampling period.

The highest level of sodium in the borehole samples was recorded in KBH6 during the

wet season while in the dry season KBH10 registered the highest sodium concentration.

Groundwater samples from KBH6, KBH10 and KBH14 had sodium values above the

WHO recommended value (Figure 12).


56

Fig. 12: A Map showing sodium concentration in groundwater samples of the study area


57

The concentrations of potassium in the groundwater samples varied from 2.70 to 38 mg/L

Apart from samples from KBH3, KBH10 and KBH14, all the sampling points had values

within the recommended value of 30 mg/L (WHO, 2011).

4.4 Hydrochemical Facies of Groundwater

The concentrations of major ions of groundwater samples were plotted in the Piper

trilinear diagram (Piper, 1953) to determine the water type. The classification for cation

and anion facies, in terms of major ion percentages and water types, is according to the

domain in which they occur on the diagram segments (Back, 1966). The chemical

composition of water samples from the study area is shown on the Piper diagram

(Figure 13). In the cation plot field the samples plotted mainly towards the Na+K corner

indicating sodium type or potassium type waters. In the anion plot field the samples

mostly plotted toward the Cl+NO3- corner indicating chloride type or nitrate type waters.

Principally, the water samples plotted in the Na-Cl dominant of the diamond field

indicates that the groundwater experience mixing with salt water which could be due to

evaporation of rainwater before recharge.


58

Fig. 13: Classification of hydrochemical facies using the Piper Plot

4.5 Bacteriological Indicators for Groundwater samples

Representative groundwater samples for the wet season were analyzed for bacteria. The

bacteriological indicators of the selected samples are as presented in table 3.


59

Table 3: Statistical summary of bacteriological indicator results of hand dug wells

and boreholes for the wet season

Bacteriological

Indicator

Hand Dug Wells Boreholes WHO Limit

Total coliform

(c.p.u/100ml)

0 – 837 0 - 372 0

Faecal coliform

(c.p.u/100ml)

0 - 102 0 - 3 0

Escherichia coli

(c.p.u/100ml)

0 - 61 0 - 1 0

Total Heterotrophic

Bacteria (c.p.u/1ml)

22 - 4212 1 - 3744 <500

According to WHO (2011) and Ghana Standard Authority (2011), there should be no

detection for total coliform, faecal coliform, and Escherichia coli counts and the detection

limit for heterotrophic bacteria should not exceed 500.

The highest value for total coliform was recorded in KHD6 and the lowest in KHD4.

Seven out of the eight hand dug wells investigated were contaminated with total coliform,

representing 87% (Figure 14).


60

Fig. 14: Total coliform values in hand dug wells for the wet season

For the boreholes, the highest value of total coliform was recorded in KBH2 and the

lowest in KBH1, KBH5 and KBH10. Nine out of twelve boreholes samples investigated

were contaminated with total coliform, representing 75% (Fig. 15).


61

Fig. 15: Total coliform values in boreholes for the wet season.

Faecal coliform contamination was detected in four hand-dug wells, a stream which

recorded the highest and two borehole samples (KBH6 and KBH12). The presence of E.

coli was detected in four out of seven hand-dug wells and a stream, with the stream

recording the highest. Meanwhile, the presence of E. coli was measured in one out of the

twelve borehole samples taken. Total heterotrophic bacterial contamination which

exceeded the 500/1ml set by WHO (2011) and Ghana Standards Board (2011) were

detected in four out of eight HD samples (including a stream). The highest value was

recorded in KHD5 and the lowest value in KHD3 (Figure 16).


62

Fig. 16: THB (/1ml) values in hand-dug wells for the wet season

Total heterotrophic bacterial contamination which exceeded the 500/1ml set by WHO

(2011) and Ghana Standards Board (2011) were recorded in KBH11 and KBH12. The

highest value was recorded in KBH11 and the lowest value in KBH10 (Fig. 17).


63

Fig. 17: THB (/1ml) values in boreholes for the wet season.

Sanitation survey made at the sampling sites showed that the stream was highly polluted.

This is because it is not protected and therefore exposed to all kinds of pollutants,

especially during the rainy season where contaminants carried by runoff easily enter the

stream. Hand- dug well KHD1, KHD2, KHD5 and KHD7 which were polluted, were

found to be between 5 m and 10 m away from septic tanks (soak-away) while KHD7 was

about 10 m away from a KVIP. Faecal matter from the septic tanks and the KVIP may

have leaked into the water, since these wells were all drilled in waterlogged areas

resulting in the high level of bacteria measured. Most of the Hand-dug wells were not

properly covered and it was found out that water from these wells were drawn using

various unhygienic receptacles (plastic or aluminium buckets). These receptacles were

also used for other purposes including bathing and laundering. Similarly, there were no

windlass on these wells and all users had to use one rope for drawing water which was


64

often left in water that had been spilt around the well head. These practices make the

hand dug wells vulnerable to bacterial contamination and may have contributed to the

high level of bacteria recorded. All the eleven (11) hand-dug wells studied were found to

be shallow wells with depths approximately 3.6 m – 12 m, indicating that they are drilled

in the unsaturated and weathered zones. Again some of the walls of the wells have not

been raised well above the surrounding ground level allowing runoff water to enter

during heavy downpour. Boreholes KBH2, KBH3, KBH4, KBH6, KBH8 and KBH12

were also drilled in waterlogged areas and 10 – 15 m away from septic tanks and a dump

site whose effluent is likely to seep into the groundwater to contaminate them. Though

KBH10 was closer to a contaminated source, it was found to be less contaminated with

bacteria. Water from KBH10 was found to be highly acidic and this may have

contributed to the low bacteria load of KBH10 since acidic conditions may not be

conducive for bacterial to survive. The study revealed that the hand-dug wells were more

polluted than the boreholes (Fig 18). The construction and depth of the wells could

further explain the contamination levels of the hand dug wells. Also most of the

boreholes have been constructed by individual with good financial background; therefore,

certain sanitation measures were put in place unlike the hand dug wells.


65

Fig. 18: A Map showing total coliform in groundwater samples of the study area.


66

High microbial counts for potable water have been found in several earlier studies in the

tropics. Studies conducted on hand-dug wells and boreholes by Amin et al (2012), Obiri-

Danso (2008), Nyarko (2008) and Hamida et al (2006) recorded high level of total

coliform, faecal coliform and E. coli. Musa et al. (1999), working on peri-urban and rural

well water in Sudan, have also shown that faecal coliform counts in peri-urban water

supplies were less than in rural water sources. This might be because these wells were

better protected from surface contamination.

Cairncross and Cliff (1987) on their research conducted on groundwater have shown that

soakaway pits and pit latrines can extend their influence on groundwater quality up to 10

m or more as groundwater flow is either lateral or vertical. Pye and Patrick (1983)

working on ‘The Influence of land disposal of sewage sludge, illegal dumping of septic

tank pump age, improper toxic waste disposal and runoff from agricultural operations on

groundwater’ have also shown that land disposal of sewage sludge, illegal dumping of

septic tank pumpage, improper toxic waste disposal and runoff from agricultural

operations all contribute to groundwater contamination with chemicals and

microorganisms. Some bacteria thrive in oxygen rich environments (aerobic) and others

in oxygen deficient (anaerobic) conditions. Bacteria are very resilient, remaining dormant

when conditions are not ideal. Dried, but living bacteria can even be carried in the air.

Bacteria can excrete toxins or carry them inside their cell wall until they die and

disintegrate. Some bacteria may invade a specific organ of the body, for example the

brain, throat or bone. Many water borne diseases such as cholera, typhoid and diarrhea

are all due to bacterial contaminations.


67

4.6 Trace Metals

The levels of trace elements recorded in the study area were very low because of low

level of industrial activities in the area. Analysed samples revealed the presence of Fe,

Cu, Mn, Pb, Cd and Zn in the groundwater samples. The concentration of ferrous iron in

the hand-dug wells varied from 0.016 to 2.38 mg/L and 0.027 to 0.805 mg/L for the wet

and dry seasons, respectively, with the highest level recorded in KHD8. During the wet

season, iron levels above the recommended limit (0.3 mg/L) (WHO 2011) were

registered in six out of the twelve hand-dug wells and a stream but during the dry season

iron levels above the WHO limit were measured in four hand dug wells (Figure 19).

Fig. 19: Levels of iron in hand dug wells and a stream for the wet and the dry seasons

The concentration of iron in the boreholes varied from 0.06 to 1.00 mg/L and 0.072 to

0.836 mg/L for the wet and dry seasons, respectively. The highest iron concentration was


68

recorded in KBH6 and the lowest in KBH14 during the wet season. Meanwhile, during

the dry season the highest was recorded in KBH7 and the lowest in KBH16. The iron

levels above the WHO (2011) acceptable limit (0.3 mg/L) were registered in seven out of

nineteen boreholes during the wet season but during the dry season iron levels above the

WHO limit (2011) were recorded in three out of nineteen boreholes sampled (Figure 20).

Fig. 20: Bar chart of Levels of iron in boreholes for the wet and the dry seasons

The total iron concentration of the groundwater samples during the wet season was

higher than the dry season and this could be due to dissolution of underlying rock through

infiltration and also as a result of low pH of aquifers as they have relatively high iron

proportion (approximately 6%). According to Ayibotele (1985), about 30% of all

boreholes in Ghana have iron problem. A research conducted by Obiri-Danso (2009) on

boreholes and wells in the peri-urban communities in Kumasi revealed high iron

concentration of some of the boreholes. Saka (2010) measured high levels of iron in Ga

West district of Greater Accra region,


69

Manganese (Mn) concentration in the boreholes ranged from 0 to 0.76 mg/L. The highest

value was recorded in borehole (KBH10). Manganese concentration above the

permissible limit of 0.5mg/L (WHO, 2011) was measured in KBH10 and KBH12. The

levels of Mn could be due to the geology of the study area which is very rich in granite

(Karikari and Ansa-Asare, 2006). Manganese is also a naturally occurring element in

rocks and is released into the soil through weathering of the rocks. Excess manganese in a

person’s diet may inhibit the use of iron in the regeneration of blood hemoglobin. A high

dose of manganese causes apathy, headaches, insomnia and weakness of legs (Jennings et

al., 1996).

The concentrations of copper and lead in the HD wells varied from 0 to 0.084mg/L and 0

to 0.032mg/L for the entire study period. However during the dry season, none of them

was detected in any of the hand dug wells. The concentration of copper that was

measured in five out of twelve hand dug wells and a stream were all below the

permissible limit of 2 mg/L (WHO, 2011). Copper normally occurs in water from copper

pipes, as well as from additives designed to control algal growth. Meanwhile, the

concentration of lead that was measured in five out of twelve hand - dug wells and a

stream were all above the WHO, (2011) permissible limit of 0.010 mg/L. The

concentration of lead was recorded in six out of nineteen boreholes during the wet

season. The levels were all above the WHO limit of 0.010mg/L except borehole (KBH1).

The presence of lead in the hand-dug wells and boreholes during the wet season could be

due to corrosion of the lead used to put together the copper piping. Lead in the body can

cause serious damage to the brain, kidneys, nervous system and red blood cells.


70

Cadmium concentration of 0.056 mg/L was recorded in KHD2 for both seasons, which is

above the WHO, (2011) acceptable limit of 0.003 mg/L due to leakage from

contaminated sites. Again cadmium concentration of 0.048 mg/L, 0.016 mg/L and 0.042

mg/L, 0.017 mg/ which are above the WHO, (2011) acceptable limit of 0.003mg/L were

recorded in KBH 3 and KBH 4 for the wet and dry seasons respectively. Long-term

exposure to cadmium can cause kidney and liver damage, and damage to circulatory and

nerve tissue. KHD 4 measured the concentration of zinc to be 0.052 mg/L.

4.7 Isotopic Composition of Groundwater

The distribution of δ18

O in the hand dug wells ranges from –4.01 to –2.13‰ VSMOW

and δ2H from –16.09 to –7.04‰ VSMOW during the wet season. The distribution of

δ18

O of the boreholes ranges from –3.86 to –2.21‰ VSMOW and δ2H from –18.08 to –

8.35‰ VSMOW for the wet season. A plot of δ2H against δ

18O of the analyzed

groundwater samples for the wet season is shown in Figure 21.


71

Fig. 21: Relationship between hydrogen-2 and oxygen-18 isotopes for groundwater

samples in the study area during the wet season

During the wet season, it is shown in Figure 21 that most of the groundwater samples

plotted around the Local and Global Meteoric Water Lines. Indicating that the

groundwater is recharge by direct infiltration of rain water. This observation can be used

to understand that the recharge mechanism of groundwater in the study area is through

rainfall which infiltrates the soil and displaces the residual soil water downward.

Eventually, this mixed water will reach the water table. Again, it can be seen that most of

the samples plotted around -3.518

O ‰ VSMOW, indicating that the groundwater is

recharge by direct precipitation of -3.5 δ 18

O ‰ VSMOW.


72

Fig. 22: A Plot showing the relationship between Conductivity and δ18O for groundwater

samples.

A plot of conductivity (µs/cm) versus δ18

O is illustrated in (Figure 22) to give a better

understanding of the mechanism of groundwater recharge of the study area. In the

diagram, it was observed that most of the water samples displayed complete dissolution

as precipitation dissolves materials of the aquifer. Few of the water samples showed

mixing through the geology.


73

4.8 Water Quality Index (WQI)

The chemistry of groundwater has been utilized as a measure to outlook the quality of

water for drinking and other purposes (Vasanthavigar et al. 2010; Edmunds et al. 2002).

Tiwari and Mishra (1985) specifically used WQI to determine the suitability of

groundwater for drinking purpose.

A location-wise calculated WQI values (using equation (1) page 39) for the different

groundwater samples are presented in Table 4.

Table 4: Results of the calculated WQI of the sampling points

Sample ID WQI Quality

KHD 1 248.95 Poor and unsuitable for drinking




KHD 5 1.152 Excellent







KBH 1 114.53 Poor and unsuitable for drinking




74




KBH 7 1.297 Excellent











KBH 18 1,133 Excellent


The results of the computed WQI values of the hand-dug wells ranged from 1.060 to

283.19, while the boreholes ranged from 1.084 to 338.43. Most of the groundwater

samples showed ‘excellent water’ quality with the hand-dug wells registering 63.64% and

boreholes recording 68.42%. Few locations of the groundwater samples were unsuitable

for drinking. It is evident that, though the geological materials contribute to the presence

of dissolved ions in the water, these areas of ‘unsuitable’ water quality might be as a


75

result of leaching from point source pollutants from nearby effluents, domestic disposal

sites, septic tanks or agricultural wastes (agrochemicals, fertilizers, etc.). A comparison of

the WQI values of the samples showed that the groundwater samples which were closer

to septic tanks, soakaway and KVIPs were unsuitable for drinking.


76

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 SUMMARY

Groundwater is the most important source of the domestic, industrial and agricultural

water supply in the world. Chemical and microbiological activities are the major threats

to the effect of total dependence on groundwater as a source of drinking water. As

groundwater comes into contact with ore-bearing rocks, dissolution of elements into the

water course occurs. Groundwater development in Ghana is further hampered by

improper disposal of hazardous and solid wastes, leakage of underground storage tanks,

and seepage of agrochemicals from agricultural farms. Available data from previous

studies (e.g., Amuzu, 1975; Andah, 1993; Kortatsi, 1994; WARM, 1998; Darko et al,

2003; Amankona, 2010) indicate that the quality of groundwater abstracted from

boreholes in some parts of Ghana is generally of good chemical and microbiological

quality. However, studies conducted by Amin et al (2012), Obiri-Danso (2008), Nyarko

(2008) and Hamida et al (2006) on hand dug wells and boreholes revealed high levels of

total coliform, faecal coliform and E. coli in the water.

Due to the high pollution of most of the surface water in Ghana, ground water is now

preferred to surface water (Adeyeye and Abulude, 2004). Accra, the capital city of

Ghana, is densely populated due to migration of people from the rural areas and various

regions to seek greener pastures. The conventional water treatment facility thus, cannot

meet the potable water demands of residents. Individuals have therefore resorted to


77

developing their own water supplies from groundwater resources through drilling of

individual boreholes, as in the case of Kwabenya (study area). Pollution of groundwater

has become alarming in response to increasing knowledge on their effect to human health

(Anazawa et al, 2004).

This research study was conducted to assess the quality of these private hand dug wells

and boreholes and to determine the water quality index.

Thirty one water sampling points made up of nineteen boreholes, eleven hand-dug wells

and surface water (stream) were sampled. Physical parameters such as temperature,

electrical conductivity (EC), salinity and total dissolved solids (TDS) were measured in

situ in the field by the HACH conductivity meter. The pH was measured with a pH meter

calibrated with standard pH buffers 4 and 7. Sodium and potassium concentrations were

determined using the flame emission photometer (Sherwood model 420). The major

anions (Cl-, SO4

2-, NO3

- and PO4

2-) were analysed using the Dionex ICS-90 ion

chromatograph system. EDTA Titrimetric Method was employed to determine calcium

concentration. Trace metals (Fe, Cu, Zn, Cr, Cd, Pb, Ni and Mg) were determined using

Varian AA240 Fast Sequential Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS).

The membrane filtration technique was employed in the determination of three indicator

bacteria, namely; Total Coliform, Faecal Coliform, and Escherichia Coli (E. Coli)

whereas Total Heterotrophic Bacteria was analysed using Pour Plate Method. Stable

isotopes (oxygen-18 and deuterium) were analysed using the off-axis integrated cavity

output spectroscopy (OA-ICOS) Los Gatos Research DT-100 Liquid-Water Isotope

Analyser (Model 908-008-2000).


78

The research conducted in the Kwabenya community revealed that water from boreholes

and hand dug wells sampled were slightly acidic to basic with few localized areas

showing strong acidic groundwater. Majority of the groundwater samples analysed (85

%) were found to be fresh water since their total dissolved solids (TDS) did not exceed

1000 mgL1.

Relatively low concentrations of inorganic constituent were found in water from hand

dug wells and borehole from the study area. Generally, the major anions (chloride [Cl-],

nitrate [NO3-], and sulphate [SO4

2-]) in the groundwater samples were low. The

concentration of the major cations were in the order of Na+>Ca

2+>K

+>Mg

2+. Most of the

values for the major ions were found to be acceptable according to WHO guidelines for

drinking water. Hydrochemical facies identified Na-Cl as the main water type.

Stable isotope composition of δ18

O and δ2H of hand dug wells and boreholes showed

that recharge is by direct rainfall infiltration and also by evaporated water either on the

ground surface or in the unsaturated zone.

Plot of conductivity versus δ18

O displayed complete dissolution as precipitation dissolves

materials of the aquifer.

From the results of the computed WQI values, most of the ground water in the study area

(63.64% hand dug wells and 68.42% boreholes) showed ‘excellent water’ quality.

Generally 32.25% of all groundwater samples (6 boreholes and 4 hand dug wells) were

found to be of poor quality and unsuitable for drinking without treatment.


79

5.2 CONCLUSION

The research study conducted in the Kwabenya community revealed that most of the

groundwater samples analyzed were found to contain minimal physicochemical

parameters, with the exception of few which contain high nitrate, sodium and chloride

concentrations.

Hand dug wells and boreholes which were less or about 10m away from septic tanks,

soakaway and KVIP were found to be highly contaminated with total coliform, faecal

coliform, E. coli and total heterotrophic bacterial with faecal coliform and E. coli being

the least pollutants. It may therefore require treatment such as boiling or treatment with

hypochlorite solution since that will kill most microbial parasites before drinking.

Iron is a major component of all the hand dug wells and boreholes, probably originated

from the parent rocks. Stable isotope composition of δ18

O and δ2H of groundwater

samples showed that recharge is by direct rainfall infiltration and plot of conductivity

versus δ18

O displayed complete dissolution as precipitation dissolves materials of the

aquifer.

Also some of the groundwater’s, the hand dug wells in particular, are recharged by

evaporated water either on the ground surface or in the unsaturated zone. Hydrochemical

facies identified Na-Cl as the main water type.

Generally, hand dug wells and boreholes in the Kwabenya community are of good quality

and suitable for drinking and other domestic purposes, provided it is not drilled closer to

a septic tank, soakaway, or KVIP.


80

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

Further investigation should be conducted to ascertain the source of the higher acidic

level of borehole number ten (KBH10).

District assembly should make sure that drilling of hand dug wells and boreholes are not

closer to septic tanks, soakaway and KVIPs.

The Municipal Assembly should demand that water quality tests are conducted on all

hand dug wells and boreholes at least twice a year.

Public health education should be intensified in the rural communities within the

municipality on the need to keep sanitary conditions around hand dug wells and

boreholes.

The communities should be educated on the dangers associated with sitting hand dug

wells and boreholes closer to public places of convenience and dump sites.

5.4 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The research has shown that the quality of water from the private hand dug wells and

boreholes are of good quality, provided it is not drilled closer to a septic tank, soakaway,

or KVIP. It was found out that most of the hand dug wells and boreholes are pumped into

tanks before distribution. Further research, can therefore, and be carried out on the

quality of water stored by people in these tanks.


81

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94

APPENDIX

APPENDIX A: Detailed field parameters of the study area for the wet

season.

Sam.

ID Tem

(°C) pH

TDS

(mg/L)

Cond.

(µS/cm)

Sal(

%) Alk.

(mg/L) Titre

Conc.

(mg/l)

Vol.

(ml) Alk HCO3- TH

KHD 1 28.8 5.4 409.9 816.4 1.5 20 1 0.02 50 20 24.38 40

KHD2 29 5.3 384.9 769.7 1.4 24 1.2 0.02 50 24 29.26 48

KHD3a 29 5.8 406.8 812.4 1.5 24 1.2 0.02 50 24 29.26 48

KHD3b 29.4 6 382.2 764.4 1.4 24 1.2 0.02 50 24 29.26 48

KHD4 30.1 6.5 592.9 1186 2.2 108 5.4 0.02 50 108 131.6 216

KHD5 30.4 7 401.8 802.4 1.5 140 7 0.02 50 140 170.68 280

KHD6 29.9 5 258 517.1 1 15 0.75 0.02 50 15 18.28 30

KHD7 30 5.2 260.2 520.6 1 13 0.65 0.02 50 13 15.84 26

KHD8 26.8 5.6 627 1254 0.6 50 2.5 0.02 50 50 60.95 100

KHD9 27 6.6 521 1841 0.5 52 2.6 0.02 50 52 63.39 104

KHD10 29.7 6.9 300 593 0.3 60 3 0.02 50 60 73.15 120

KHD11 28.7 6.2 274 544 0.3 50 2.5 0.02 50 50 60.95 100

STR 1 29.7 5.3 124 248.6 0.5 15 0.75 0.2 50 15 18.28 30

KBH1 29.7 6.1 162.8 325.5 0.6 52 2.6 0.02 50 52 63.39 104

KBH2 30.4 6.1 167.2 335 0.6 30 1.5 0.02 50 30 36.57 60

KBH3 29.9 7.3 225.6 451.4 0.8 110 5.5 0.02 50 110 134.11 220

KBH4 31.4 5.7 244.5 489 0.9 22 1.1 0.02 50 22 26.82 44

KBH5 30.3 6.1 267.3 534.6 1 22 1.1 0.02 50 22 26.82 44


95

KBH6 30 5.3 285.8 571.9 1.1 14 0.7 0.02 50 14 17.06 28

KBH7 27.6 5.9 277.5 556.1 0.19 41 2.05 0.02 50 41 49.98 82

KBH8 30.7 6.9 120.5 239.5 0.4 43 2.15 0.02 50 43 52.42 86

KBH9 30.3 8.3 214.9 430.5 0.8 124 6.2 0.02 50 124 151.1 248

KBH10 32.9 3.1 888.8 1777 3.3 0 0 0.02 50 0 0 0

KBH11 30.5 5 429.8 859.7 1.6 14 0.7 0.02 50 14 17.06 28

KBH12 28.7 6 443.7 887.8 1.6 95 4.75 0.02 50 95 115.8 190

KBH13 27.8 6 159.9 319 0.1 40 2 0.02 50 40 48.76 80

KBH14 28.1 6.4 537 1068 0.5 40 2 0.02 50 40 48.76 80

KBH15 29 6.3 445 888 0.4 56 2.8 0.02 50 56 68.27 112

KBH16 30.3 6 138.7 277 0.1 42.5 1.7 0.02 50 34 41.45 68

KBH17 34.2 5.8 245 489 0.2 40 2 0.02 50 40 48.72 80

KBH18 29.6 6 326 642 0.3 50 2 0.02 50 40 48.76 80

KBH19 30.8 6.2 144.4 289 0.1 60 3 0.02 50 60 73.15 120


96

APPENDIX A (Continued)

Detailed field parameters of the study area for the dry season.

Sample Tem

(°C) pH

TDS

mg/L

Cond

(µS/cm

)

Sal

% Titre

Con

c.m

g/L

Vol/

ml Alkal Bicarbo TH

KHD 1 31.2 7.4 503 1004 0.5 1.2 0.02 50 24 29.26 1.219 48

KHD2 35.1 5.5 486 971 0.5 0.7 0.02 50 14 17.07 1.219 28

KHD3a 33.4 5.2 476 951 0.5 0.7 0.02 50 14 17.07 1.219 28

KHD3b 29.6 5.5 461 981 0.4 1 0.02 50 20 24.38 1.219 40

KHD4 29.6 6.2 761 1522 0.8 1.5 0.02 50 30 36.58 1.219 60

KHD5 29.3 6.3 580 1161 0.6 4.8 0.02 50 96 117.04 1.219 192

KHD6 29.5 6.1 317 633 0.3 2.4 0.02 50 48 58.52 1.219 96

KHD7 30 5.8 322 643 0.3 1.2 0.02 50 24 29.26 1.219 48

KHD8 27.7 6 654 1305 0.6 1.8 0.02 50 36 43.89 1.219 72

KHD9 32.3 6.5 515 1028 0.5 1.3 0.02 50 26 31.70 1.219 52

KHD10 31.8 8 291 583 0.3 2.6 0.02 50 52 63.40 1.219 104

KHD11 25 8.1 112 325 0.2 3.4 0.02 50 68 82.90 1.219 136

STR 1 32.8 7.9 158.6 317 0.1 2.2 0.2 50 44 53.6439 1.219 58.5

KBH1 32.3 6.4 186.1 372 0.2 1.6 0.02 50 32 39.01 1.219 64

KBH2 30.2 6.8 198.7 396 0.2 0.9 0.02 50 18 21.95 1.219 36

KBH3 30.7 6.9 240 479 0.2 2.9 0.02 50 58 70.71 1.219 116

KBH4 34.2 6.3 278 556 0.3 1 0.02 50 20 24.38 1.219 40

KBH6 29.9 5.3 357 714 0.3 0.9 0.02 50 18 21.95 1.219 36

KBH7 27.8 7.9 315 604 0.3 2.8 0.02 50 56 68.27 1.219 112

KBH8 32.4 7.4 137.6 274 0.1 1.2 0.02 50 24 29.26 1.219 48


97

KBH9 31 10.5 177 354 0.2 1.2 0.02 50 24 29.26 1.219 48

KBH10 31.7 4.5 1003 2010 1 0 0.02 50 0 0.00 0.0 0

KBH11 33.2 6 327 652 0.3 1.2 0.02 50 24 29.26 1.219 48

KBH12 31.4 7.1 289 575 0.3 3 0.02 50 60 73.15 1.219 120

KBH13 32.8 7.3 161.1 322 0.3 1.6 0.02 50 32 39.01

1.219

182 64

KBH14 29.5 8.3 524 1042 0.5 2.6 0.02 50 52 63.40 1.219 104

KBH15 31.4 8 471 939 0.5 4 0.02 50 80 97.53 1.219 160

KBH16 31.7 7.2 186.3 372 0.2 1.4 0.02 50 28 34.14 1.219 56

KBH17 30.9 7.7 230 458 0.2 1.8 0.02 50 36 43.89 1.219 72

KBH19 36.1 7.6 141.7 283 0.1 2 0.02 50 40 48.77 1.219 80


98

APPENDIX B

Detailed Major Ions Results for the Wet Seasons

Sample

ID Ca2+ Na+ K+

Mg2+

Cl- SO42- NO3- PO43-

KHD 1 19.2 123 13.8 1.48 46.824 14.287 23.547 0

KHD2 19.2 135 11.2 1.65 132.227 53.544 89.971 0

KHD3a 9.6 156 10.9 1.2 148.635 57.69 81.792 0

KHD3b 16 117 11.2 1.62

KHD4 16 225.5 6.8 1.47 194.566 64.109 37.811 0

KHD5 41.6 36.2 2.7 0.66 95.97 55.055 45.287 0

KHD6 25.6 77.5 20.9 0.59 91.971 42.57 43.649 0

KHD7 9.6 75.3 3.3 0.67 72.555 21.91 90.55 0

KHD8 9.6 51.4 15.5 0.72 171.95 39.4 0.613 0.19

KHD9 19.2 53 10.6 1.28 183.94 64.94 2.634 0

KHD10 19.2 96.4 11.2 1.11 107.97 29.3 0.56 0

KHD11 12.8 98.7 8.9 0.88 107.97 24.64 1.45 0

KBH1 12.8 43.2 20.1 1.14 60.165 14.174 3.336 2.4

KBH2 9.6 75.1 28.2 0.81 55.074 8.671 37.396 1.95

KBH3 35.2 52.2 31.5 0.88 56.441 12.62 11.129 0

KBH4 9.6 111.2 20.2 0.49 74.754 22.445 51.792 0

KBH5 9.6 97.4 11.6 0.69 79.959 31.11 67.283 0

KBH6 12.8 115.5 10.1 0.82 88.184 30.229 68.016 0

KBH7 12.8 105.3 10.5 1.33 123.96 18.63 0.59 0


99

KBH8 9.6 55.2 11.2 0.91 47.985 18.4 0.67 0

KBH9 38.4 35.8 23.5 0.98 55.983 11.7 0.6 0

KBH10 44.8 37.8 35.6 2.57 359.888 136.39 0.15 0

KBH11 6.4 36.5 3 0.69 19.99 40.65 2.577 0.64

KBH12 25.6 49.3 12.2 1.66 191.94 40.65 8.093 0

KBH13 12.8 55.2 6.2 0.69 71.98 14.2 1.32 0

KBH14 22.4 55.6 33.6 1.16 195.94 34.52 0.94 0

KBH15 28.8 54.9 26.7 1.31 131.96 58.58 0.74 0

KBH16 12.8 45.4 6.8 1.49 75.98 17.95 0.45 0

KBH17 16 90.2 7 1.01 123.96 27.25 0.84 0

KBH18 9.6 87.3 6.5 0.85 139.96 52 1.37 0

KBH19 6.4 53.1 2.7 0.81 63.98 14.88 0.71 0

STR 1 9.6 60.8 9.9 0.6 43.99 15.56 10.02 0

Units: mg/L


100

APPENDIX B (CONTINUED)

Detailed Major Ions Results for the Dry Season

Sample

ID Ca2+ Na+ K+

Mg2+

Cl- SO42- NO3- PO43-

KHD 1 16 273 10.2 0.66 46.824 14.287 23.547 0

KHD2 16 292 5.6 0.56 132.227 53.544 89.971 0

KHD3a 9.6 314 5.1 0.41 148.635 57.69 81.792 0

KHD3b 12.8 258 6.5 0.43

KHD4 12.8 478 5.6 0.66 194.566 64.109 37.811 0

KHD5 28.8 499 3.9 0.68 95.97 55.055 45.287 0

KHD6 16 116.5 9.9 0.82 91.971 42.57 43.649 0

KHD7 12.8 158 4.3 1.6 72.555 21.91 90.55 0

KHD8 12.8 404 18.3 1.85 171.95 39.4 0.613 0.19

KHD9 19.2 225 8.1 1.91 183.94 64.94 2.634 0

KHD10 12.8 93.5 6.3 4.62 107.97 29.3 0.56 0

KHD11 25.6 105.5 8.1 2.66 107.97 24.64 1.45 0

KBH1 12.8 41.2 22.9 1.61 55.98 13.7 2.9 0.04

KBH2 9.6 72.1 27.1 0.63 51.98 10.06 32.72 0.31

KBH3 32 50.5 33.1 1.08 47.99 14 10.9 0.04

KBH4 9.6 110.9 16.1 0.99 67.98 37.33 49.1 0.09

KBH6 12.8 233 8.9 1.14 87.97 33.85 62.07 0

KBH7 16 101.9 10.1 1.38 107.97 35.97 0.6 0

KBH8 16 53 10.8 0.61 35.99 15.67 0.81 0.04

KBH9 28.8 32.5 9.8 0.33 47.99 11.12 1.08 0.03


101

KBH10 22.4 385 38 4.61 335.9 154 0.4 0.02

KBH11 12.8 108.7 8.6 1.96 119.96 39.45 0.38 0.04

KBH12 16 95.6 13.1 2.17 39.99 34.76 0.3 0.05

KBH13 12.8 62.3 7.2 1.19 87.97 8.55 1.03 0.02

KBH14 22.4 307 30.4 1.32 143.96 39.61 0.73 0

KBH15 32 96.6 17.4 1.2 91.97 49.15 0.84 0.02

KBH16 9.6 75.4 7.8 0.2 63.98 9.61 0.79 0.05

KBH17 9.6 81.3 3.6 0.57 63.98 29.91 0.69 0.05

KBH19 6.4 55.5 3.8 0.27 43.99 15.21 0.19 0.03

STR 1 6.4 88 9 1.17 39.99 28.24 6.62 0.04

Units: mg/L


102

APPENDIX C

Detailed Bacteriological Results for the Wet Season

Sample ID Tc/100ml Fc/100ml E.Coli/100ml THB/1ml

KHD1 651 102 61 312

KHD2 658 6 0 520

KHD3 20 0 0 22

KHD4 0 0 0 104

KHD5 744 0 0 4212

KHD6 837 96 24 1872

KHD7 732 24 4 572

STR 1 816 279 186 1040

KBH1 0 0 0 1

KBH2 372 0 0 156

KBH3 34 0 0 208

KBH4 26 0 0 208

KBH5 0 0 0 5

KBH6 27 3 1 260

KBH7 17 0 0 104

KBH8 132 0 0 52

KBH9 42 0 0 15

KBH10 0 0 0 <1

KBH11 5 0 0 3744

KBH12 49 3 0 2340


103

APPENDIX D

Detailed Trace Metals Results for the Wet Season

Sample

ID Fe Cu Zn Pb Cd Mn Ni Mg

KHD1 0.564 0.016 0 0.028 0 0.072 0 1.48

KHD2 1.268 0.012 0 0.016 0.056 0 0 1.65

KHD3a 0.992 0.016 0 0.032 0 0 0 1.2

KHD3b 1.452 0.016 0 0.028 0 0 0 1.62

KHD4 2.38 0.084 0.052 0.032 0 0 0 1.47

KHD5 0.252 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.66

KHD6 0.072 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.59

KHD7 0.084 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.67

KHD8 2.128 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.72

KHD9 0.016 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.28

KHD10 0.224 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.11

KHD11 0.108 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.88

KBH1 0.516 0 0 0.012 0 0.24 0 1.14

KBH2 0.316 0 0 0.028 0 0.028 0 0.81

KBH3 0.448 0 0 0.04 0.048 0.024 0 0.88

KBH4 0.46 0 0 0.04 0.016 0 0 0.49

KBH5 0.556 0.012 0 0.036 0 0.02 0 0.69

KBH6 1.004 0 0 0.024 0 0.02 0 0.82

KBH7 0.8 0 0 0 0 0.32 0 1.33

KBH8 0.192 0 0 0 0 0.108 0 0.91

KBH9 0.292 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.98


104

KBH10 0.292 0 0 0 0 0.76 0 2.57

KBH11 0.068 0 0 0 0 0.152 0 0.69

KBH12 0.32 0 0 0 0 0.592 0 1.66

KBH13 0.236 0 0 0 0 0.16 0 0.69

KBH14 0.064 0 0 0 0 0.22 0 1.16

KBH15 0.188 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.31

KBH16 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.49

KBH17 0.44 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.01

KBH18 0.132 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.85

KBH19 0.144 0 0 0 0 0.032 0 0.81

STR 1 0.248 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6

Units: mg/L


105

APPENDIX D (CONTINUED)

Detailed Trace Metals Results for the Dry Season

Sample

ID Fe Cu Zn Pb Cd Mn Ni Mg

KHD1 0.212 0 0 0 0 0.072 0 0.66

KHD2 0.804 0 0 0 0.056 0 0 0.56

KHD3a 0.432 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.41

KHD3b 0.072 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.43

KHD4 0.104 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.66

KHD5 0.232 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.68

KHD6 0.08 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.82

KHD7 0.027 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.6

KHD8 0.348 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.85

KHD9 0.344 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.91

KHD10 0.232 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.62

KHD11 0.256 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.66

KBH1 0.312 0 0 0 0 0.228 0 1.61

KBH2 0.3 0 0 0 0 0.032 0 0.63

KBH3 0.096 0 0 0 0.042 0.02 0 1.08

KBH4 0.124 0 0 0 0.011 0 0 0.99

KBH6 0.224 0 0 0 0 0.02 0 1.14

KBH7 0.836 0 0 0 0 0.364 0 1.38

KBH8 0.192 0 0 0 0 0.128 0 0.61

KBH9 0.292 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.33

KBH10 0.3 0 0 0 0 0.72 0 4.61


106

KBH11 0.072 0 0 0 0 0.176 0 1.96

KBH12 0.336 0 0 0 0 0.6 0 2.17

KBH13 0.828 0 0 0 0 0.196 0 1.19

KBH14 0.2 0 0 0 0 0.252 0 1.32

KBH15 0.304 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.2

KBH16 0.072 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2

KBH17 0.836 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.57

KBH19 0.296 0 0 0 0 0.02 0 0.27

STR 1 0.256 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.17

Units: mg/L


107

APPENDIX E

Detailed Results of Isotopes 2H and

18O for the Dry Season

Sample ID 2H

18O

KHD1(D) -9.44 -2.97

KHD2(D) -6.62 -3.38

KHD3A(D) -8.50 -3.35

KHD3B(D) -9.19 -3.20

KHD4(D) -9.15 -2.78

KHD5(D) -11.30 -2.75

KHD6(D) -7.55 -2.52

KHD7(D) -14.67 -3.38

KHD8(D) -7.74 -2.64

KHD9(D) -13.81 -3.51

KHD11(D) -9.98 -3.29

KBH1(D) -14.15 -4.01

KBH2(D) -12.09 -3.56

KBH3(D) -15.34 -3.89

KBH4(D) -5.28 -2.10

KBH6(D) -9.04 -2.64

KBH7(D) -12.99 -3.84

KBH8(D) -12.26 -3.30

KBH9(D) -19.23 -3.90

KBH10(D) -15.45 -3.58

KBH11(D) -14.89 -3.40


108

KBH12(D) -14.64 -3.49

KBH13(D) -14.35 -3.26

KBH14(D) -12.78 -3.15

KBH15(D) -10.33 -2.72

KBH16(D) -13.65 -3.14

KBH17(D) -18.16 -2.91

KBH19(D) -15.25 -3.76

STRI -10.29 -2.61


109

APPENDIX E (CONTINUED)

Detailed Results of Isotopes 2H and

18O for the Wet Season

Sample ID 2H

18O

KHD1 -14.15 -4.01

KHD2 -14.83 -3.14

KHD3A -13.32 -3.19

KHD3B -13.95 -2.91

KHD4 -11.56 -2.72

KHD5 -12.78 -2.94

KHD6 -16.09 -3.17

KHD7 -15.79 -3.40

KHD8 -7.04 -2.13

KHD9 -12.06 -3.30

KHD11 -12.75 -3.33

KBH1 -14.78 -3.86

KBH2 -12.81 -2.94

KBH3 -17.59 -3.48

KBH4 -14.24 -3.03

KBH5 -9.41 -2.40

KBH6 -12.23 -2.74

KBH7 -14.15 -3.36

KBH8 -12.50 -3.05

KBH9 -16.14 -3.47

KBH10 -11.48 -3.19


110

KBH11 -8.35 -2.21

KBH12(3:09) -14.50 -3.44

KBH13 -13.39 -3.50

KBH14 -11.58 -3.40

KBH15 -13.04 -2.59

KBH16 -15.41 -2.91

KBH17 -14.92 -3.18

KBH18 -15.93 -3.07

KBH19 -18.08 -3.64

STR 1 -14.30 -2.97


111

APPENDIX F

Ranges of Physicochemical Parameters of Hand Dug Well and Boreholes for the

Wet and Dry Seasons

Hand Dug Wells Boreholes

Wet Dry Wet Dry

Parameter

(mg/L)

Range Range Range Range WHO

Temp(ºC) 26.8-30.4 25-35.1 27.6-34.2 27.8-36.1

pH 5-7 5.2-8.1 3.1-8.3 4.5-10.5 6.5-8.5

TDS 258-627 112-761 120.5-888.8 137.6-1003 1000

Conductivity 517.1-1841 325-1522 239.5-1777 274-2010 1500

Salinity (%) 0.3-2.2 0.2-0.8 0.1-3.3 0.1-1 1.3

Alkalinity 13-140 14-96 0-124 0-80 200

T. hardness 26-280 28-192 0-248 0-160 500

Bicarbonate 15.85-

170.69

17.07-

117.04

0-151.18 0-97.53 380

Chloride 46.82- 67.98- 19.99- 35.99-335.9 250


112

194.57 247.92 359.89

Sulphate 14.29-64.94 17.64-98.09 8.67-136.39 8.55-154 500

Nitrate 0.56-90.55 0.37-88.23 0.15-68.02 0.19-62.02 50

Phosphate 0-0.19 0-0.11 0-2.4 0-0.31

Sodium 36.2-225.5 93.5-499 35.8-115.5 32.5-385 200

Potassium 2.7-20.9 3.9-18.3 2.7-35.6 3.6-38 30

Calcium 9.6-41.6 9.6-28.8 6.4-44.8 6.4-32 200

Magnesium 0.59-1.65 0.41-4.62 0.49-2.57 0.2-4.61 200


113

APPENDIX G

Ranges of Trace Metals of Hand Dug Well and Boreholes for the Wet and Dry

Seasons

Hand Dug Well Borehole

Wet Dry Wet Dry

Parameter

(mg/L)

Range Range Range Range WHO Limit

Iron 0.016-2.38 0.027-0.805 0.06-1.00 0.07-0.836 0.3

Copper 0-0.084 0.00 0-0.012 0.00 2.0

Manganese 0-0.72 0-0.072 0-0.76 0-0.072 0.5

Lead 0-0.032 0.00 0-0.04 0.00 0.010

Nickel 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Cadmium 0-0.056 0-0.056 0-0.048 0-0.042 0.003

Zinc 0-0.052 0.00 0-0.00 0.00 3.0


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