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Renewable Energy 68 (2014) 118e133

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Renewable Energy

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Review

Assessment of hydropower and multi-dam power projects in Turkey

Murat Kankal*, Adem Bayram, Ergun Uzlu, U�gur SatilmisKaradeniz Technical University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 11 October 2013Accepted 21 January 2014Available online

Keywords:HydropowerThe Çoruh BasinThe Southeastern Anatolia Project

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ90 462 377 26 32; fE-mail address: mkankal06@gmail.com (M. Kanka

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2014.01.0310960-1481/� 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

a b s t r a c t

This paper provides an overview of the water potential and hydropower energy status of Turkey,especially of multi-dam power projects, namely, the Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) and the ÇoruhRiver Development Plan. The contribution of these projects to the hydropower energy potential isinvestigated. Turkey’s annual total gross, technically feasible and economically feasible hydropowerpotentials calculated by General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works are 435, 215, and 128 TWh,respectively. As the beginning of 2013, there are 354 hydroelectric power plants in operation, 224 underconstruction and a further 1068 at various planning levels. The hydropower plants in operation have aninstalled capacity of 18,811 MW with an annual average generation of 67,077 GWh. Finally, it is foundthat the GAP Project corresponds 33.1 and 8.0% of the current total hydroelectric energy production andelectricity production of Turkey, while these values are 7.58 and 1.73% in the Çoruh River DevelopmentPlan, respectively. These projects are crucial for Turkish energy market and economy. For this reason,development studies and investments in the hydropower sector should be encouraged, supported andput into operation immediately.

� 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Energy is indispensable tomost human activities and plays a keyrole in economic and social development. Fossil fuels (e.g., oil, gasand coal) are formed via natural processes taking millions of years,and thus regarded as non-renewable energy resources. Comparedto other forms of energy carriers, fossil fuels are relatively easy andaccessible to use for heat and electricity generation. Increasingly,the use of fossil fuels as a source of energy has become preferredsince the Industrial Revolution. Consequently, seemingly just asusual, the whole world moves forward with an increasing de-pendency on fossil fuels, together with the rapid expansion ofenergy-intensive industries and vehicles, as well as populationgrowth and urbanization [1].

The unrestricted use of fossil fuels-based energy has severelyhampered our environment, and caused global warming andgreenhouse effect. Now, the decreasing availability of fossil fuelshas drastically raised the prices of liquid and gaseous fuels world-wide. Therefore, developing renewable energy is indispensable [2].Recently, hydroelectric energy has been placed as an importantfuture source of renewable and clean energy. The advantage ofhydropower as a renewable energy is that it produces negligible

ax: þ90 462 377 26 06.l).

amounts of greenhouse gases, stores large amounts of electricity atlow cost, and it can be adjusted to meet consumer demand [3].

The proportion of imported resources, especially natural gas,has continued to increase within production of Turkey’s electricityenergy. Utilization level of hydropower potential being a domestic,new, and renewable energy resource is not enough. ConsideringTurkey’s present water potential, it is estimated that generation ofhydroelectric energy being clean and renewable will has increasedits feature being a crucial domestic energy resource to meet elec-tricity energy that Turkey needs [4].

After the introduction section, the paper is organized as follows:the Section 2 illustrates the relationship between water, develop-ment and dams, the Section 3 presents water and hydropowerpotential of Turkey, the Section 4 deals with the themes related to ageneral view to hydropower of Turkey, the Section 5 gives theexhaustive assessment of multi-dam power projects in Turkey, andfinally the Section 6 shows the main conclusions obtained from thestudy.

2. Water, development and dams

Continuous developments in science, engineering, and con-struction have made it possible to construct larger and more du-rable dams, most of which now have more than one beneficialpurpose. With water being so important for sustaining and

M. Kankal et al. / Renewable Energy 68 (2014) 118e133 119

enhancing life, the extensive development of dams throughout theworld is not at all surprising [5].

Even though the fresh water resources are limited, demand forwater is steadily increasing throughout the world. During the pastthree centuries, the amount of water withdrawn from fresh waterresources has increased by a factor of 35, while world populationhas increased by a factor of eight. Water storage facilities areneeded to benefit from the existing water resources which are notregular in terms of time and place. Dams have been playing a keyrole in human development throughout history by providing effi-cient use of water resources [6].

Dams store water in the reservoir during times of excess flow sothat water can be released from the reservoir during the timeswhen natural flows are inadequate to meet the needs of waterusers. Dams are important as they help people have domestic waterand provide water for industry, irrigation, fish farming and recre-ation, hydroelectric power production, navigation in rivers, andother needs. Dams also serve people by reducing or preventingfloods [7,8].

Construction of new dams means spreading of prosperity to allpeople by providing domestic water and sanitation, generatingmore electric energy, increasing agricultural production andcreating new employment opportunities. Therefore, obstructingdam projects means that economic growth cannot go ahead [6].

3. Water and hydropower potential of Turkey

The fact that amount of fresh water resources is reducing andtheir qualities are deteriorating or faced with danger of completelydestroying due to anthropogenic activities has been a commonproblem in many regions around the world as in Turkey. It is clearthat this is vital issue for human being. Turkey is not a water-richcountry contrary to the prevailing belief. Furthermore, Turkey’sfresh water resources have been polluted day by day [9].

The annual average precipitation is 643 mm ranging from250 mm in the Central Anatolia to over 2500 mm in the coastal areaof north-eastern Black Sea in Turkey. The elements of annual waterbudget of Turkey are shown in Fig. 1. The given water budget iscalculated from the data of the years between 1935 and 2008.Considering the average surface water run-off, which is 186 billionm3/year together with the surface run-off of 7 billion m3/yearcoming from neighboring countries, the total surface run-off within

Fig. 1. Water budg

the country reaches to the amount of 193 billion m3/year. On theother hand, the average amount of ground-water leakage is 41billion m3/year. However, the renewable water resources could notbe utilized because of the economic and technical reasons. Exploit-able portions of surface run-off including inflow from borderingcountries, and groundwater are 98 and 14 billion m3/year, respec-tively, and consequently the total potential of the economicallyexploitable water resources amounts to 112 billion m3/year [10].

Turkey is hydrologically divided into 25 drainage basins (Fig. 2).The EuphrateseTigris Basin, the longest river of western Asia, gets ashare of 28.4% of the total water potential and the Eastern Black SeaBasin having a share of 8.0% accompanies it. The East and MiddleMediterranean Basins, each one has a share of 6%, have alsoimportance. The water potential of Turkey for each drainage basinis shown in Fig. 3. The Middle Mediterranean, EuphrateseTigris,and Eastern Black Sea Basins are major ones in terms of the annualaverage yield (L/s/km2) as shown in Fig. 3.

Considering the population of 75.6 million in 2012, wateravailable per capita per year is about 1481 m3 in Turkey, which iswell below the world average of 7600 m3. Therefore, it can be alsoclaimed that Turkey is a water-stressed country. On the other hand,the water resources are not distributed evenly over the country.Only four ones of 25 basins, namely, the EuphrateseTigris, EasternBlack Sea, Eastern and Middle Mediterranean, possess 37% of theannual run-off in Turkey. While the total of water resourcesamounts to 112 billion m3, only one third of which is exploited [11].Most of water is consumed through the irrigation; the rest of 24% isfor domestic and industrial supply (14 and 10%, respectively) [12].

The hydroelectric potential of a country is calculated under thepresumption that all natural flows, until the country’s borders oruntil the sea, will be used with an efficiency of 100%. This calcula-tion produces the gross theoretical hydroelectric potential of acountry. However, even the latest technologies available todaycannot make utmost use of this potential. Therefore, the maximumpotential that can be used in the existing technologies is referred toas the technically viable hydroelectric potential. Nevertheless, notevery technically viable utility is economically viable. Thus, theportion of the technically viable potential that can be realized un-der the existing and expected local economic conditions is referredto as the economically viable hydroelectric potential [13]. Theo-retical, technically feasible, and economically feasible hydroelectricpotentials in the world as well as in Turkey are given in Table 1.

et of Turkey.

Fig. 2. Turkey’s river basins.

Fig. 3. Water potential of Turkey’s drainage basins.

M. Kankal et al. / Renewable Energy 68 (2014) 118e133120

Theoretical hydroelectric potential of Turkey (433 TWh/year) is 1%of that of the world and 16% of that of the Europe.

In Turkey, the hydropower gross potential of 93% is distributedinto 14 river basins, which are mostly situated on the mountainousareas, while there are 25 river basins (Table 2). Turkey’s biggesthydropower plants, namely, the Atatürk Dam (P¼ 2400 MW), theKarakaya Dam (P¼ 1800 MW), and the Keban Dam (P¼ 1330 MW),were constructed on the EuphrateseTigris Basin. Moreover, the

Table 1Hydroelectric potential of the World and Turkey [13].

Gross theoretical potentialof HEPP (GWh/year)

Technically viablepotential of HEPP(GWh/year)

Economically viablepotential of HEPP(GWh/year)

World 40,150,000 14,060,000 8,905,000Europe 3,150,000 1,225,000 800,000Turkey 433,000 216,000 127,381

Black Sea region, which has steep and rocky mountains extendingalong the coastline, has a considerable hydropower potential. TheEastern Black Sea Region is of particular importance in terms ofhydropower potential. This is because of having a high capacityfactor, which is the ratio of actual operating hour per year to totalhours per year [14].

Turkey’s annual total gross, technically feasible and economi-cally feasible hydropower potentials calculated by General Direc-torate of State Hydraulic Works (DS_I) are 435, 215 and 128 TWh,respectively. According to the findings of a study conducted byBakır [16] in which a new criterion was developed related to keyconcept of “the economical feasibility” by taking into considerationsome undervalued and even ignored benefits of hydropower plantsand some overvalued benefits of thermal power plants, economi-cally feasible hydropower potential goes up 188 TWh/year, with anincrease ratio of 47% compared to DS_I value [15]. Turkey’s hydro-power potential according to DS_I and the newly developed criteriatogether with installed power values are given in Table 2.

Table 2Turkey’s annual hydroelectric potential according to DS_I and Bakır [15].

Name of basin Gross potential, (GWh) According to DSI According to Bakır

Economically feasiblepotential (GWh)

Installedcapacity (MW)

Economically feasiblepotential (GWh)

Installedcapacity (MW)

EuphrateseTigris 132,828 56,750 15,761 70,620 19,786Eastern Black Sea 48,478 11,474 3257 24,239 6925Eastern Mediterranean 27,455 5216 1490 10,978 3137Middle Mediterranean 23,079 5355 1537 9232 2638Çoruh 22,601 10,933 3361 12,431 3825Ceyhan 22,163 4825 1515 8865 2860Seyhan 20,875 7853 2146 9394 2609Kızılırmak 19,552 6555 2245 7821 2697Yesilırmak 18,685 5494 1350 8408 2213Western Black Sea 17,914 2257 669 7166 2108Western Mediterranean 13,595 2628 723 5438 1511Aras 13,114 2372 631 5246 1418Sakarya 11,335 2461 1175 3967 1984Susurluk 10,573 1662 544 2643 881Others 30,744 1788 546 1721 507Total 432,981 127,623 36,950 188,169 55,099

M. Kankal et al. / Renewable Energy 68 (2014) 118e133 121

Available and developed hydropower potentials being techni-cally feasible per country in Europe are given in Fig. 4. The Europeancountries having the greatest hydropower potential being techni-cally feasible are Turkey, Norway, Sweden, and France, respectively.However, Turkey appears in the end of this course in making use ofits own potential. Recently, there has been a rapidly increasing inmaking use of Turkey’s own potential together with the involve-ment of private sector after the enactment of the Electricity MarketLaw under Law No.: 4628 which came into force on 3 March 2001.

4. A general view to Turkey’s hydropower

The first hydroelectric production was started with a micro-scale hydroelectric power plant of 60 kW at the city of Tarsus,south-central Turkey, in 1902. The whole installed capacity was30,000 kW and the production was 45 GWh/year in those years,and the electricity was only available in three cities, namely,_Istanbul, Adapazarı and Tarsus. General Directorate of ElectricalPower Resources Survey and Development Administration (E_IE)was established in 1935 in order to estimate the electricity demandof the country, as well as to make surveys and investigations tocover such demand through hydroelectric or other energy sources.In 1950, the total installed capacity of the power plants was408 MW, and only 18 MWof which was hydro. DS_I was establishedin 1954 for planning, designing, construction, and operation ofwater works. Among its own duties, hydropower generation alsotakes place besides irrigation and municipal water supply, floodcontrol and other environmental issues [18].

The development of hydropower installed capacity and hydro-electric energy generation in Turkey are presented in Fig. 5. Theaverage annual increase in the rate of installed capacity was about6.0% for the period 1984e2011. Especially in the last four years, theinstalled capacity has shown an upward trend substantially.Considering the last three decades, annual hydroelectric energygeneration also gradually increased based on the installed capacity,while it showed fluctuations.

The historical development of hydropower in the Turkey’selectric energy is given Table 3. It is seen obviously that the share ofthe hydropower in the electric energy has slowly decreases whenthe installed capacity is taken into account. This share was 32.4% in2011, while 38.4% in 2002. In the last decade, the share of the hy-dropower generation in the electric energy has shown variationbetween 16.8 and 30.6%. As of December 2012, the installed ca-pacity of Turkey for electric generation by primary sources is givenin Table 4. A large proportion of the installed capacity is made up of

fossil fuels of 34,360 MW, and hydraulic of 18,811 MW. Natural gasand coal have an important proportion among the fossil fuels. Theother renewable energy resources except for hydraulic have a mi-nor proportion. Among these energy resources, the wind energyhas a great contribution with an installed capacity of 2001 MW,considering the waste and biogas energy with an installed capacityof 115 MW and geothermal energy with an installed capacity of114 MW, respectively.

As the beginning of 2013, there are 354 HEPPs in operation, 224are under construction and a further 1068 are at various planninglevels (Table 5). The HEPPs in operation have an installed capacityof 18,811 MW with an annual average generation of 67,077 GWhcorresponding to 40.5% of total potential of 165,611 GWh/year. Apart of 19.7% is under construction, and the rest at various planninglevels. A part of 59% of the total hydro capacity in operation hasbeen developed by DS_I, corresponding to 11,135 MW of theinstalled capacity composed of 59 hydro plants. HEPPs in the chargeof DS_I gradually decrease together with the involvement of privatesector after the enactment of the Electricity Market Law under LawNo.: 4628. Total project number under construction and in planningis 1292 however, 17 of which are in the charge of DS_I.

It is estimated that private sector will make an investment of 60billion US dollars for 1493 HEPPs having an installed capacity of30,461 MW, approximately 105 billion kWh/year, that their appli-cations have been made within the framework of the ElectricityMarket Law under Law No.: 4628 and Water Use Right andAgreement [21].

In Turkey, there are twenty eight hydropower dams having aninstalled capacity over 100 MW in operation (Table 6). The datain Table 6 was obtained from Ref. [22] and updated. There are 28dams, six of which are located on the Euphrates River having thelargest share of water and hydropower potential of Turkey. TheAtatürk, Karakaya, and Keban Dams rank among the top three,respectively. Much of the hydroelectricity is generated in theeastern part of the country, while much of it is consumed in thewest and south part. Recently, it has been observed that the con-struction of large dams for the purpose of electric energy genera-tion has decreased considering the establishment years. Only sevenof 28 dams could be completed in the last decade.

5. Multi-dam power projects in Turkey

The dams may be designed to achieve a single beneficial pur-pose or multiple benefits. Efficiently and timely operation of damsis required tomanagewater effectively, to insure safety of the dams,

Fig. 4. Development and remaining technically feasible hydropower potential in Europe per country [17].

M. Kankal et al. / Renewable Energy 68 (2014) 118e133122

and to achieve the benefits for which the projects were designed.Multi-dam systems are composed of a variety of dams whosefunctions interact through use of the water stored in the reservoirs.The water may be used multiple times in a series of dams andreservoirs or only once in the case of a single dam [5]. In this sec-tion, hydropower potential of two multi-dam power projects inTurkey, namely, the Çoruh River Development Plan and the GAPProject, are discussed in detail.

Fig. 5. Development of hydropo

5.1. The Çoruh River Development Plan

5.1.1. Geographic and climatic characteristics of the Çoruh RiverBasin

The Çoruh River Basin, also called Georgian Chorokhi, located innorth-eastern Turkey, near the boundary between Turkey andGeorgia. It rises in the Mescit Mountains Range (highest peak3255 m) in Turkey and flows into the Black Sea near Batumi,

wer capacity in Turkey [19].

Table 3The historical development of hydropower in the Turkey’s electric energy [20].

Years Installed capacity (MW) Generation (GWh)

Hydropower Total Share of the total (%) Hydropower Total Share of the total (%)

2002 12.241 31.846 38.4 33.684 129.399 26.02003 12.579 35.587 35.3 35.329 140.580 25.12004 12.645 36.824 34.3 46.084 150.698 30.62005 12.906 38.843 33.2 39.560 161.956 24.42006 13.063 40.565 32.2 44.244 176.300 25.12007 13.395 40.836 32.8 35.851 191.558 18.72008 13.829 41.817 33.1 33.270 198.418 16.82009 14.553 44.761 32.5 35.958 194.813 18.52010 15.831 49.524 32.0 51.795 211.208 24.52011 17.137 52.911 32.4 52.339 229.395 22.8End of April 2012 17.700 53.943 32.8 23.664 80.186 29.5

Table 4Installed capacity of Turkey's electric generation by primary sources [21].

Total installedcapacity (MW)

Share ofthe total (%)

Hydraulic 18,811 34.0

Fossil fuels 34,360 62.0Natural gas 19,558Coal 12,522Liquid fuel 1948Others 332

Wind 2001 3.6Waste and Biogas 115 0.2Geothermal 114 0.2Total 55,401 100

M. Kankal et al. / Renewable Energy 68 (2014) 118e133 123

Georgia (Fig. 6). Approximately a catchment area of 19,872 km2 is inTurkey, while Georgia’s area is only 2090 km2. In total, the ÇoruhRiver is 427 km in length, 400 and 24 km of which lie withinTurkish and Georgian borders, respectively [23]. The principaltributaries of the Çoruh River are the Tortum and Oltu Streams inTurkey, and the Adzharis and Tsakali Streams in Georgia [24,25].

The river originates from the western part of the MescitMountains at a height of over 3000 m and lies to the north-west ofthe ErzurumeKars Plateau. From these mountains the Çoruh firstflows west, then turns east with a sharp bend at the Bayburt Plainand afterward follows a tectonic hollow which separates the

Table 5Hydropower potential of Turkey [21].

Status of economicallyviable potential

Number ofhydroelectricplants

Totalinstalledcapacity(MW)

Averageannualgeneration(GWh/year)

Share ofthe total (%)

In operation 354 18,811 67,077 40.5DS_I 59 11,135 39,245Others 295 7676 27,832

Under construction 224 10,043 32,658 19.7DS_I 14 2912 9532Others 210 7131 23,126

In program 1068 18,994 65,876 39.8DS_I 3 1074 3681Others 1065 17,920 62,195

Total potential 1646 47,848 165,611 100DS_I 76 15,121 52,458Others 1570 32,727 113,153

Eastern Black Sea coastal mountain series from the inner mountainrange. The Çoruh valley located in the eastern part of _Ispir, is one ofthe deepest valleys in Turkey. Having passed the city of Yusufeli andthe confluence with the Oltu River, the Çoruh flows north andshapes a mountain landscape with deep canyons. Passing throughthe cities of Artvin and Borçka, it leaves Turkish territory near thecity of Muratlı. Near Batumi, the capital city of the Georgian semi-autonomous province Ajaria, the river empties into the Black Seathrough a delta which is largely composed of the alluvium that ithas accumulated. The river experiences a transitional climate be-tween Black Sea’s mild and wet weather and East Anatolia’s coldclimate [24]. Turkey’s According to the meteorological records be-tween 1970 and 2010 belonging to the Turkish State MeteorologicalService, the Çoruh Basin receives an annual average precipitation of475 mm, while this precipitation is 643 mm in Turkey [26].

5.1.2. The hydrological regime of surface water in the Çoruh RiverBasin

The Çoruh River is one of the significant water resources ofTurkey, especially in terms of hydropower potential. The annualaverage water potential of the river is 6824 hm3 providing acontribution of 3.67% to the total surface run-off of Turkey [23].According to the long-term observations in the flow monitoringstation, the Muratlı dam site operated by DS_I on the river mainbranch, the average flow rate is 202 m3/s. The highest run-offmonitored in this station was 2431 m3/s, while the lowest was37.6 m3/s. Rainfall and especially snowmelt from the high moun-tains suggest that there is high water availability [24]. About 85% ofthe total annual flow in the Çoruh River occurred in the period ofthree months from May to July [23]. Apart from the comparativelyhigh and variable flow rates, the river carries high levels of sedi-ment and deposits (estimated at 5 million cubic meters/year)which stem from the erosion in Turkish mountain regions. Despitethe rather small drainage basin area, the river has high hydropowerproduction potential due to the topographic conditions and, inparticular, the sharp fall of the river from high mountains to sealevel [24].

5.1.3. Current status of the Çoruh River Development PlanThe preliminary study for development plan of the Çoruh River

Basin was started by E_IE in 1962 and the Master Plan for the hy-dropower development was completed in 1982 [23]. The projectwas put into 1997 Investment Program by the Turkish Governmentas the Çoruh River Development Plan. In the Master Plan andsubsequent studies, various options were considered for the ÇoruhRiver Development Plan, and as a result ten hydropower projects ina cascade style were proposed on the main branch of the ÇoruhRiver [27]. The general plan and current status of the Çoruh RiverDevelopment Plan is shown in Fig. 7.

Table 6Hydropower dams having an installed capacity over 100 MW (in operation) in Turkey.

No. Name of plant River Location Installed capacity (MW) Project generation (GWh) Date of establishment Age of operation

1 Atatürk Euphrates Sanlıurfa 2405 8900 1992 212 Karakaya Euphrates Diyarbakır 1800 7354 1987 263 Keban Euphrates Elazı�g 1330 6000 1975 384 Altınkaya Kızılırmak Samsun 700 1632 1988 255 Birecik Euphrates Sanlıurfa 672 2518 2000 136 Deriner Çoruh Artvin 670 2118 2012 17 Berke Ceyhan Adana 510 1668 1999 148 Hasan U�gurlu Yesilırmak Samsun 500 1217 1981 329 Ermenek Göksu Karaman 305 1047 2009 410 Borçka Çoruh Artvin 300 1039 2006 711 Sır Ceyhan Kahramanmaras 284 725 1991 2212 Gökçekaya Sakarya Eskisehir 278 562 1972 4113 Obruk I-II Kızılırmak Çorum 210 473 2007 614 Batman Tigris Batman 198 483 1999 1415 Karkamıs Euphrates Kahramanmaras 189 652 2000 1316 Özlüce Peri Bingöl 170 413 2000 1317 Çatalan Seyhan Adana 169 596 1997 1618 Alpaslan I Euphrates Mus 160 488 2002 1119 Sarıyar Sakarya Ankara 160 400 1956 5720 Gezende Ermenek _Içel 159 528 1990 2321 Aslantas Ceyhan Osmaniye 138 569 1984 2922 Hirfanlı Kızılırmak Kırsehir 128 400 1959 5423 Kılıçkaya Kelkit Sivas 124 332 1990 2324 Menzelet Ceyhan Kahramanmaras 124 515 1989 2425 Akköprü Dalaman Mu�gla 115 343 2009 426 Muratlı Çoruh Artvin 115 444 2005 827 Dicle Tigris Diyarbakır 110 298 1997 1628 Torul Harsit Gümüshane 106 322 2007 6

Fig. 6. Location map of the Çoruh River and its tributaries.

M. Kankal et al. / Renewable Energy 68 (2014) 118e133124

M. Kankal et al. / Renewable Energy 68 (2014) 118e133 125

The Çoruh River has the total head of the cascade of 1420 m forthe energy generation from the most upstream, the Laleli dam site,to the most downstream, the Muratlı dam site, close to Georgianborder. There are fifteen dam projects, ten of which on the mainbranch and the rest on the tributaries of the Çoruh River. Theseprojects are longitudinally shown in Fig. 8.

The hydropower projects on the Çoruh River are considered inthree groups, namely, the Lower Çoruh Project consisting ofMuratlı, Borçka, and Deriner Dams and HEPPs, the Middle ÇoruhProject consisting of Yusufeli and Artvin Dams and HEPPs, and theUpper Çoruh Project consisting of Laleli, _Ispir, Güllüba�g, Aksu, andArkun Dams and HEEPs. The studies to realize the projects in themidstream and downstream part of the Çoruh River were givenpriority based on the higher energy production capacities of theseprojects when compared with the ones located in the upstream[27].

5.1.3.1. The Lower Çoruh Project. The Lower Çoruh Project wascompleted together with the involvement of Muratlı, Borçka, andDeriner Dams and HEPPs taken into operation in June 2005, April2007, and December 2012, respectively (Fig. 9). The Deriner Dam,which is a concrete double-curved arch dam on the Çoruh River, isthe tallest dam having a height of 249 m in Turkey. The dam has acrest of 721 m in length and a concrete volume of 3.5 million m3.The maximum thickness of the dam at the foundation is 60 m andthe crest width of the crown cantilever is 12 m. The undergroundpowerhouse with a width of 20 m, a length of 126 m, and a heightof 45 m has four vertical Francis units having a total capacity of670 MW and is located on the right bank of the river close to thedam. For the flood discharge, two types of spillway are provided, i.e.(i) two surface spillways located at the right and left abutmentswith a capacity of 2�1125 m3/s, which can be regulated by one flap

Fig. 7. General plan and current status of

gate at each spillway intake, and (ii) an orifice spillway comprisingeight gated orifices integrated in the dam body. The orifice spill-ways have a total discharge capacity of 7000 m3/s [28].

5.1.3.2. The Middle Çoruh Project. The Middle Çoruh Project con-sisting of Yusufeli and Artvin Dams and HEPPs is still ongoing. TheYusufeli Dam ranks among the most important dams in Turkey interms of the hydropower potential as well as the size. The damwillbe second largest dam within the Çoruh River Development Plan,with a reservoir area of 33 km2 in normal water elevation, a totallength of 60 km including tributaries, and an average width of550 m. The Yusufeli Damwill take seven to eight years to constructand produce a hydropower energy of 1705 GWh/year with aninstalled capacity of 540 MW. The estimated construction cost ofthe Yusufeli Dam varies between 700 and 838 million US dollars[29]. The dam’s spillwaywill be a service controlled chute typewitha maximum discharge capacity of 8000 m3/s. The Yusufeli Damwillbe a double-curvature arch dam with a height of 270 m from itsfoundation and 223 m from the thalweg [30].

5.1.3.3. The Upper Çoruh Project. The Güllüba�g Dam and HEPP hasbeen already in operation for over one year, while the Arkun Damand HEPP is under construction. The feasibility reports of Laleli,_Ispir, and Aksu Dams and HEPPs have been prepared and theseprojects will be built by corporate bodies, private sector, by theconcept of the Electricity Market Law under Law No.: 4628.

The Bayram and Ba�glık Dams and HEPPs located on the BertaStream, tributary of the Çoruh River, are under construction. Thefeasibility reports of Altıparmak, Olur, and Ayvalı Dams and HEPPslocated on the Oltu and Barhal Streams, tributaries of the ÇoruhRiver, are ready and the license procedures of these projects have

the Çoruh River Development Plan.

Fig. 8. Longitudinal profile of the Çoruh River Development Plan.

M. Kankal et al. / Renewable Energy 68 (2014) 118e133126

also been continued by the concept of the Electricity Market Lawunder Law No. 4628.

There are twenty-four run-of-the-river HEPPs except for thesedam projects planned; one of which is in operation and the othersare being designed. The run-of-the-river HEPPs designed aredivided into various sub-groups; three HEPP projects with feasi-bility report ready, one HEPP project withmaster plan ready, and 19HEPP projects with preliminary report ready (Table 7). The datain Table 7 was obtained from Ref. [25] and updated.

5.1.4. Hydropower potential of the Çoruh River BasinEnergy is considered to be one of the key factors in economical

development. Sustainable energy resources are of vital impor-tance and the energy resources, which are continuously availablefor long durations and have no detrimental social effects, arecompulsory for sustainable development. The fact that fossiloriginated energy resources are both exhaustible and havedetrimental effects to environment has made inevitable to focuson alternative energy resources. These resources, including hy-dropower, have some advantages, such as being sustainable,renewable, environmentally friendly and clean resources. The

Fig. 9. The Muratlı (a), Borçka (b), an

inherent technical, economical and environmental benefits ofhydroelectric power make it an important contributor to thefuture world energy mix, particularly in the developing countries[15]. The Çoruh River, the longest river of the Eastern Black SeaRegion, has high economic importance for Turkey as it haseconomically exploitable hydropower potential but it is largelyundeveloped [31]. By the end of 2012, the installed capacity forthe Çoruh River Development Plan in operation constitutes 6.97%of the hydropower installed capacity and 2.26% of the totalinstalled capacity of Turkey. Considering the annual energy gen-eration instead of the installed capacity, these values correspond7.58 and 1.73%, respectively.

The electric energy generation of Turkey was 229,395 GWh in2011 [19]. The total installed capacity and the annual average energygeneration of 39 HEPPs at various project stages within the scope ofthe Çoruh Basin Development Plan are 3169.7 MW and10,724.16 GWh, respectively (Table 7). This energy generation cor-responds 4.67% of the electricity energy production and 20.5% of thehydroelectric energy generation of Turkey (52.339 GWh) in 2011.

In the Çoruh River Basin, there are also 129 HEPP projectsplanned or developed by private sector. These projects are at

d Deriner (c) Dams and HEPPs.

Table 7Energy potential of Çoruh Basin within the scope of Çoruh Basin Development Plan.

Level Project name Province Type of dam Power (MW) Energy (GWh/year)

In operation Borçka Dam and HEPP Artvin Rock-fill dam 300 1039Muratlı Dam and HEPP Artvin Rock-fill dam 115 444Tortum I HEPP Erzurum Without storage 26.20 85Deriner Dam and HEPP Artvin Concrete arch dam 670 2118Güllüba�g Dam and HEPP Erzurum Concrete arch dam 84 285

Under construction Arkun Dam and HEPP Erzurum Rock-fill dam 222 788Yusufeli Dam and HEPP Artvin Rock-fill dam 540 1705Artvin Dam and HEPP Artvin Arch gravity dam 332 1026Bayram Dam and HEPP Artvin Rock-fill dam 81 265Ba�glık Dam and HEPP Artvin Concrete gravity dam 67 238

Feasibility report ready Laleli Dam and HEPP Erzurum Rock-fill dam 99 245_Ispir Dam and HEPP Erzurum Rock-fill dam 54 328Aksu Dam and HEPP Erzurum Rock-fill dam 120 344Altıparmak Dam and HEPP Artvin Concrete arch dam 50 200Ö�gdem HEPP Artvin Without storage 18 69Olur Dam and HEPP Erzurum Rock-fill dam 65 242Ayvalı Dam and HEPP Erzurum Rock-fill dam 125 409Tortum II HEPP Erzurum Without storage 11 51Erenler HEPP Artvin Without storage 21.4 91

Master plan ready _Ikizkavak HEPP Artvin Without storage 20 73Preliminary report ready Ardıçlı HEPP Erzurum Without storage 6.25 20

Çayırözü HEPP Erzurum Without storage 3.92 13.32Özlüce HEPP Erzurum Without storage 18 61Sehir HEPP Erzurum Without storage 1.24 6.14Tapsur HEPP Erzurum Without storage 1.65 6.28Yedigöl HEPP Erzurum Without storage 11 42Aksu HEPP Erzurum Without storage 21 94Sırakonaklar HEPP Erzurum Without storage 11 43Tünkes HEPP Erzurum Without storage 1.06 4.38Kızıl HEPP Erzurum Without storage 1.46 5.7Kocaklar HEPP Erzurum Without storage 3 10.30Çayasan HEPP Erzurum Without storage 17 84Dipçin HEPP Artvin Without storage 4.14 14.47Aydın HEPP Artvin Without storage 1.5 5.15Ardanuç HEPP Artvin Without storage 8.3 21.7Meydancık HEPP Artvin Without storage 17 65.87Savsat HEPP Artvin Without storage 11 41Konacık HEPP Artvin Without storage 14 65Taslıca HEPP Artvin Without storage 23 114

Total hydropower potential 3169.7 10,724.16

M. Kankal et al. / Renewable Energy 68 (2014) 118e133 127

different design levels; two HEPPs of 10 GWh/year in operation, 40HEPPs of 1093 GWh/year with the Signed Water Right Consensus,51 HEPPs of 2304 GWh/year with feasibility report ready, and therest of 462 GWh/year with preliminary report ready (Table 8). Thedata in Table 8 was obtained from Ref. [25] and updated. When allthese projects are completed, the total evaluable hydropower po-tential of the Çoruh River Basin will be 14,593 GWh/year with aninstalled capacity of 4487 MW. This potential corresponds to 27.9%of the hydroelectric energy generation of Turkey in 2011 and also11.4% of the economically feasible hydropower potential of127,623 GWh/year.

5.2. The Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP)

5.2.1. General characteristics of the GAP ProjectThe GAP Project is the largest regional development project in

Turkey, and also one of themajor projects in theworld. It consists ofdams, hydropower plants and irrigation schemes in the lowerEuphrates and Tigris Basins, and accompanying growth of agricul-ture, transportation, industry, telecommunications, health, andeducation sectors and services in the region [32]. The Master Planfor the GAP region was prepared and put into effect by the StatePlanning Organization in 1989. The project covers an area of75,000 km2 in Adıyaman, Diyarbakır, Batman, Gaziantep, Kilis,Sırnak, Mardin, Siirt, and Sanlıurfa provinces having large agricul-tural area potential in southeast Turkey (Fig. 10). This area is home

for 9% of the Turkey’s population. Part of the reason for the launchof the GAP Project is regulation of the water flow in the Euphratesand Tigris Rivers, benefiting not only Turkey, but also Iraq and Syria[33].

The GAP Project was initially undertaken as a program todevelop water and land resources of the region and consequentlyplanned as a package comprising 13 projects envisaging irrigationschemes and hydraulic power plants in the EuphrateseTigris Basin.As a whole, the package included 22 dams, 19 HEPPs and irrigationcovering an area of 1.8 million ha. Upon the completion of theproject, the energy production will reach to 27 billion kWh in theregion, per capita income will rise by 209% and employment op-portunities will be provided for about 3.8 million people [34].

5.2.2. The dams in the GAPThere are 22 dams in the GAP region. These dams are divided

into five categories with respect to the present project stage(Fig. 11); ten of which in operation, three of which under con-struction, one of which with final design report ready, five of whichmaster plan ready, and the rest with preliminary report ready. TheAtatürk and Karakaya Dams located in the GAP region are the mostimportant two dams in terms of the hydropower potential inTurkey (Fig. 12).

5.2.2.1. The Atatürk Dam. The Atatürk Dam and HEPP, located atBozova Town, 24 km from Sanlıurfa Province, is the key structure of

Table 8Total energy potential of the Çoruh River Basin.

Organization Status of project Number of project Power (MW) Energy (GWh/year)

Private sector Signed Water Right Consensus 40 456.17 1092.86In operation 2 5 10Feasibility report ready 51 683.2 2304.2Preliminary report ready 36 172.81 461.84

Hydro potential which will be made by corporate bodies (private sector) 1317.18 3,868.90Hydro potential within the scope of the Çoruh Basin Development Plan 3169.70 10,724.16Total hydro potential of Çoruh River Basin 4486.88 14,593.06

M. Kankal et al. / Renewable Energy 68 (2014) 118e133128

the GAP Project, and listed in international construction publica-tions as the world’s largest construction site. The damwas plannedand implemented by DS_I and constructed by ATA Joint Groupconsisting of three prominent Turkish contractors. The construc-tion was started in 1983 and completed in 1992 [34].

The spillway is an ogee type with six bays controlled by16.0 m� 17.0 m radial gate at each one. Its maximum dischargecapacity is 16,800 m3/s with the water level of 544.15 m in thereservoir. The dam crest is 1664 m in length and 15 m inwidth. Theelevation of the crest is 549 m, while the volume of dam is 84.5million cubic meters. The three diversion tunnels, lying on the leftbank with typical horse shoe cross-section shaped with innerdiameter of 8.0 m each, have themaximum total discharge capacityof 2550 m3/s. The catchment area is 92,240 km2, while theimpounded land is 817 km2. The maximum reservoir capacity ofthe Atatürk Dam is 48.7 billion cubic meters. The minimum waterlevel in the reservoir is 526 m. The power plant in operation sinceJuly 1992 has eight units with the total installed capacity of2400 MW. The maximum power discharge is 241 m3/s and themaximum effective head is 151.2 m. The HEPP generates energy of8.9 billion kWh/year. Furthermore, the total irrigation area of theAtatürk Dam reservoir is 872,385 ha [35].

5.2.2.2. The Karakaya Dam. The Karakaya Dam located in Diyar-bakir Province is a concrete arch dam between the Keban andAtatürk Dams on the Euphrates River. The main purpose of the

Fig. 10. Location map o

Karakaya Dam is to generate energy. Construction of the dam wasstarted in 1976 and completed in 1987; it is in operation since 1987.The height is 158 m from the thalweg, 416 m long variable-radiusarch type with structural volume of 2 million m3. Reservoir areaand volume of the Karakaya Dam in normal water elevation are268 km2 and 9580 hm3, respectively. The spillway consists of tenfrontal type floodgates on its crest with a maximum discharge ca-pacity of 17,000 m3/s [36]. The dam comprises a power plant of1800 MW generating energy of 7.4 million kWh/year and is thesecond largest hydropower plant in Turkey [37].

5.2.3. Water potential of the GAPThe GAP region is rich in water resources. The Euphrates and

Tigris Rivers represent over 28% of the country’s water supply byrivers, and the economically irrigable areas in the region make up20% of those for the whole Turkey. The development of the regionwas originally planned as relating to its water resources, whichwere later combined in a comprehensive water and land resourcesdevelopment package [38]. For this purpose, total 13 groups ofprojects were planned by DS_I as eight projects on the EuphratesRiver and five projects on the Tigris River. These projects are shownfor the Euphrates River in Table 9 and for the Tigris River in Table 10.

The package included the construction of 22 dams, 19 HEPPs,and the irrigation facilities including two irrigation tunnels of26.4 km in length to serve a land of 1.8 million ha. The totalinstalled capacity of the power plants is 7500 MW with an annual

f the GAP region.

Fig. 11. The dams in the GAP region.

M. Kankal et al. / Renewable Energy 68 (2014) 118e133 129

generation of over 27 billion kWh. There are two main basin pro-jects, namely, the Euphrates and Tigris Basin projects [38]. TheEuphrates Basin projects having an installed capacity of 5318 MWwill generate energy of 20 billion kWh and irrigate land of 1.1million ha (Table 9). Fourteen dams and eleven HEPPs are plannedin the Euphrates. The Tigris Basin projects having an installed ca-pacity of 2182 MW will generate energy of 7.2 billion kWh andirrigate land of 574,247 ha (Table 10). Eight dams and HEPPs areplanned in the Tigris.

The most important one within all project groups is the LowerEuphrates Project, which consists of the Atatürk Dam and HEPP,Sanlıurfa HEPP, Sanlıurfa Irrigation Tunnels, SiverekeHilvan Pum-ped Irrigation, and Bozova Pumped Irrigation. TwoHEPPs having aninstalled capacity of 2450 MW are in operation with the energygeneration of 8900 kWh/year. The Sanlıurfa Tunnels, the world’slargest irrigation tunnel system, are also in operation with an irri-gation area of 375,949 ha. When all planned projects in this groupare completed, the irrigation area will reach to 579,490 ha [41].

5.2.4. The energy situation in the GAPThe total installed capacity of 19 HEPPs in the GAP Project is

about 7500 MWwith an annual generation of over 27 billion KWh.Ten HEPPs were completed; the physical realization of the energyinvestments was 74% as of 2012. The status of the HEPPs accordingto the project levels is given in Table 11. The Ilısu Dam, the thirdmajor dam in terms of energy generation in the GAP Project, isunder construction. The final designs of the Cizre and Silvan Dams,the other important dams on the Tigris River, were completed.

Fig. 12. The Atatürk (a) and Kar

Starting from the operation of the Karakaya, Atatürk, Kralkızı,Dicle, Batman, Birecik, Karkamıs, Sanlıurfa, Ça�gça�g, and ErkenekHEPPs and up to the end of 2012, the total energy generation is375.2 billion kWh. The monetary equivalent of this generation isabout 22.5 billion US dollars (1 kWh¼ 6 cent) [39]. The electricenergy generation of the GAP and Turkey between the years of2003 and 2012 is given in Table 12. From the country’s totalelectric energy generation of 239.5 TWh in 2012, the GAP regionhas a share of 33.1% with an output of 19.2 TWh. In the same year,the GAP had a share of 8.0% in the total energy generation (ther-mal, hydraulic, and wind). The share of the GAP in the hydropowergeneration was about 33% between the years of 2008 and 2012,while this share was approximately 50% between the years of2004 and 2008. Considering many years, it was observed that theshare of the GAP in the total hydropower generation has showeddownward trend.

Considering the energy generation values on the basis of thedams in the GAP region, it was seen that an energy generation ofabout 80% was provided by the Karakaya and Atatürk Dams in 2011(Table 13). The Karakaya Dam comes first with a generation of7166 GWh, while the Atatürk Dam comes second with a generationof 6751 GWh. The Birecik Dam follows with a share of 11.8%.

5.3. Environmental impacts of the multi-dam power projects

It is well known that large dams directly influence the habitatand the climate [44,45]. Change in local climate may lead tochanges in precipitation and temperature in the catchment area

akaya (b) Dams and HEPPs.

Table 9Water and land resources development projects in the Euphrates Basin of the GAP region [39,40].

Project Capacity (MW) Production (GW) Irrigation area (ha) Present stage

1. Karakaya Dam & HEPP 1800 7354 e Operation2. Lower Euphrates Project 2450 9024 579,490Atatürk Dam & HEPP 2400 8900 e OperationSanlıurfa HEPP 50 124 e OperationSanlıurfa Irrigation Tunnels e e 375,949 OperationSiverekeHilvan Pumped Irrigation e e 158,053 Master plan readyBozova Pumped Irrigation e e 45,488 Final design3. Border Euphrates Project 861 3168 e

Birecik Dam & HEPP 672 2516 e OperationKarkamıs Dam & HEPP 180 652 e Operation4. SuruçeYaylak Project Plain Irrigation e e 113,136Yaylak Plain Irrigation e e 18,322 OperationSuruç Plain Irrigation e e 94,814 Under construction5. AdıyamaneKahta Project 195 437 77,839Çamgazi Dam & Irrigation e e 8000 OperationGömikan Dam & Irrigation e e 7421 Master plan readyKoçali Dam & HEPP 40 120 17,761 Master plan readySırımtas Dam & HEPP 19 87 e Under constructionFatopasa HEPP 22 32 e Master plan readyKahta Dam & HEPP 75 71 e Master plan readyBulam HEPP 9 43 e OperationBüyükçay Dam, HEPP & Irrigation 30 84 12,322 Master plan readyPumped Irrigation from Atatürk Dam e e 23,998 Master plan readySamsat Pumped Irrigation e e 8337 Operation6. AdıyamaneGöksueAraban Project 12 52 70,968Çetintepe Dam e e e Preparing EIA reportAdıyamaneGöksueAraban Irrigation e e 70,968 PlanningErkenek HEPP 12 52 e Operation7. Gaziantep Project e e 140,903Hanca�gız Dam & Irrigation e e 6945 OperationKayacık Dam & Irrigation e e 20,000 OperationKemlim Dam & Irrigation e e 3088 Preliminary report readySeve Dam (potable water supply) e e e OperationBelkıseNizip Pumped Irrigation e e 10,164 Under constructionPumped Irrigation from Birecik Dam e e 95,976 Final designBayramlı Weir & Irrigation e e 4730 Master plan readyTotal 5318 20,035 1,094,275

M. Kankal et al. / Renewable Energy 68 (2014) 118e133130

[46]. Additionally, hydropower facilities with large dams haveimpact on the land use. Utilization of large scale hydropower fa-cilities may result in acidification and eutrophication in aquaticenvironments [47,48]. However, there is still no common answer to

Table 10Water and land resources development projects in the Tigris Basin of the GAP region [39

Project Capacity (MW) Produc

1. DicleeKralkızı Project 204 442Kralkızı Dam & HEPP 94 146Dicle Dam & HEPP 110 296Dicle Right Bank Gravity Irrigation e e

Dicle Right Bank Pumped Irrigation e e

2. Batman Project 198 483Batman Dam & HEPP 198 483Batman Left Bank Irrigation e e

Batman Right Bank Gravity Irrigation e e

3. BatmaneSilvan Project 250 964Silvan Dam & HEPP 160 623Kayser Dam & HEPP 90 341Dicle Left Bank Gravity Irrigation e e

Dicle Left Bank Pumped Irrigation e e

4. Garzan Project 90 315Garzan Dam & HEPP 90 315Garzan Irrigation e e

5. Ilısu Dam & HEPP 1200 38336. Cizre Project 240 1208Cizre Dam & HEPP 240 1208Nusaybin Cizre Irrigation e e

Silopi Plain Irrigation e e

Total 2182 7245

the question whether dam reservoirs deteriorate or improve theriver water-quality. Generally, it has been observed that big reser-voirs are able to improve the quality of the receiving waters havingslight or average pollution levels [49].

,40].

tion (GW) Irrigation area (ha) Present stage

130,159e Operatione Operation54,279 Master plan ready75,880 Under construction37,351e Operation18,758 Under construction18,593 Under construction245,372e Under constructione Master plan ready193,249 Master plan ready52,123 Planning40,365e Preliminary report ready40,365 Planninge Under construction121,000e Final design89,000 Planning32,000 Planning574,247

Table 11The status of hydropower potential in the GAP [39].

Name of the project Installed Capacity (MW) Energy production (GWh) Project level First operation year

Karayaka Dam and HEPP 1800 7354 In operation 1987Atatürk Dam and HEPP 2450 8900 In operation 1993Birecik Dam and HEPP 672 2516 In operation 2000Karkamıs Dam and HEPP 180 652 In operation 1999Sanlıurfa Dam and HEPP 50 124 In operation 2005Büyükçay Dam and HEPP & Irrigation 30 84 Master plan readyKoçali Dam and HEPP & Irrigation 39 187 Master plan readySırımtas Dam and HEPP 26 87 Under constructionKahta Dam and HEPP 75 171 Master plan readyFatopasa HEPP 22 47 Master plan readyErkenek HEPP 12 52 In operation 2010Euphrates Basin (total) 5356 20,174Dicle Dam and HEPP 110 296 In operation 1999Kralkızı Dam and HEPP 94 146 In operation 1998Batman Dam and HEPP 198 483 In operation 2003Ilısu Dam and HEPP 1200 3833 Under constructionCizre Dam and HEPP 240 1208 Final design report readySilvan Dam and HEPP 150 623 Final design report readyKayser Dam and HEPP 90 341 Master plan readyGarzan Dam and HEPP 90 315 Preliminary report readyTigris Basin (total) 2172 7245General total 7528 27,419

Table 12Electric energy production comparison between the GAP and Turkey [20,39,42].

Year Turkey GAP hydraulic (TWh) GAP/Turkey

Thermal (TWh) Hydraulic (TWh) Wind and geothermal (TWh) Total (TWh) Hydraulic (%) Total (%)

2003 105.1 35.3 0.15 140.6 15.3 43.34 10.92004 104.5 46.1 0.15 150.7 22.4 48.59 14.92005 122.2 39.6 0.15 161.9 18.7 47.22 11.62006 131.8 44.2 0.22 176.2 21.4 48.42 12.12007 155.2 35.9 0.51 191.6 18.2 50.70 9.52008 164.1 33.3 1.01 198.4 15.6 48.30 7.92009 156.9 36.0 1.93 194.8 12.1 33.6 6.22010 155.8 51.8 3.58 211.2 17.5 33.8 8.32011 171.6 52.3 5.42 229.3 17.3 33.1 7.52012 174.9 57.9 6.76 239.5 19.2 33.1 8.0

Table 13The energy generation of the HEPPs of the GAP in 2011 [43].

Name of project Gross energygeneration (GWh)

Share of the total (%)

Karayaka Dam and HEPP 7166.6 41.4Atatürk Dam and HEPP 6751.6 39.0Birecik Dam and HEPP 2047.3 11.8Karkamıs Dam and HEPP 499.9 2.9Batman Dam and HEPP 379.7 2.2Dicle Dam and HEPP 203.7 1.2Kralkızı Dam and HEPP 128.9 0.8Sanlıurfa Dam and HEPP 122.3 0.7Erkenek HEPP 0.0 0.0

M. Kankal et al. / Renewable Energy 68 (2014) 118e133 131

While the GAP Project has been criticized for environmentalproblems involved in its construction, the reduction in carbonemissions that will be achieved by constructing hydro rather thanthermal power generating capacity has been officially put for-ward. For instance, it is estimated that the Ilısu Dam project willsave three million tons of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions peryear that may have helped European export credit agencies tothrow their support behind it. The main environmental problemsencountered in the GAP region arise from the agricultural prac-tices (salinization, pollution due to excessive use of chemicals,deterioration of groundwater quality as a result of inappropriateirrigation practices, soil erosion, and rural emigration), floodingof dam reservoirs (loss of endemic species and fertile land),operational phase of dam (climate change, epidemics, loss offertility downstream, effects on aquatic species), and urbandevelopment (urban pollution, loss of land, and immigration)[29].

Although the Çoruh River Development Plan predominantlyfocuses on the hydroelectric generation, an irrigation component(agriculture development) also runs in parallel. The Yusufeli Damproject may save w1.5 million tons of GHG emissions per yearwhen compared with the Ilısu Dam project energy capacity asspecified. The main environmental problems faced within theÇoruh Basin are almost in line with the problems encountered inthe GAP region [29].

6. Conclusions

Turkey is a fast-growing country and more than half of the en-ergy requirements have been supplied by imports. Natural gas hasthe biggest share in total primary energy consumption. Renewableresources except for hydraulic have only very minor share inelectric energy generation in Turkey. Total share of renewable intotal primary energy supply has declined owing to the declining useof non-commercial biomass and the growing role of natural gas inthe system. The other important factor of renewable resources is tocreate new employment opportunities. Therefore, Turkey must

Total 17,300.0 100.0

M. Kankal et al. / Renewable Energy 68 (2014) 118e133132

discover new and renewable energy sources in order to avoidforeign-source dependency.

The GAP Project is the most comprehensive, and integratedregional development project ever attempted in Turkey. The con-struction of dams, hydroelectric power plants and irrigation net-works is underway. A physical realization of 74% was provided forthe energy investments in the GAP region. The HEPP projects, whencompleted, will generate an electricity of 27 billion kWh/year. Thehydropower generation from the GAP schemes was 19.2 TWh in2012. This generation corresponds 33.1% of the total hydroelectricgeneration, while 8.0% of total generation in Turkey.

The annual average energy generation of the Çoruh River Basinwill reache to 10,724 GWhwith total installed capacity of 3169 MWwhen all projects planned in scope of the Çoruh Basin DevelopmentPlan are completed. This value corresponds to 4.7% of the electricenergy generation and also 20.5% of the hydroelectric generation ofTurkey in 2011. Total hydroelectric energy generation potential ofthe Çoruh River Basin is 14.6 TWh/year together with privatesector.

Finally, the hydropower projects developed by the state sectoras well as private have to been in operation immediately as Turkeyis an energy-importing country.

Acknowledgments

This paper is dedicated to the memory of the late Assoc. Prof. Dr.Murat _Ihsan KÖMÜRCÜ, who passed away in February 2013.

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