Artillery Through the Ages

7/28/2019 Artillery Through the Ages

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ARTILLERY THROUGHTHEAGESo

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A M C T E C H N I C A LL I B R A R Y

ARTILLERY THROUGHHEGES AShortllustratedHistoryofCannon,

EmphasizingTypesUsednAmericabyALBERTMANUCY

HistorianSoutheasternNationalMonuments

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TechnicalReviewby HaroldL.Peterson

NationalParkServiceInterpretiveSeries HistoryNo.3

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICEWASHINGTON 949

(Reprint962)

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A Approved fo r Public ReleaseDistribution Unlimited


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ManyoftheypesfcannonescribednhisbookletmaybeeennreasfheNationalarkystemhroughouthecountry.omeparkswithespeciallyfinecollectionsare:CASTILLOEANMARCOSNATIONALMONUMENT,eventeenth

andighteenthcenturyfieldandgarrisonguns.CHICKAMAUOANDCHATTANOOGANATIONALMILITARYARK,CivilWarfieldandsiegeguns.

COLONIALNATIONALHISTORICALARK,eventeenthandeight-eenthcenturyfieldandsiegeguns,eighteenthcenturynavalguns.

FORTMCHENRYNATIONALMONUMENTAN D HISTORICHRINE,earlyineteenthenturyieldunsndCivilWararrisonguns.

FORTULASKINATIONALMONUMENT,CivilWargarrisonguns.GETTYSBURGNATIONALMILITARYARK,CivilWarfielduns.PETERSBURGNATIONALMILITARYARK,CivilWarieldnd

siegeguns.SHILOHNATIONALMILITARYARK,CivilWarfielduns.VICKSBUROATIONALILITARYARK,ivilWarieldnd

siegeuns.

TheNationalarkystemsedicatedoonservinghecenic,scientific,andhistoricheritageoftheUnitedtatesorheenefitndenjoymentofitspeople.


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Q ontentsOO OOO

PAGETHEERAOFARTILLERY

TheAncientEnginesfWarGunpowderomesoEuropeTheBombardsSixteenthCenturyCannonTheeventeenthCenturyandGustavusAdolphusTheEighteenthCenturyUnitedStatesGunsoftheEarly800's 2 Rifling 3TheWarBetweentheStates 7 TheChangeintoModemArtillery 0GUNPOWDER 3 Primers 5 ModemUsefBlackowder 7 THECHARACTERISTICSOFCANNON1 TheEarlySmoothboreCannon 1SmoothboresfheLatereriod 1GarrisonandShipGuns 6 SiegeCannon 2 FieldCannon 4 Howitzers 6 Mortars 8 Petards 1

PROJECTILES 3 Solidhot 3 Explosivehells 5Fuzes 6 Scatterrojectiles 8IncendiariesndChemicalrojectiles 9 FixedAmmunition 0Rockets 1

TOOLS 3 THEPRACTICEOFGUNNERY 9 GLOSSARY 7 SELECTEDBIBLIOGRAPHY 1

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TheEraofArtilleryO ooooo

Lookingtnld-timeannon,mosteoplereurefustnehing:theshotcameutfhefrontnd. orhateasonhesepagesar ewrit-ten;peoplereuriousabouthefascinatingweaponhatsoprodigiouslyandowerfullyengthenedhe arrior'srm .Andheirss ustifiablecuriosity,becausehegunnerandhis^art"playedasignificantroleinourhistory.

THEANCIENTENGINESOFWARToompare Romanatapultwith modemrenchmortareems

absurd.Yettheonlybasicifferencesthekindfenergythatsendsheprojectileonit sway.

Inheawnfistory,warngineswereerformingheunctionfartillerywhichmaybelooselydefinedsameansfhurlingmissilestooheavyoehrownbyand),ndwithheserudeweaponsheasicprinciplesfrtillerywereaidown.ThecripturesecordhesefingeniousmachinesnhewallsfJerusalemeightcenturies .Cma-chinesthatwereprobablypredecessors ofthecatapultandballista,gettingpowerromwistedopesmadefair,iderinew.Theallistaadhorizontalarmslikeabow.Thearmswerese tinrope;acord,fastenedto thermsike bowstring,iredrrows,arts,ndtones.Like modemfieldun,heallistahotowndirectlyowardhenemy.

Theatapultwasheowitzer,rmortar,fit sayndouldhrowahundred-poundstone600yardsinahigharctostriketheenemybehindhiswallratterownisefenses.Inhemiddlefheopeswoodenrmisesik e hariotole,"wroteheistorianMarcellinus."Atthetopofthearmhangsasling.Whenbattleiscommenced,aroundstoneisse tinthesling.Foursoldiersoneachsideoftheenginewindthearmownntiltslmostevelwithheround.Whenhermset free,itspringsupndhurlsthestoneforthfromitssling."nearlyt imestheweaponwasalled scorpion,"orikehi sreadednsecttor eits"sting"erect.


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FIGURE BALLISTA. CaesaroveredisandingnBritainwithireromcatapultsndallistas.

TherebuchetwasnotherwarmachinesedxtensivelyuringheMiddleAges.Essentially,itwas seesaw.Weightsontheshortarmswungthelongthrowingarm.

Theseweaponsouldeusedwithtellingeffect,stheRomansearnedfromArchimedesnheiegefyracuse214-212B.C.).Aslutarchrelates,ArchimedesoonbeganoplayhisnginesupontheRomansandtheirhips,ndhottonesfuchnnormousizendwithoncred-ible oisendelocityhatnothingouldtandeforehem.Atength

FIGURE2CATAPULT.

veight-^(upto10tons)'^slingwithprojectile

FIGURETREBUCHET. Aeavj-rebuchetouldhrow 00-poundtone300ards.


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theRomanswereoterrifiedthat,iftheysawbutaropeorabeampro-jectingverhe allsfyracuse,heyrieduthatArchimedes as levelingsomemachineathem,ndturnedheirbacksndfled."

Longaftertheintroductionfgunpowder,theoldenginesfwarcon-tinuedinuse.Oftentheyweresideby sidewithcannon.

GUNPOWDER COMES TO EUROPEChinesethunderfhearth"anffectroducedyilling arge

bombshellithunpowdermixture)oundedainteverberationsamongsthehilosophersfhewesternworldsarlys .D .00 .ThoughheChinesewereirstinstructednhecientificastingofcan-nonby missionariesduringthe600's,crudecannonseemtohaveexistedinChinauringthetwelfthcenturyandevenearlier.

InEurope, inthenturyLatinmanuscriptontains ormulaorgunpowder.ButheirsthowfirearmsnwesternEuropemayavebeenyheMoors,taragossa,nA.D.118.nateryearshepan-iardsturnedthenewweaponagainsttheirMoorishenemiesatthesiegeof Cordova1280)ndthecaptureofGibraltar1306).

ItthereforefollowsthattheArabianmadjaa,whichinturnhaddoubt-lessescendedromnasternredecessor,asheriginalannonbroughtowesternivilization.Thistrangeweaponeemsoaveeenamall,mortar-likenstrumentfwood.Likenegginnggcup,heballestednhemuzzlendntiliringfhehargeossedtnhegeneralirectionfhenemy.Anotherrimitiveannon,ntharrowneckndlaredmouth,irednronart.Thehaftfheartwas wrappedwitheatheroitightlyintoheeckfheiece.Aed-hotbarhrusthrough entgnitedheharge.Theangewasbout00 yards.Thebottleshapeoftheweaponperhapssuggestedthenamepotde ferironjug)ivenearlycannon,andinthecourseofevolutionthenar-rowneckprobablyenlargeduntilhebottlebecame straighttube.

DuringheHundredYears'War1339-1453)annonamentoen -eraluse.Thoseearlypieceswereverysmall,madeofironorcastbronze,andiredeadrironalls.Theywereaiddirectlyonheround,withmuzzleslevatedymoundinguphearth. eingumbrousndneflS-cient,heyplayedlittlepartinbattle,butwerequiteusefulinasiege.

THEBOMBARDSByhemiddle400'sheittleopgunshatossedne -rwo-pound

pelletshadrovmntoenormousbombards.DulleGriete,hegiantbom-bardofGhent,hada25-inchcaliberandfireda700-poundgraniteball.Itwasuiltn382 .EdinburghCastle'samousMonsMeghrew S/g-inchronallom e,400ardsamiles,760ards),r tonealltwicethatfar.


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ThecottishingssedMegetween455nd513oeducehecastlesfebelliousobles.Aaron'sastlewasasilynockedoiecesbyherincewhowned,rouldorrow, ewiecesfeavyrd-nance.Thetoweringwallsoftheold-timestrongholdsslowlygavewaytothearthwork-protectedRenaissancefortification,whichistypifiedintheUnitedtatesyCastilloeanMarcos,nCastilloeanMarcosNa-tionalMonument,St .Augustine,Fla.SomefhemostormidableombardswerehosefheTurks,whousedexceptionallylargecast-bronzegunsatthesiegeofConstantinoplein1453 .Onefhesemonstersweighed9on sndurled 00-poundstonesevenimes day.ttooksome6 0oxennd00menomovethis

FIGURE4EARLYMALLOMBARD1330). Itwa smadefwrought-ironbars,oundwithoops.

piece,ndheifficultyfransportingucheavyrdnancereatlye-ducedtsusefulness.TheargestcalibergunonrecordistheGreatMor-tarofMoscow.Builtabout525,thad boref36inches,was8feetlong,ndiredastoneprojectileweighingaton.Butby thistimethebiggunswerebsolete,lthoughom efheldTurkishrdnanceurvivedthecenturiestodefendConstantinopleagainstaBritishsquadronin807.InthatdefenseagreatstonecutthemainmastoftheBritishflagship,andanothercrushedhroughtheEnglishrankstokillorwound60men.

Theonderosityofheargeombardsheldhemoeveland,wheretheywerelaidonruggedmountsoftheheaviestwood,anchoredby stakesdrivenintotheground.Agunnerwouldtrytoputhisbombard00yardsfromthewallhewantedtobatterdown.Onewouldsurmisethatthegun-ner,eingoloseo astlewallmannedyxpert enoeseross-bowmen,wasn precariousposition.Hewas;butearthworksoramas-sivewoodenshieldarrangedlikeaseesawoverhi sgungavehimfairpro-tection.Loweringherontndfhehieldmade arricadeehindwhichhecouldchargehi smuzzleloader(seefig.49).

Inhoseays,ndormanydecadeshereafter,eithergunrewsortransportwereermanent.Theyadoeiredsheywereeeded.Masterunnersweresuallyivilianartists,"otrofessionaloldiers,andmanyfhemadannonuiltorentaloustomers.Artilleristsobtainedheightoapturedmetalsuchsoolsndownells,ndthisootwouldeastntounsransomedorash.Themakingf4


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gunsndunpowder,theloadingofbombs,ndeventheservingofcan-nonwereealouslyuardedradeecrets.Gunnerywas closedorpora-tion,ndheunnerimself uildsman.Theublicookedponimasomethingofasorcererineaguewithheevil,nd capturedrtil-lerymanwaspttobetorturedndmutilated.Atonetimetheopesaw fittoexcommunicateallgunners.Alsosincethesespecialistskepttothem-selvesndidotrinkrlunder,heirehaviorwasmpleroofothegoodsoldieroftheolddaysthatartilleristswerehardlyhuman.

SIXTEENTHCENTURYCANNONAfter47 0hertofastinggreatlyimprovedinEurope.Lightercan-

noneganoreplacehebombards.Throughoutthe500'smprovementwasmainlyowardHghteninghenormousweightsfunsndrojec-tiles,swellsindingbetterwaysomovetheartillery.Thus,y55 6 EmperorFerdinandwasbleomarchgainstheTurkswith7eavyand127lightpiecesofordnance.

Atthebeginningofthe400'scast-ironballshadmadeanappearance.Thereaterfficiencyofheronall,ogetherwithnmprovementingunpowder,urtherncouragedheuildingfmallerndtrongerguns.efore50 0heiegeunadeenheredominantiece.Nowforged-ironannonorfield,arrison,ndavalerviceandater,ast-ironiecesw ereteadilyevelopedlongwithast-bronzeuns,om eofwhichwereeautifullyrnamentedwithRenaissanceworkmanship.Theastingfrunnionsnheunmadelevationndransportationeasier,ndheumbroused sfhearlydaysavewaytorudertil-lerycarriageswithtrailsandwheels.TheFrenchinventedtheUmberandabout55 0ook izableorwardtepytandardizinghealibersftheirartillery.

Meanwhile,hefirstcannonhadom etotheNewWorldwithColum-bus.AsthePinta'slookoutsightedlandontheearlymomofOctober2 ,1 49 2 ,hefiringofalombardcarriedthenewsoverthemoonlitwatersto theflagshipSantaMaria.Withinhenextcentury,notonlythegalleons,butumerousortificationsnhepanishMainwerermedwithuns,thunderingthereebooterswhoisputedpain'swnershipfAmeri-canreasure.ometimeshedventurerseizedannonsrizes,sidDraken586whenemadeffwith4ronzeunsromt.Augus-tine'sHttlewoodenortofanuaneinos.Drake'sootooubtin-cludedherdnancef 578ist,whichives airideafherma-mentornnportantrontierortification:hreeeinforcedannon,threeemiculverins,woakersoneroken), emisakernd alcon,allproperlymountedonelevatedplatformsintheforttocovereveryap-proach.Mostfhemwereighlyrnamentediecesoundedetween1546nd555.Thereinforcedcanncwi,orinstance,whichseemtohavebeenastfromthesamemold,achborethefigureofasavageheftingaclubinonehandndgraspingacoinintheother.Onademiculverin,

56342080-622


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bronzemermaideld urtle,ndhetherunswereecoratedwitharms,scutcheons,heounder'sname,ndoon .

InheEnglisholoniesuringheixteenthndseventeenthcenturies,lighterpiecesseemtohavebeenthemoreprevalent;hereisnorecordofanycannon."Inhoseays,cannon"were peciallass.)Culverinsarementionedccasionallyandemiculverinsratherfrequently,butmostcommonwerehefalconets,falcons,minions,ndsakers.AtFortRaleigh,Jamestown,lymouth,ndom etherettlementshereech-loadinghalf-pounderperrierorPatterero"mountednaswivelwasalsoinuse.(Seefrontispiece.)

Itwasuringtheixteenthenturythatthescienceofballisticshaditsbeginning.n537 ,NiccoloTartagliapublishedhefirstscientifictreatiseonunnery.rinciplesfonstructionwereriedndometimesban-doned,nlyoeappearoruccessfulpplicationnaterenturies.Breech-loadingguns,orinstance,adlreadybeeninvented.Theywereunsatisfactoryecausehereechouldoteealedgainstscapeftheowderases,ndherude,hamberedreechblocks,ammedagainstheorewith wedge,ftenrackednderhehockfiring.Neitherisspiralriflingnew.tappearedinafewgunsduringthe500's.

Mobilertilleryamenheieldwithheartunsfohn izkaduringtheHussiteWarsofBohemia1419-24).Usinglightguns,hauledbyhees tforsesnsteadfhesualxen,heFrenchurtherm-provedieldrtillery,ndmaneuverableFrenchgunsprovedtobeanex-cellentmeansforbreakingupheavymassesofpikemenintheItaliancam-paignsfhearly500's.TheGermansnderMaximilian,owever,tookhermamenteadershipwayromherenchwithunshatranged,500yardsandwithmenwhohadearnedthereputationofbeingthebestgunnersinEurope.

Thenabout52 5hefamousSpanishSquareofheavilyarmedpikemenandmusketeersbegantodominatethebattlefield.Inthefaceofmusketry,fieldrtilleryeclined.Althoughrtilleryadchievedom emobility,carriagesweretillumbrous.Tomove eavyEnglishannon,venovergoodround,ttook3orses; ulverinneededineeasts.Am-munition ^mainlycast-ironroundshot,thebombanironshellfilledwithgunpowder),anisteracanfilledwithsmallprojectiles),andgrapeshot(aclusterofironalls)wasarriedheprimitiveway,inwheelbarrowsandartsoronaman'sback.Thegunner'spacewasthemeasureoffieldartillery'speed:heunnerwalkedesideisun!urthermore,om eofthesexpertsweregettingalonginyears.DuringElizabeth'sreignsev-eralofthegunnersattheTowerofLondonwereover90earsld .

Lackingmobility,gunswerecapturedandrecapturedvritheverychang-ingsweepfthebattle;oforthertilleristgenerally,hiswasadifficultperiod.Theactualcommanderofartillerywasusuallyasoldier;buttrans-portanddriverswerestillhired,andthedriversnaturallyhadalayman'sattitudeowardattle.Evenheunners,hoseivilianartistswhowed


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nopecialutyoherince,wereoncernedmainlyverheafetyftheiriecesandheirides,incertilleristswhotuckwithheirunswereapttobepickedoffbyanenemymusketeer.Fusiliercompanieswereorganizedsrtilleryguards,utheirjobwassmuchoeepheuncrewfromunningawayastoprotectthemfromtheenemy.

"wed^e

FIGUREFIFTEENTH-CENTURYBREECHLOADER.So ,during400years,cannonhadchangedfromthelittlevases,valuable

chieflyormakingnoise,ntoheargestaliberweaponsverbuilt,ndthenromheombardsntomaller,moreowerfulannon.Theunof600ouldhrowashotalmostsarasheunf850;otnire power,butinmobility,organization,andtacticswasartilleryundeveloped.Becausertilleryackedhesehings,heikeandmusketwereupremeonthebattlefield.THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY AND GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS

UnderhewedishwarriorGustavusAdolphus,rtillerybeganotakeitstruepositiononthefieldofbattle.Gustavussawtheneedformobility,sohedivorcedanythingheavierthana2-pounderfromhi sfieldartillery.Hisamousleatheren"unwasoighthattoulderawnndservedbywomen.Thisunwas wrought-coppertubecrewedntochamberedrassreech,oundwithourronoops.Theopperubewascoveredwithlayersofmastic,wrappedfirmlywithcords,thencoatedwithnqualizingayerflaster.Aoverfeather,oiledndar-nished,ompletedheun.Naturally,heieceouldwithstandnlysmallcharge,butitwas highlymobile.

Gustavusbandonedheeatherun,owever,nfavorf ast-iron4-poundernd -pounderemiculverinroducedyisrightoungartilleryhief,LennartTorstensson.Thedemiculverinwaslassedshe"feildpeece"arxcellence,whilehe4-pounderwassoightabout500 pounds)hattwoorsesouldulltnhefield.

Theseiecesouldeervedyhreemen.Combiningheowderchargeandprojectileintoasinglecartridgedidawaywiththeoldmethod

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ofadlingheowderntoheunndncreasedheapidityfire.Whereasinhepastonecannonforeachthousandinfantrymenhadbeenstandard,Gustavusroughtheatiopoixannon,ndttachedpairfightiecesoachegimentsbattalionuns."Atheametimeenewhealuefireoncentration,nderequentlymassed

FIGURE6LIGHTARTILLERYOFGUSTAVUSADOLPHUS1630).gunsntrongatteries.Hislansalledormashingostilenfantryformationswithrtilleryire,whileeutralizingheonderous,mmobileenemyunswith whirlwindavalryharge.Thedeaswereound.GustavusmashedhepanishquarestBreitenfeldn631 .

FollowingtheSwedishlead,llnationsmodifiedtheirartillery.Leader-shipel llternatelyoheGermans,heFrench,ndheAustrians.Themysteryfrtilleryeganoisappear,ndunnersecameprofessionalsoldiers. ronzeameoeheavoriteunmetal.LouisXIVfFranceeemsoaveeenheirstoiveermanent

organizationothertillery.Heraisedaregimentofartillerymenin67 1 andestablishedschoolsofinstruction.Thestandingarmy"principlethatbeganbout50 0wasynowineneraluse,ndsmallarmiesfhighiytrainedrofessionaloldiersormed lassistinctromheestfhepopulation.Asrtillerybecamenrganizedrmofthemilitary,xpen-siveersonnelndquipmentadoemaintainedvenneacetime.Still,somenecessarychangeswereslowincoming.Frenchartilleryofficersdidoteceivemilitaryankntil7 32 ,ndnom eountriesriversweretilliviliansnhe790's .n7 16 ,Britainadrganizedrtilleryintowoermanentompanies,omprisingheRoyalRegimentfArtil-lery.YetsatesheAmericanRevolutionherewas isputeboutwhether eneralfficerwhoseerviceadeennheRoyalArtillerywasentitledoommandroopsofallarms.TherewasnosuchquestioninEnglandfthepreviouscentury:heartillerygeneralwasapersonagehavingalwayes partoftheharge,ndwhenhehiefgenerallsab-sent,heistocommandal lthearmy."8


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skid

FIGUREFRENCHGARRISONGUN1650-1700). Thegunison slopingwoodenplatformattheembrasure.Notetheheavybedonwhichthecheeksofthe carriagerestandthebuilt-inskidunderthecenterofthe rearaxletree.THEEIGHTEENTHCENTURY

Duringtheearly700'scannonwereusedoprotectanarmy'seploy- mentandoprepareorthedvanceofthetroopsbyfiringuponenemyformations.Therewasatendencytoregardheavybatteries,properlypro-tectedyieldworksrermanentortifications,sheaturalroleorartillery.Butfrtilleryaseldomecisivenattle,teverthelesswaxedmoreimportanthroughimprovedrganization,raining,ndis- cipline.Inthepreviouscentury,calibershadbeenreducedinnumberandmoreorlessstandardized;now,therewerenotablescientificandtechnicalimprovements.TheEnglishcientistBenjaminRobinsweddedheoryopractice;hi sNewPrinciplesofGunnery1742)idmuchtobringaboutamorescientificttitudetowardballistics.OneesultofRobins'esearchwashentroduction,n7 7 9 ,farronades,hosehort,ightiecesousefulinheonfinesofaship'suneck.Carronadesusuallyrangedncaliberfrom6 -to68-pounders.

InNorthAmerica,annonwereenerallyooumbrousorndianfighting.Butfromthetime1565)heFrench,inFlorida,loosedthefirstbohtheivalleetfhepaniardMen6ndez,annonwerese dnlandandeauringintercolonialtrife,ragainstorsairs.OverthevastdistancesfarlyAmerica,ransportfeavyuns asecessarilyy water.Withouthips,heunswerenexorablywallednyheorest.SotwaswhenheCarolinianMooreesiegedt.Augustinen702.Whenhishipsburned,Moorehadtoeaveisgunsohepaniards.

OnefheirstppearancesfrganizedAmericanieldrtillerynthebattlefieldwas in theNortheast,whereFrance'sLouisburgfelltoBritish


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andColonialorcesin745 .ervingwithheBritishRoyalArtillerywas theAncientandHonorableArtilleryCompanyofBoston,whichhadorig-inatedn6 3 7 .ngUshieldrtilleryfheayhadbrigades"fourtosixannon,andachpiecewassuppliedwith00roundsofsolidshotand0roundsofgrape.JohnMuller'sTreatiseonArtillery,thestandardEnglishuthority,asepublishednhiladelphia1779),ndBritishartillerywasaturallyamodelfortherminAmerica.

^FIGURE8AMERICAN6-POUNDERFIELDPIECEc.775).AtheoutbreakfheWarfndependence,Americanrtillerywas

anccumulationfguns,mortars,ndowitzersfeverysortndom e13ifferentcalibers.incetheourceofimportationwascutoff,heun-developedastingndustriesfhe oloniesndertookannonounding,andy7 7 5heoundriesfPhiladelphiawereastingbothronzeandironuns.AumberofbronzeFrenchgunswereroughtnater.ThemobileunsfWashington'sarmyangedrom-o4-pounders,with5j/a-nd-inchowitzers.Theywereusuallyronze. ewroniegegunsf8- ,4 -,nd2-pounderaliberwerenand.Theunsse droundhot,rape,ndaseshot;mortarsndhowitzersiredombsandcarcasses.Sideboxes"oneachsideofthecarriageheld1oundsofam-munitionndwereakenffwhenhepiecewasroughtntoattery.Horsesroxen,withhiredivilianrivers,ormedheransport.Onhebattlefieldheannoneersmannedragropesomaneuverthegunsntoposition.Sometimes,stGuilfordCourthouse,hever-presentorestimin-

ishedheffectivenessofartillery,butneverthelesshearmwasoftenputtogoodse .ThekillftheAmericanunnerstYorktownontributednolittletowardthespeedyadvanceofthesiegetrenches.Yorktownbattle-fieldodayasmanyxamplesfRevolutionaryWarannon,ncludingsomefineshipgunsrecoveredfromBritishvesselssunkduringthesieeeof1781 .

InEurope,meanwhile,FrederickheGreatfrussiaearnedowouseannonnheampaignsftheevenYears'War1756-63).Theeducationwasorcedponimsradualdestructionfhi seterann-10


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fantrymadehimleanmoreheavilyonartillery.Tokeeppacewithcavalrymovements,eeveloped horseartillerythatmovedapidlyalongwiththeavalry.Hisieldrtilleryadnlyightun sndowitzers.Withthesemprovementsheouldstablishmallbatteriestimportantpointsinheattleine,penheight,ndrotecttheeploymentfisol -umnswithightuns.Whatwasquallysignificant,eouldhangehepositionfhisbatteriesaccordingtothecourseofthection.

Frederickentis-nd-poundersheadfhenfantry.Gunnersdismounted00acesromhenemynddvancednoot,ushingtheirun sheadfhem,iringncessantlyndsinggrapehoturingtheatterpartofheirdvance.Upolosestangetheywent,ntilheinfantrycaughtup,passedthroughtheartilleryline,ndstormedtheen -im yosition.Rememberhatattlewasrettyormal,withmusketeerssandingorkneelinginranks,ofteninfullviewoftheenemy!

FIGURE9FRENCH2-POUNDERFIELDGUNc.780).Perhapsheutstandingartillerymanofthe700'swasheFrenchman

JeanBaptisteeGribeauval,whobroughthome numberofideasfterservingwithheapableAustrianrtillerygainstFrederick.ThereatreformnFrenchrtilleryegann7 65 ,lthoughGribeauvalwasotableoffectllfishangesntileecamenspectorGeneralfArtilleryn7 7 6 .HellutevolutionizedFrenchrtillery,nditally influencedothercountries.

Gribeauval'srtilleryamentoctiont allopndmotheredn- em ybatterieswithnverpoweringvolumeoffire.Hecreated distinctmaterielorield,iege,arrison,ndoastrtillery.Heeducedhelengthndweightfheieces,swellshehargendhewindage(theifferenceetweenheiametersfhotndore);euiltar-riagesohatmanypartswereinterchangeable,ndmadesoldiersoutoftherivers.Forsiegendarrisonhedopted2 -nd6-pounderguns,an8-inchhowitzerand8- ,0- ,and2-inchmortars.Forcoastalfortifica-tionsesedheraversingplatformwhich,avingrearwheelshatranupon rack,reatlyimplifiedherainingf unightreftpon

1 1


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amovingargetfig.0).Gribeauval-typemat6rielwassedwithhegreatesteffectinhenewtacticswhichNapoleonintroduced.

Napoleonwedmuchfhisuccessomasterlyus efartillery.Underthisaptainhereasoreparationornfantrydvanceylowlydisintegratinghehostileorcewithrtilleryfire.Rather,hi srtillerymenwentupastintolosestrange,ndyactuallyannihilatingaportionfthenemyinewithase-shotire,coveredhessaultoffectivelyhatcolumnsofcavalryandinfantryreachedthegapwithoutstrikingablow!

AfterNapoleon,heistoryofartillerylargelybecomes ecordfits technicalffectiveness,ogetherwithimprovementsrchangesinputtingwell-establishedprinciplesintoaction.

UNITEDSTATESGUNSOFTHEEARLY1800'sTheUnitedtatesdoptedheGribeauvalsystemofartillerycarriages

in809,ustbouttheimeitwasbecomingobsoletetheFrenchban-donedtn829).Thehangeohisystem,owever,idotncludeadoptionfheFrenchunalibers.Earlynheenturyastrone-placedronzes unmetal, moveushedyherowingUnitedStatesronndustry;ndotntil83 6 asronzeeadoptednhi s

FIGURE0U.S.32-POUNDERONBARBETTECARRIAGE1860).countryformobilecannon.Inthemeantime,U.S.ArtilleryintheWarof 1812idmostofits fightingwithiron6-pounders.FortMcHenry,whichisadministeredby theNationalParkServiceasanationalmonumentandhistorichrine,as ewordnanceiecesftheeriod.

DuringtheMexicanWar,heartillerycarried-and2-pounderguns,the2-poundermountainowitzeraightiecef2 0oundswhichhadeenddedorhendianampaigns), 2-pounderfieldowitzer(788ounds),he4 -nd2-pounderowitzers,nd-nd0-inchmortars.Foriege,arrison,ndeacoastherewereiecesf6ypes,rangingrom -pounderoheiant0-inchColumbiadf}4ons.In 1857 , the United Statesdopted the 12-pounderNapoleonun-12


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howitzer,abronzesmoothboredesignedby NapoleonIII,andthismuzzle-loaderremainedtandardinhearmyuntilhe880's.

Theavalronclads,whichweresuallyrmedwithowerful1-r15-inchmoothbores,were evolutionaryevelopmentnmid-century.Theywereow-hulled,rmored,teamvessels,withnerwoevolving turrets.Althoughmostannonballsouncedromhermor,ac kfspeedmadehecheeseoxn aft"ulnerable,ndoorisibility throughheurretlotswas eriousandicapnattle.

elevatingcrew

ntackle

I rollerhandspike 'breechingotackleorunningp checkrecoilFIGURE1U..NAVY-INCHHELL-GUNONMARSILLYCARRIAGE

(1866).While20-,0- ,nd60-pounderParrottriflessoonmadeanappearance

inheederal avy,longwithDahlgren's2 -nd0-pounderifledhowitzers,theNavyreliedmainlypontsshell-guns":he-,0-,1 -,and5-inchironmoothbores.Therewerelso-inchun sof55nd3 "hundredweight"theontemporarynavalomenclature),ndoursizesof2-poundersangingrom7o7undredweight.Theeavierun stookmorepowderandgotslightlylongerranges.Manynavalgunsoftheperiodreharacterizedy olenheascabel,hroughwhichhebreechingacklewasunoheckecoil.TheNavylsoad 3-inchmortar,mountedboardhipn evolvingircularlatform.Landingpartieswerequippedwith2 -r4-pounderowitzersithernoatcarriagesalatedomethingike mortared)rnhree-wheeled"field"arriages.

RIFLINGRifling,ymparting pinoherojectilestravelslonghe

spiralgroovesinthebore,permitstheuseofalongprojectileandensuresits flightpointfirst,withgreatincreaseinaccuracy.Thelongerprojectile,beingotheavierndmoretreamlinedhanoundhotfheam ecaliber,alsohasagreaterstrikingenergy.

6342080-623 13


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ThoughBenjaminRobinswasprobablythefirsttogivesoundeasons,theacthatiflingwaselpfuladeennown ongime. 542 barrelatWoolwichhassixfinespiralgroovesinthebore.Straightgroov-inghadbeenappliedtosmallarmsas earlyas480,andduringthe500'sstraightroovingfmusketores asxtensivelyracticed.robably,riflingvolvedromhearlybservationfheeatfiersnnrrowandromheracticalresultsfcuttingchannelsin musket,riginallytoeduceouling,henecauseitwasfoundoimproveccuracyoftheshot.Rifledmall-armfficiencywaslearlyhowntKingsMountainduringtheAmericanRevolution.

Inspiteofearlierexperiments,however,itwasnotuntilthe840'sthatattemptstoriflecannoncouldbecalledsuccessful.In846 ,MajorCavelliintalyndBaronWahrendorfFnGermanyndependentlyroducedrifledironbreech-loadingcannon.TheCavelligunhadtwospiralgroovesintowhichfittedthe}4-inchprojectinglugsofalongprojectilefig.2a).OtherattemptsatwhatmightbecalledriflingwereLancaster'selliptical-boreunndheaterevelopmentf piralingexagonal-borey JosephWhitworthfig.2b).TheEnglishWhitworthwassedyCon-federatertillery.twasanfficientpiece,thoughsubjecttoeasyfoulingthatmadeitdangerous.

Then,n855,England'sLordArmstrongesigned ifledreech-loaderhatncludedomanyimprovementssoeevolutionary.Thisgun asifledwith argeumberfroovesndiredead-coatedprojectiles.Muchftsuccess,owever,wasueoheuilt-upon -struction:oopswerehrunknverheube,withheibersfhemetalrunninginthedirectionsmostsuitableforstrength.everalUnitedStatesmuzzle-loadingriflesfbuilt-uponstructionwereroducedbouttheam eimeasheArmstrongandincludedheChambers1849),heTreadwell1855),andthewell-knownParrottof1861figs.2 eand3).

TheGermanKruppifleadnspeciallyuccessfulreechmechan-ism.twasnotabuilt-upgun,butdependedonsuperiorcruciblesteelforitstrength.Castteelhadeentriedsagunmetaluringthesixteenthandeventeenthenturies,utmetallurgicalnowledgefthearlyay scouldotproduceoundastings.teelwaslsosednothermid-nine-teenthcenturyrifles,suchastheUnitedStatesWiardgunandtheBritishBlakely,withtswollen,ast-ironreechoop.ortulaskiNationalMonument,earavannah,Ga.,as in examplef 4-pounderBlakelyusedby theConfederatesinthe86 2efenseofthefort.

TheUnitedtateseganntensivexperimentationwithifledannonlateinthe850's,ndafewrifledpiecesweremadeby theSouthBostonIronFoundryandalsobytheWestPointFoundryatColdpring,N .Y.Thefirstappearanceofriflesinanyquantity,however,wasneartheout-se tfhe86 1ostilities,whenheFederalrtillerywasquippedwith300wrought-iron-inchunsfig.4e).This12-pounder,"whichfireda0-poundprojectile,wasmadeby wrappingsheetsofboilerironaround14


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f)1 .0-: sivis 1 Ij^^ leaJ*^**^^^^^0 i \ 7 dasexpanse W\N

o dlotd inbaseIea


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amandrel.Theylinderthusformedwasheatedndpassedhroughherollsorwelding,henooled,ored,urned,ndifled.temainednserviceuntilabout900.Anotherriflegivinggoodresultswasthecast-iron4j4-inchiegeun.Thisiecewasastolid,henored,urned,ndrifled.Uncertaintyftrength, haracteristicfastron,ausedts laterabandonment.

FIGURE3PARROTT0-POUNDERRIFLE1864).TheUnitedtatesiflehatwasmostff"ectiveniegeworkwashe

inventionfRobert.arrott.Hisast-ironunsfig.3),manyfwhichareseenodayinhebattlefieldparks,reeasilyrecognizedby theheavywrought-ironacketeinforcinghereech.Theacketwasmadebyoiling arverhemandreln piral,henammeringheoilsinto weldedylinder.Theylinderwasoredndhrunknheun.Parrottswereoundedn0- ,0- ,0- ,0- ,00-,00-,nd00-poundercalibers,neoundrymaking,700fhemuringtheCivilWar.Allations,fourse,adargetocksfmoothboresnand,nd

variousmethodsweredevisedtomakeriflesoutofthem.TheU..Ord-nanceBoard,forinstance,believedtheconversionsimplyinvolvedcuttinggroovesinhebore,rightatthefortsorarsenalswherethegunswere.n1860,alfoftheUnitedtatesrtillerywascheduledorconversion.Asaresult,anumberofoldsmoothboreswerereboredtofirerifleprojectilesofheariousatentswhichrecededhemodernopperotatingand(fig.2c,,).Underheamesatentfig.2c)heweightfmetalthrowny annonwasirtuallyoubled jonverted4 -,2 -nd2 -poundersiredlongatedhotlassedespectivelys8-,4 -,nd4 -poundprojectiles.AfterthesiegeofFortPulaski,FederalGen.Q.A.Gill-morepraisedhe4-pounderandeclarednobetterpieceforbreachingcanbedesired,"butexperiencesoonprovedtheheavierprojectilescausedincreasedressureswhichconvertedgunsouldotwithstandforlong.

TheearlyUnitedtatesifleshad muzzlevelocityaboutheam esthemoothbore,utwhereasheroundhotofthesmoothboreos tspeedsoapidlyhatt,000ardststrikingvelocitywasnlybout hirdofthemuzzlevelocity,hemorestreamlinedrifleprojectilelostspeedvery slowly.Buttheriflehadtobeservedmorecarefullythanthesmoothbore.16


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Riflingrooveswereleanedwith moistponge,ndometimesiledwithanothersponge.Lead-coatedprojectilesliketheJames,whichtendedtooulheroovesfheiece,madetecessaryocrapeheiflegroovesfterveryalfozenhots,lthoughun ssingrass-bandedprojectilesidotequirehextraperation.Withllmuzzle-loadingrifles,herojectileadoepushedlosehomeoheowderharge;otherwise,heblastwouldotfullyexpanditsotatingband,heprojec-tilewouldotakeherooves,ndwouldtumble"ftereavinghegun,otheutterlossofrangeandaccuracy.ncidentally,unnershadto"runout"pushthegunintofiringposition)othsmoothboreandrifled muzzle-loaderscarefully.Asuddenstopmightmaketheshotstartforwardas muchas2feet.WhentheU.S.OrdnanceBoardrecommendedtheconversiontorifles,itlsoecommendedhatallargealiberironun sbemanufacturedonthemethodperfectedbyCapt.T.J.Rodman,whichinvolvedcastingthegunaroundawater-cooledcore.Theinnerwallsofthegunthussolidified first,wereompressedyheontractionfheutermetalstooleddownmorelowly,ndadmuchreatertrengthoesistxplosionftheharge.TheRodmanmoothbore,oundedn-,0- ,5-,nd0- inchalibers,washees tast-ironrdnancefitsimefig.4f).The20-inchun,roducedn864 ,ired ,080-poundhot.The5-incherwasetainednervicehroughheestfheentury,ndhesemon-stersretillobeeentFortMcHenryNationalMonumentndHis-torichrinernheampartsfFortefferson,nheationalmonu-mentofthatname,intheDryTortugasIslands.nlateryears,anumberof0-inchRodmanswereonvertednto-inchiflesynlargingheboreandinsertingagroovedsteeltube.

THEWARBETWEENTHESTATESAttheopeningofthiscivilconflictmostofthematerielforbotharmieswasfheam eypesmoothbore.Theariousunsncludedweapons

inhereatmasonryortificationsuiltnheongUnitedtatesoastlineincehe820'sweaponsuchsheColumbiad, eavy,ong-chamberedAmericanmuzzle-loaderfron,evelopedromtsronzeforerunnerf810.TheColumbiadfig.4d)asmadein-,0- ,nd12-inchalibersndouldiirowhotndhell el lver,000ards."New"Columbiadsameutfheoundriesthetartfhe860's,minustheowderchamberandwithsmootherlines.Behindheparapetsorinfortgunroomswere32 -and42-pounderironseacoastgunsfig.0);24-pounderbronzehowitzersay inheastionsoflanktheon greachesofheortwalls.Therewere-incheacoasthowitzersorheavierwork.Theargestaliberiecewasheonderous3-incheacoastmortar.

Siegendarrisonannonncluded4-poundernd-inchronzehowitzersfig.4b),a0-inchbronzemortarfig.4a),2-,8-,and24 -pounderronunsfig.4c)ndaterhe4/2-inchast-ironifle.With

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FIGURE4U..RTILLERYTYPES (1861-1865). aSiegemortar, b 8-inch siege howitzer, c24-pounder siege gun. d8-inch Columbiad. e 3-inchwrought-ironifle, f1 0-inchRodman.thexceptionfheew-inchwrought-ironiflefig.4e),ieldrtil-leryannonwereronze:-nd2-pounderuns,he2-pounderNa-18


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poleonun-howitzer,2-poundermountainowitzer,2-,4 -,nd2 -pounderieldowitzers,ndheittleCoehommortarfig.9).Ama-chineguninventedby Dr.RichardJ.Catlingbecamepartoftheartilleryequipmenturinghewar,utwasotmuchsed.Reminiscentfheancientibaudequin, epeatingannonfeveralarrels,heCatlinggunouldirebout50hots minuteromits0arrels,whichwererotatedndfiredbyturningacrank.nEuropeitbecamemorepopularthantheFrenchmitrailleuse.

Themallersmoothboreswerelectivewithcaseshotuptoabout6 00 or00ards,ndmaximumangefieldieceswentromomethinglesshanhe,566-yardolid-shotrajectoryfheNapoleonobout2,600yardsamileandahalf)ora6-inchhowitzer.AtChancellorsville,oneftonewallackson'sunsired hotwhichoundedownhecenterofaroadwayandcametorestamileaway.Theperformanceveri-fiedherill-booktables,Maximumrangesofthelargerpieces,however,ranllhewayromheverage,600ardsfn8-poundergarrisongunohewellver-mileangef 2-inchColumbiadiring 80 -poundshellathighelevation.A3-inchseacoastmortarwouldloba200-poundhell, 325ards,rlmost/2miles.Thehellromn-inchhowitzerarried,280ards,uttuc hxtremeangesheun souldhardlybecalledaccurate.

Onthebattlefield.Napoleon'sartillerytacticswerenolongerpractical.Thenfantry,rmedwitfitswnomparativelyong-rangeirearm,was usuallybleokeeprtilleryeyondase-shotrange,ndannonadostandfftuchongdistanceshatheirprimitivemmunitionwasel -ativelyineffective.Theresultwashatwhenattackinginfantrymovedin,theefendinginfantryndrtilleryweretillreshndnshaken,eadytoour evastatingoint-blankirentohessaultingines.Thus,nspitefnntensive-hourombardmenty38Confederateun sttherisisofCettysburg,sheray-cladroopsdvancedcrossheieldtocloserange,doublecanisterandconcentratedinfantryvolleyscutthemdowninmasses.

Fieldrtillerysmoothbores,underconditionsprevailingduringthewar,generallyaveetteresultshanhemaller-caliberifle.A-inchifle,fornstance,adwiceheangef Napoleon;utnheroken,heavilywoodedcountrywheresomuchofthefightingtookplace,thesu -periorrangeoftheriflecouldnotbeusedtofulldvantage.Neitherwas itselativelymallndometimesefectiverojectilesamagingopersonnelsaserraperom argercalibersmoothbore.AtheirstbattlefManassasJuly861)morehanalfhe9Federalannonwereifled;uty863 ,venhoughmanymoreifleswerenervice,themajorityfheiecesnheieldweretillheldeliable-nd12-poundersmoothbores.

Itwas insiegeoperationsthattheriflesforcedanewera.AsthesmokeclearedfterheistoricombardmentfFortSumterin861,military

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menwerelreadypeculatingnheossibilitiesfheewfangledweapon. Confederate2-pounder lakelyhadeckedwayatumterwithmazingccuracy.Butheirsteallyffectivesefheiflesnsiegeperationsastortulaski1862).Using0iflesnd6 smoothbores,GeneralGillmorereachedheJ4-foot-thickbrickwallsinlittlemorehan4ours.Yetisatterieswere milewayromhetarget!Theheavierrifleswereconvertedsmoothbores,firing48-,64 - ,and84-poundamesrojectileshatroventoheortwallrom9o6 inchesateachfairshot.ThesmoothboreColumbiadscouldpenetrateonly13inches,whilefromthisrangetheponderousmortarscouldhardly hitthefort. earater,Gillmoresed00-,00-,nd00-pounderarrottriflesgainstortumter.Theiguns,iringromositionsom emilesawayandfarbeyondherangeofthefortguns,reducedSumterto asmokingmassofrubble.

Theangendccuracyfheiflestartledheworld.A0-pounder(4.2-inch)arrottadnmazingarryf,453ardswith0-poundhollowhot;heotoriousSwampAngel"hatirednCharlestonn1863was 00-pounderParrottmountednhemarsh,000ardsromtheity.Buttrangelynough,eitheriflesormoothboresoulde- stroyearthworks.Aswasprovenseveralimesduringthewar,thedefend-ersofawell-builtearthworkwereabletorepairthetriflingdamagedoneby enemyfirealmostassoonastherewasalullintheshooting.Learningthislesson,hedeterminedConfederatedefendersofFortSumterin863-6 4refusedourrender,butunderthemostdifficultconditionsconvertedtheiruinedmasonryntonarthworklmostmperviousourtherbombardment.

THECHANGENTOMODERNARTILLERYWithRodman'sun,hemuzzle-loadingmoothborewasthepexoftsevelopment.Throughheearsreatrogressadeenmadenmobility,organization,andtactics.Nowanewerawasbeginning,wherein

artillerysurpassedvenheecisiveroleithadnderGustavusAdolphusandNapoleon.nspiteofnewinfantryweaponshatforcedannoneverfartheroheear,rtillerywasoecomeoeadlyhattsireausedover5ercentofthebattlefieldasualtiesinWorldWarI.

Manyfheitalhangesooklaceuringheatterearsfhe1800's,asriflesreplacedthesmoothbores.Steelcameintouniversaluseforgunounding;reechndecoilmechanismswereerfected;mokelesspowderndighxplosivesameintohepicture.Hardlylessimportantwashenventionfmorefficientsightingandayingmechanisms.

Thehangesidotom evernight.nBritain,fterreechloadershadbeeninus ealmostadecade,theordnancemenwentbacktomuzzle- loadingifles;aultyreechmechanismsausedoomanyccidents.NotuntiloneofH.M.S.Thunderer'sgunswasinadvertentlydouble-loadeddidtheEnglishreturntoanimprovedbreechloader.20


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Theteelreechloadersfherussians,iringwoounds minutewith ercussionhellhatrokentobout0ragments,idmuchodefeattheFrench1870-71).AtSedan,thegreatestartillerybattlefoughtprioro914 ,herussiansse d00un somotherheFrenchrmy.SohoroughlydidhesegunsdotheirworkthattheGermansannihilatedtheenemyatthecostofonly5percentcasualties.twasademonstrationofusinggreatmassesofguns,bringingthemquicklyintoactiontodestroy theostilertillery,henhoroughlysofteningp"nemyesistancenpreparationorhenfantryttack.WhileheechnicalrogressfhePrussianrtillerywasonsiderable,twasffsetnargeegreeyhecounter-developmentof fieldentrenchment.

Asthetechniqueofforginglargemassesofsteelimproved,mostnationsadopteduilt-upreinforcingoopsver teelube)rwire-wrappedsteelconstructionfortheircannon.Withtheadventofthemetalcartridgecase and smokelessowder, rapid-fireunsamentose . Theew powder,irstsednheRusso-TurkishWar1877-78),idwaywiththethickwhiteurtainofsmokethatplaguedthegunner'saim,ndthusopenedheway forproductionofmechanismstoabsorbrecoilandreturntheunutomaticallyoiringosition.ow ,unnersidotaveolayheiecefterveryhot,ndheatefirencreased.hieldsp-pearedonthegunprotectionthatwouldhavebeenoflittlevalueinthedayswhengunnershadtostandclearofaback-movingcarriage.

Duringhearly880'sheUnitedtateseganworkn modemsystemfeacoastrmament.An-inchreech-loadingriflewasuiltin1883,ndheisappearingarriage,ivingmorerotectionoothunandcrew,wasadoptedin886.Onlyafewoftheweaponswereinstalledby898;butfortunatelytheoverwhelmingnavalsuperiorityoftheUnitedStateselpedringheWarwithpaino uicklose.

Duringthiswar.Unitedtatesforceswereequippedwithanumberof British.95-inchmountainifles,which,ncidentally,ervedsates

* 4

3

,- - -.-^/ ^ " / - s,s./ s. V.\

^ y- ^ \/ ^' \ S \i -- N X s V^ \. N\\\\ V\ \bor3 o t h -riflede cannon S i n i n .osmw.B B P U n . .Z^oww-^3l>I 5 5 m J > -

5342 08

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86

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tFIGURE5^Ranges.

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WorldWarInheackrtilleryofthehilippinecouts.Withinhenextfewyearstheantiquatedpiecessuchasthe3-inchwrought-ironrifle,the4.2-inchParrottsiegegun,onvertedRodmans,ndthe5-inchRod-manmoothborewerefinallypushedoutofthepicturebynewsteelguns.Thereweremall-caliberapid-fireunsfifferentypes, Hotchkiss1.65-inchmountainifle,ndHotchkissndCatlingmachineuns.Thebasiciecesnieldrtillerywere.2 -nd.6-inchunsnd .6-inchmortar.iegertilleryincluded 5-inchgun,-inchhowitzers,ndmor-tars.nseacoastbatterieswere8-,0- ,2 -,4 -,and6-inchgunsand2 -inchmortarsfherimaryrmament jntermediateapid-fireunsf4 -,.72-,-,nd-inchalibers;nd-nd5-pounderrapid-firegunsinthesecondaryarmament.TheJapaneseshowedthevalueoftheFrenchsystemofindirectlaying(aimingat targetnotvisibleothegunner)uringtheRusso-JapaneseWar1904-05).Meanwhile,theFrench5 -mm.gunof1897 ,firing6,000yards,madelltherfieldrtilleryannonbsolete.nssence,rtilleryhadssumedhemodemorm.Theextchangeswerewroughtystar-tlingdvancesnmotorransport,ignalommunications,hemicalwar-fare,tanks,aviation,andmassproduction.

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GunpowderO ooooo

Blackowderwassednllirearmsntilmokelessndtherype propellantswerenventednheatter800's.Black"owderwhichwassometimesbrown)samixtureofabout75partssaltpeterpotassiumnitrate),5partscharcoal,and0partssulphurby weight.Itwillexplodebecausehemixtureontainshenecessaryamountofoxygenoritsow ncombustion.Whenitbums,itliberatessmokygasesmainlynitrogenandcarbondioxide)hatoccupysome300 t imesasmuchspaceasthepowderitself.EarlyEuropeanowderrecipes"alledorqualartsfhehreeingredients,utraduallyhemountfaltpeter asncreasedntilTartagliaeportedheroportionsoe4-1 -1 .yheate700'scom-monwarpowder"wasmade6 -1 -1 ,andnotuntilthenextcenturywastheformulaefinedohe5-15-10ompositionnmajoritysewhenhenewerpropellantsarrivedonthescene.Asheameuggests,hisxplosiveasriginallynheormfpowderordust.Theprimitiveformulaburnedslowlyandgavelowpres- suresfortunateharacteristicsinviewofthebarrel-staveconstructionof thearlyannon.About450,owever,powdermakerseganocom"thepowder.Thatis,heyformeditintolargergrains,witharesultingin-creaseinthevelocityoftheshot.twas"corned"infinegrainsforsmallarmsandcoarse forcannon.

Makingornedowderwasairlyimple.Thehreengredientswerepulverizedndmixed,henompressedntoakeswhichwereutnto"corns"rgrains.Rollingthegrainsinabarrelpolishedfftheorners;removingheustssentiallyompletedhemanufacture.taslwaysbeenifficult,however,omakepowdertwicealikeandkeepitincondi-tion,woactorswhichelpedreatlyomakeunnerynart"nheoldays.owderesiduenheunwasspeciallyroublesome,nddisk-likeoolfig.4)asesignedocrapeheore.ArtillerymentCastillodeSanMarcoscomplainedthatthe"heavy"powderfromMexico wasespeciallybad,forafteragunwasfiredafewtimes,heborewassofouledthatcannonballswouldnolongerfit.ThegunnerscalledloudlyforbettergradepowderfromSpainitself.

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Howmuchpowderousein unhaseen mootquestionhroughtheenturies.AccordingohepaniardColladon592 ,heroperyardstickwashemountfmetalnheun.Aegitimateulverin,orinstance,wasrich"noughinmetaloakesmuchpowderasheballweighed.Thus, 0-pounderulverinwouldet0oundsfowder.Sincea60-pounderbatteringcannon,however,hadinproportionathirdlessmetalthantheculverin,thechargemustalsobereducedbyathirdto40pounds!

FIGURE16GUNPOWDER. Blackowder (above) is mechanicalmixture;modernropellantsrehemicalompounds.

Otherfactorshadtobetakenintoaccount,suchaswhetherthepowderwasoarse-rfine-grained;nd hortgungotesspowderthan longone.Theborelengthofalegitimateculverin,saidCollado,was30calibers(30imesheoreiameter),otsowderhargewasheam esheweightftheall.ftheunnercamecross ulverinnly4aliberslong,emustoadhi siecewitlinly4/30fheall'sweight.ol -lado'spasavolantehad tremendousengthofsome40calibersandfireda-r-poundeadall. ecauseithadlentyofmetaltoesist,ndthelengthtoburn"thepowder,itwaschargedwiththefullweightoftheballnin eowder,rhree-fourthsasmuchwithannonpowder.Thelightesthargeeemsoaveeenorheedrero,whichired toneball.Itschargewas athirdofthestone'sweight.

Inaterears,owderhargesessenedorlluns.Englishelocitytablesfhe750'showhat -pounderhargedwithj4oundsfpowdermightproduceits ballatarateof1,052feetpersecond.By almosttriplingheharge,heelocitywouldncreaseboutalf.Buthen-creaseidotmeanhehotithearget0ercentarder,orhehigherthevelocity,thegreaterwastheairresistance;orasMiillerphrasedit:agreatquantityofPowderdoesnotalwaysproduceagreatereffect."Thus,fromtwo-thirdstheball'sweight,standardchargesdroppedtoone-thirdorevenaquarter;andby the800'stheybecameevensmaller.TheUnitedtatesmanualf86 1pecified o oundsor 4-poundersiegeun,ependingnheange; Columbiadiring72-poundhotusedonly20poundsofpowder.AtFortSumter,Gillmore'sriflesfiring80-poundhellssed0oundsfowder.Theotatingandnheifleshell,fourse,toppedheaseshatadlippedyheoose-fittingcannonball.24


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Blackpowderwas,nds,othangerousndnstable.Notonlyisitsensitivetoflamerspark,butitabsorbsmoisturefromtheair.notherwords,itwasnoeasymatterto"keepyourpowderdry."Duringthemid-dle700's,paniardsn loridaiverutposteptowdernlassbottles;arlieroldiers,leeingntoheumidoresteforeirFrancisDrake,arriedowdernerulerasstoppered,arrow-neckeditchers.

Asformagazines,adrymagazinewas justaboutasimportantasashell-proofone.Charcoalandchlorideofl ime,hungincontainersneartheceil-ing,wereearlyusedasdehydrators,andintheeighteenthcenturystandardEnglishpracticewastobuildthefloor2feetof fthegroundandlaystonechipsrdryeaoals"nderhelooring.id ewallsadirolesorventilation,butscreenedtopreventtheenemyfromlettinginsomesmallanimalwithfiretiedtohi stail.owdercaskswerelaidontheirsidesandperiodicallyolledo ifferentosition;otherwise,"xplains on -temporaryxpert,thealtetre,eingheeaviestngredient,wille- scendntoheowerpartfhearrel,ndheowderbovewillosemuchofit sgoodness."

FIGURE7SPANISHOWDERBUCKETc.750).Inthedawnofartillery,loosepowderwasbroughttotheguninacov-

ereducket,suallymadefeather.Theoadercoopedpheroperamountwithaladlefig.44),andinserteditintothegun.Hecould,by usingisxperiencedudgment,utnustnoughowderoiveimtheangeewanted,muchsurmodernrtillerymenometimesse only ortionfheirharge.AfterGustavusAdolphusnhe630's,however,powderbagscameintowideuse,althoughEnglishgunnerslong preferredoadleheirpowder.Thepowderbucketrpassingbox"fcourseemainednhecene.twasusuallylargenoughtohold pairofcartridgebags.

Theootfhewordartridgeeemsoecarta,"meaningaper.Butaperwasnlynefmanymaterialsuchsanvas,inen,arch-ment,flannel,hewoolenstuff"fthe860's,andevenwood.Untiltheadventfheilkartridge,othingwasntirelyatisfactory.Themate-rialsidotbumompletely,ndfterseveralroundsitwasmandatorytowithdrawtheunbumtbagendswithawormerfig.44),lsetheyac -cumulatedoheointwhereheylockedheentrtouchole"ywhichheiecewasired.archmentbagshriveledupndtuckinhevent,purplingmanyagoodgunner'sface.

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PRIMERSWhentheowderbagcameintouse,hegunnerhadoprickthebag

opensotheprimingfirefromtheventcouldreachthecharge.Theopera-tionwasccomplishedimplyenoughyplungingtheunner'spickintotheentarnoughoierceheag .Thenheentwasrimedwithlooseowderromheunner'slask.Theentrime,whichwasotmuchimproveduntilthenineteenthcentury,wasatricklearnedfromthefourteenthenturyVenetians.Therewereumerousriesormprove-ment,uchashepowder-filledintubeofthe700's,thepointofwhichpiercedheowderag.Butorllfhem,helowmatchadoeusedtostartthefiretrain.

FIGURE8LINSTOCK S.Before800,helowmatchwasnniversalseorettingffhe

charge.Thematchwassually -strandottonope,oakedn solu-tionfaltpeterndtherwisehemicallyreatedwitheadcetatendlyeournveryslowlyabout4or5inchesnhour.twasattachedoalinstockfig.8),aforkedsticklongenoughtokeepthecannoneeroutofthewayoftherecoil.

Chemistrydvances,ik ehesolationfmercuryulminaten800,ledoheinventionfthepercussionapandotherprimers.Onmanyabattlegroundoumayhaveickedp crapfwistedwiretheoopof rictionrimer.Theevicewas opperubefig.9 )illedwithpowder.Theubewentintoheventofthecannonndburieditsipintheowderharge.Nearheopfhisubewasoldered spur"a26


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shortubeontaining rictionompositionantimonysulphidendo-tassiumhlorate).Lyinginheompositionwasheoughenedndfawireslider."Thetherndfheliderwaswistednto ooporhookingtothegunner'slanyard.Itwaslikestrikingamatch: smartpullonheanyard,ndheoughlidergnitedheomposition.Thenhepowderinthelongtubebegantobumandfiredthechargeinthecannon.Needlesstosay,ithappenedfasterthanwecantellit!

FIGURE9FRICTIONPRIMER.Thepercussionprimerwas evenmoresimple: "quilltube,"filledwith

finepowder,fittedintothevent.Afulminatecapwasgluedtothetopof thetube.Apullofthelanyardcausedthehammerofthecannontostrikethecapjusthk calittleboy'scappistol)ndstartthetrainofexplosions.Becausehearlymethodsfrimingeftheentpenwhenhecannonired,heittleoleendedonlarge.Manyannonuringhe1800'sweremadewithwovents,id eyide.Whenheirstneworeout,twasplugged,ndthesecondventopened.Then,tostopthis"ero-sion,"heobturatingsealing)rimercameintouse.twaslikethecom-monrictionprimer,utcrewedntondealedhevent.Earlyelectricprimers,yheway,wereoreatepartureromherictionrimer;thewiresfiredabitofguncotton,whichinturnignitedthepowderintheprimertube.

MODERNUSEOFBLACKPOWDERAsideromradualmprovementnheormula,oreathangenpowdermakingamentil860,whenGen.Thomas.Rodmanfhe

U..OrdnanceDepartmentbegantotailorthepowdertothecaliberof theun.Thectionfrdinaryannonowderwasooudden.Thewholehargewasonsumedbeforeheprojectilehadfairlystartedonit sway,ndhetrainonthegunwasterrific.Rodmancompressedpowderintodiskshatfittedtheboreofthegun.Theiskswereaninchortwothick,ndiercedwitholes.Withhisrrangement, minimumfpowderurfacewasxposedtheeginningfombustion,utshefireteheholeslargercomparefig.0f),theburningareaactuallyin-

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creased,roducing reaterolumefga ssherojectilemovedor-ward.Rodmanhusaidheoundationorheprogressiveurning"pelletsofmodempowdersfig.20).

P. e > Q .|veburnsrogressively

Sliversurn,egressively,re\.. i3otntirely,'**.* effective

FIGURE20MODERNCANNONPOWDER.powdergrainha sthecharacter-isticsfnxplosivenl ywhentsonfined.Modernropellantsxeowxplo-sivesthats,elativelylowurning),utrojectilesmayeoadedwithighexplosive,Flake,Strip,Pellet,Singleerforation,Stand-ard-perforation.Burningrainf-perforationype.deally,heowdergrainhouldurnrogressively,withontinuouslyncreasingurface,herainbeingompletelyonsumedytheim eherojectileeavesheore, gWalsh

grain.

ForanumberofreasonsGeneralRodmandidnottakehisperforatedcakeartridge"eyondhexperimentaltage,ndisMammoth"powder,suchafamiliariteminthepowdermagazinesofthelatter1800's,was ompromise.As lockfwoodumsteadierandongerthanquick-blazingilefwigs,ohe4-inchrainsfmammothowdergave softer"xplosion,utnewithmorepush"ndmoreniformpressurealongtheboreofthegun.

Itwasnheecondearfhe ivilWarhatAlfredNobeltartedthemanufactureofnitroglycerinexplosivesinEurope.mokelesspowderscameintouse,heexplosivepropertiesofpicricacidwerediscovered,ndmelanite,ballistite,andcorditeappearedinthelastquarterofthecentury,sohaty89 0itrocellulosenditroglycerin-baseowdersaden-erallyeplacedlackpowders propellant.Still,lackowderadmanymportantses.tsensitivityolame,

highatefombustion,ndighemperaturefxplosionmadetveryuitablegniteror"booster,"onsureheompletegnitionfhe28


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propellant.urther,twashemainlementnuchmodemrojectilefuzesastheringfuzeoftheU.S.FieldArtillery,whichwaslongstandardforburstshorterthan5econds.Thisfuzewasinheos eftheshellandconsistedessentiallyofaplunger,primer,andringsgroovedtoholda9-inchrainfompressedlackowder.Toetheuze,heuzemanmerelyturnedamovableringtotiiepropertimemark.Turningthezeromarkowardhehannelleadingtoheshell'sburstingchargeshortened

concuss ionpitinger opera t e synertIA, setsoffrimer,which '' etartftun erainofcompressedlack powderourning

upperrain,etat0e eonde ,ignitesowerrain ^i.leadingtohell cJiargeFIGURE1MODERNPOWDERTRAINUZE.

theurningistancefherain,whileurningerowayromhechannel,ofcourse,didtheopposite.Whentheprojectileleftthegun;theshockmadetheplungerignitetheprimercomparefig.42e)ndfirethepowderrain,whichhenurnedorheetimeeforeeachingheshellharge.twas echnicalmprovementoverheubularheet-ironfuzeoftheVenetians,buttheprinciplewasaboutthesame.

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TheCharacteristicsofCannonO ooooo

THEEARLYSMOOTHBORECANNONSoonftereoundeouldurl oc kwithisoodightrm,

manlearnedabouttrajectorythecurvedpathtakenbyamissilethroughtheir . aseballescribes flat"rajectoryveryimeheitcherthrows hard,astone.Youngstersossingthealloeachotheroveratallfenceus e''curved"r"high"trajectory.nartilfery,wheretrajectoryisquallyimportant,hererehreemainypesfannon:1)helattrajectoryun,hrowinghottheargetinelativelyevellight;2)theighrajectorymortar,whosehellwilllearhighbstaclesnde- scendponheargetrombove;nd3)hehowitzer,nn-betweenpiecefmedium-hightrajectory,combiningthemobilityofthefieldpieccwiththelargecaliberofthemortar.

TheSpaniard,LuisCollado,mathematician,historian,nativeofLebri-janAndalusia,nd,n592 ,oyalngineerfHisCatholicMajesty'sArmyinLombardyandPiedmont,definedartillerybroadlyas"amachineofinfiniteimportance."Ordnancehedividedintothreeclasses,admittedlyfollowingtherulesofthe"Germanmasters,whowereadmiredaboveanyothernationorheirfoundingandhandlingofartillery."CulverinsandsakersFig.23a)weregunsofthefirstclass,designedtostriketheenemy fromongange.Theatteringannonfig.3b)ereecondlasspieces;theyweretodestroyfortsandwallsanddismounttheenemy'sma-chines.Thirdlassunsiredtoneallsobreakandinkshipsandde- fendatteriesromassault;uchgunsincludedhepedrero,mortar,ndbombardfig.23c,d).

Collado'sxplanationfowheariousunswerenventedser-hapsnaive,butneverthelessinteresting:Althoughthemainintentoftheinventorsofthismachine[artillery]wastofireandoffendtheenemyfrombothnearandfar,incehisoflfensemustbeniversewaysitsoap-penedhatheyormedariouslassesnhi smanner:heyameorealizehatmenwereotatisfiedwithhespingardassmallMoorishcannon],ndorhiseasonhemusket asmade;ndikewiseheesmerilndhealconet.Andlthoughheseiredongerhots,hey

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FIGURE2^TRAJECTORIES. Maximumangefighteenthenturyunswas about mile.Gunscould:attereavyonstructionwitholidhottlongrhortange;destroyfortparapetsand,byricochetfire,dismountcannon;shoot

grape,canister,orbombsagainstmassedpersonnel.Mortarscould: Reachargetsehindbstructions;seighngleireohootbombs,destroyingconstructionandpersonnel.Howitzerscould:Movemoreasilyntheieldhanmortars;eachargetsehindobstructionsby highngleire;hootlargerprojectileshancould fieldgunsof similarweight.

madeheemisaker.Toemedy efectfthat,heakersweremade,andheemiculverinsndulverins.Whileheywereeemedufficientformaking onghotndtrikinghenemyromfar,heywereflittlesesatteringunsecauseheyire mallall.oheyeter-minedoound econdindfiece,wherewith,iringballsfmuchgreaterweight,heymightealizeheirntention.Butiscoveringike-wisethatthissecondkindofpiecewastoopowerful,heavyandcostlyforbatteriesandfordefenseagainstassaultsorshipsandgalleys,theymadeathirdlassfpiece,ighterinmetalndakingessowder,oireallsoftone.Thesereheommonlyalledanoneseedreros. llheclassesofpiecesaredifferentinrange,manufactureanddesign.Eventhemethodofchargingthemisdifferent."

It asmostmportantorhertilleristonderstandheifferentclassesofguns.AsCoUadoquaintlyphrasedit,hewhoignoresthepres-entecturenhisrtewill, ssert,evero oodhing."Cannonburstnheatteriesveryayecauseunnersweregnorantfowthegunwasmadeandwhatitwasmeanttodo.Norwassuchignoranceconfinedtogunnersalone.Thewillandwhimoftheprincewhoorderedtherdnancertheimplepinionfhenexpertounderimself,"wereheuidingrinciplesnunounding.Imorced,"wrote ol -lado,topersuadetheprincesandadvisethefoundersthatthemakingofartilleryhouldlwaysakentoccountheurposeachiecemustserve."Thispersuasionheundertookinconsiderabledetail.

Thefirstclassofgunswerethelong-rangepieces,omparatively"rich"inmetal.nthefollowingtablefromCollado,thecalibersandrangesformostpanishgunsfthislassaregiven,lthoughasthesecondoliminshows,thiseriodalibersweretandardizednlyn eneralway.32


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^.

FIGURE23SIXTEENTHCENTURYPANISHARTILLERY. Takenrom1592manuscript,heserawingsllustratehehreemainlassesfrtillerysedbypainuringhearlyolonialeriodnhe ewWorld,CulverinClass1). bCannonClass2). cPedreroClass). dMortarClass).3 3


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Forranslationwhereossible,ndoisthosewhichecamehemostpopularalibers,weavedded finalolumn.Mostfheunswereprobablyofculverinlength:0-to32-caliber.

SixteenthcenturySpanishcannonofthefirstclassWeightof ball Length ofgun

Range inyardsNameof Popularcaliber gu n (pounds) (in calibers) Point- blank Maximum

Esmeril.... y2 208 7 50 Falconete.. 1 to2 -pounderfalconet.Falc6n3to4 417 2,500 -pounder falcon.Pasavolante ItolS 40to44 500 4,166 -pounderpasavolante.Mediasacre 5to 7 41 7 3,750 -pounderdemisjiker.Sacre7to 10 -poundersaker.Moyana. 8to 10 shorterthansaker -poundermoyenne.Media

culebrina 10 to 18 83 3 5,000 .. 12-pounderdemiculverin.Tcrciodc culebrina 14 to 22 18-pounderthird-culverin.

Culebrina.. 20,24 ,25,30,40,50 30to 32 1,742 6 ,666 4-pounderculverin.Culebrinareal.... 24 to40 30to32 32-pounderculverinroyal.Doble

culebrina 40andup 30 to32 48-pounderdoubleculverin.InviewoftherangeColladoascribestotheculverin,someremarkson

gunerformancesrenrder.Greatestandom" aswhatheld-timegunnercalledhi smaximumrange,andrandomitwas.Beyondpoint-blankange,heunnerwaseverurefittingisarget.owithsmoothbores,ongangewaseverfreatmportance.Culverins,withtheirhickwalls,ongores,ndeavyowderharges,chievedis -tance;utecondlassunsikeieldcannon,"withessmetalndsmallercharges,rangedabout,600yardsatamaximimi,whiletheeffec- tiverangewashardlymorethan500.Heavierpieces,suchastheFrench33-poimderatteringannon,mightave oint-blankangef2 0yards;t00-yardangetsallwouldenetraterom2o4eetfearthwork,ependingnowpoorndungry"heearthwas.At30yards Dutch8-poundercannonput all0eetinto trongearthrampart,whilefrom00yardsa24-poundersiegecannonwouldburytheball2feet.

Buteneralizationsnarlyannonreifficult,ortsotasyofindwomathematicians"fhelday swhoserdnanceistsgree,Spanishgunsofthelate500'sdo,however,appeartobelargerincaliberthanpiecesofsimilarnameinothercountries,sisshownby comparingtheulverins:hemallestpanishulebrinawas 0-pounder,utheFrenchgreatcoulevrineof1551was a5-pounderandthetypicalEnglish34


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culverinfthatenturywasn8-pounder.Furthermore,midwayofthe1500's,HenryIreatlysimplifiedFrenchrdnancebyholdinghi srtil-leryownohe3-pounderannon,5-pounderreatulverin,/2-pounderastardulverin,-poundermallulverin, -pounderalcon,anda2-pounderfalconet.Therefore,anylistliketheon efollowingmusthaveitsfaults:

PrincipalEnglishgunsofthesixteenthcenturyName

RabinetSerpentineFalconetFalconMinionSakerCulverinastard.DemiculverinBasiliskCulverinPedreroDemicannonBastardcannon.Cannonserpentine,CannonCannon royal....

Caliber(inches)

1.01 .5 2.02.53.53.654.564.05.05.26.06.47.07.08.08.54

LengthFt . In.

36661 81 0111

Weightof gun(pounds)30 040 050 068 0

1,0501 , 4 0 03,0003 , 4 0 04,0004,8403,8004,0004,5005,5006,0008,000

Weightofshot(pounds)

0.3.5 1.02.05.26 11 81 4 18 2 6 32 42426074

Powdercharge(pounds)

0.18.3.41 .2 3 45 .7 6 9 1 2 1 4 1 82025 2 7 30

Likemanygunames,hewordculverin"as metaphoricalmean-ing.terivesromheLatinolubrasnake).imilarly,heightuncalleddspideoraspic,meaning"asp-like,"wasnamedafterthevenomous asp.Butheseigressionshouldotobscurehefactthatbothulverinsanddemiculverinswerehighlyesteemedonaccountoftheirrangeandtheeffectivenessoffire.Theywereusedforprecisionshootingsuchasbuildingdemolition,ndnxpertunnerouldutut ectionftonewallwiththesegunsinshortorder.

Asheiercealconhawkgaveitsameohefalconndalconet,othesakerwasnamedforthesakerhawk;abinet,meaning"rooster,"was therefore uitableameorhealcon'small-boreousin.The-poundersakerservedwellinanymilitaryenterprise,andthemoyanaortheFrenchmoyenne,"middle-sized"),beingashortergunof sakercaliber,wasagoodnavalpiece.Themostpowerfulofthesmallerpieces,however,washeasavolante,istinguishableytsreatength.twasetween40and4alibersong!nddition,ithadhickerwallshannyothersmallcalibergun,andthecombinationoflengthandweightpermittedanunusuallyheavychargeasmuchpowderastheballweighed.A6-poundleadballwaswhatthetypicalpasavolantefired;anothergunofthesamecaliberiringnronallwoulde -pounder.Theoint-blankange

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ofhispanishunwas ootballield'sengthartherhanitherh e falconordemisaker.

Inoday'spanish,asavolantemeansfastction," hraseugges-tiveoftheviciousimpetuositytobe expectedfromsuchasmallbutpower-fulannon.ometimestwasermed rajSn,heEnglishequivalentofwhichmaybethedrake,meaning"dragon";butperhapsit smostpopularnamenhearlyay swaserbatana,romCerebus,heiercehree-headedogfmythology.trangehingsappenowords: erbatanain modemSpanishisa peashooter.

Sixteenth centurySpanishcannonofthesecondclassSpanish name Weightof ball(pounds) Translation

Quartocaiion9to12uarter-cannon.hird-cannon.crciocafion1624324860MediocanonCafionde abatiriegeannon.oubleannon.oblecaiionattering cannon.erpentine.Wallbreakerorlombard.SementinoQuebrantamuroorRafliliRrY)lonbarda 70to9080ndp asilisk.Theecondlassfgunswerehenlynesproperlycalledcannon"inthisearlyperiod.Theyweresiegeandbatteringpieces,andinsomefewrespectswereimilaroheowitzersfaterears. ypicalpanishcannonwasonlyabouttwo-thirdsaslongasaculverin,andtheborewallswerehinner.Naturally,heowderhargewaslsoeducedhalfheball'sweightor ommonannon,hile ulverinookoublehatamount).

TheGermansmadeheirightcannon8alibersong.Mostpanishsiegeandbatteringgunshadthissameproportion,forashorter gunwouldnotumllheowderfficiently,which,"aidCollado,is mostgrievousault."However,mallannonf8-caliberengthwereooshort jhemuzzlelastendedoestroyhembrasurefhearapet.Forthiseason,panishemicannonweresongas24calibersndhequarter-cannonanpo8.The2-pounderuarter-cannon,nciden-tally,wasculverined"orreinforcedsothatitactuallyservedinthefield asademiculverin.

Thegreatweightofit sprojectilegavethedoublecannonitsname.ThewardenfheCastillotMilanadom e30-poundersmade,utsuchhugeieceswerefittlese ,xceptinpermanentfortifications.tookahugerewtomovehem,heircarriagesrokeimdertheoncentratedweight,ndheyconsumedmountainsofmunitions.Thelombard,whichapparentlyriginatednLombardy,ndheasiliskhadheameis -advantages.Theabledasiliskwas erpentwhoseerylookwasfatal.36


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Itsamesakenronzewasremendouslyheavy,withwallspo4ali-bershicknd orepo0alibersong.twaseldomse dyheEuropeans,utheTurkishGeneralMustafaad airfasiliskstthesiegeofMalta,in565,thatfired50 -and200-poundballs.The200-poundergunbrokelooseasitwasbeingtransferredtoahomewardboundgalleyndankermanentlyoheottomfheea .tsmatewasef tontheisland,whereitbecameanobjectofgreatcuriosity.

Thehirdlassfrdnancencludedheunsiringtonerojectiles,suchashepedreroorperrier,petrary,cannonpetro,etc.),hemortars,andheoldbombardslikeEdinburghCastle'sfamousMonsMeg.Barsof wroughtronwereweldedogetheroormMeg'sube,ndroningswereclampedaroundtheoutsideofthepiece.nspiteofmanyaccidents,thisooperingechniqueersistedhroughheifteenthentury.MonsMegwasmadeintwoectionshatscrewedogether,ormingapiece3feetlongand5tonsin weight.

Pcdrerosfig.3 c)ereomparativelyight.Theoundrymanse donlyhalfthemetalhewouldputintoaulverin,orthetoneprojectileweighednly hirdsmuchsnronallfheam eize,ndhebore allsouldhereforeeomparativelyhin.Theyweremadencalibersupo0-pounders.Therewas hamberforheowderchargeandlittledangerofthegun'sbursting,unlessafoolhardyfellowloadeditwithnronall.Thewallhicknessesfhisunrehownnigure2 4 ,wherehennerircleepresentsheiameterfhehamber,henextrcheorealiber,ndheuterlinesheespectiveiameterstchase,trunnions,andvent.

COMMo/f

FIGURE24HOWMUCHMETALWASNEARLYGUNS?hechartsom -parehewalliametersfixteenth-seventeenthenturyypes.Theenterirclerepresentsthebore,whilethehreeouterarcsshowtherelativethicknessoftheborewallat1)hesmallestdiameterofthechase,2)tthetrunnions,and3)tthevent.Themallrcnsideheorendicatesheowderhamberoundnhe

pedrerond.mortar.6342080-626 7


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Mortarsfig.3d)wereexcellentforputtinggreatfearanderrorintheoulsftheesieged."Everynighthemortarswouldplayuponhetown:iteepshemnonstanturmoil,ueohehoughthatom eballwillfallponheirhouse."Mortarsweredesignedik epedreros,x- ceptmuchhorter.heonvenientwayohargehemaswithsaquillossmallbags)fpowder.Theyrequire/'aidCollado,"alargermouthfulthananyodierpieces."

Justshildrenangeromlightotockynheameamily,herearelight,medium,orheavygunsallbearingthesamefamilyname.Thediflferenceiesnowheiecewasfortified";hats,owhickhefoundercasttheborewalls.TheEnglishlanguagehasinelegantlydescrip-tivetermsforthethreedegreesof"fortification":1)astard,2)egiti-mate,nd3)ouble-fortified.Thehicker-walledunssedmorepowder.panishouble-fortifiedulverinswerehargedwithheullweightoftheballinpowder;four-fifthsthatamountwentintothelegiti-mate,ndnl ywo-thirdsorheastardulverin.n hortulverin(say,2 4caliberslonginsteadof30),thegunnerused24/30ofastandardcharge.

Theardstickorortifying unwastsaliber.n egitimateul-verinf-inchaliber,ornstance,heorewalltheentmighteonealiber16/16ftheoreiameter)r6incheshick;atherun-nionstwoulde0/16r}4nches,ndthemallestiameterfthehase,/16r2 nches.ThisableompareshehreeegreesffortificationusedinSpanishculverins:

Wallthiclmcn in8thsofcaliber Vent Trunnion Chase

Bastardculverin 7 89 56%

3Legitimateculverin 3J^Double-fortifiedculverin 4

Aswithulverins,owithannon.Thisis oUado'sablehowingthefortificationforSpanishcannon:

Wallthickness in 8thsofcaliber Trunnion Chase

Canonsencillo(lightcannon)Caiioncomtjncommbncannon).Canonreforzadoreinforcedcannon).

4J^5 5H

2 V 2 3J i

Sinceastron asweakerhanronze,hewallsfast-ironieceswerevenhickerhanheulverins.panishronunswereoundedwith00poundsofmetalforeachpoundoftheball,andinlengthsfrom18o0alibers.English,rish,ndwedishronunsfheeriod,Colladooted,adlightlymoremetalinhemhanvenhepaniardsrecommended.38


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FIGURE 25SIXTEENTH CENTURY CHAMBERED CANNON, a"BeU- chambered"emicannon. bChamberedemicannon.

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Ano th e rwayheesignersriedoaintrengthwithoutoadingh e gunwithmetalwasysing owderhamber.Ahamberedannon(fig.5b)mightbefortifiedik eeitherthelightorthecommoncannon,buttwouldave ylindricalhamberabouttwo-thirdsofaaliberindiameterndouralibersong.twasotlwaysasy,owever,oettheowderntohehamber.oUadoeportedhatmany oodrtil-leristdimipedthepowderalmostinthemiddleofthegun.Whenhi sladlehithemouthfhehamber,ehoughtewastheottomfhebore!Thecylindricalchamberwassomewhatimprovedbyacone-shapedtaper,whichhepaniardsalledncampanadoorbell-chambered."A canonncampanadofig.5a)as oodong-rangeun,trong,etlight.Butitwas hardtocutaladleforthelong,taperedchamber.

Ofllheseuns,heeinforcedannonwasnefheest.incethadalmostasmuchmetalasaculverin,itlackedthedefectsofthecham-beredieces. 0-poundereinforcedannonired onvenient5 -poundall,wasas yomove,oad,ndlean,ndeldpwellnderanyindfervice.tooleduickly.Eitherannonowderrin epowderupowo-thirdsheall'sweight)ouldesednt.Rein-forcedcannonwereanimportantfactorinanyenterprise,asKingPhilip'sfamedTwelveApostles"roveduringtheFlanderswars.

Fortificationof sixteenthandseventeenthcentury gunsSpanishguns

ThicltnejsofborewallinSthsofthecaliber English gunsVent Trunnions fihajeLightcannon;bell-chamberedcannonDemicannonCommon cannon;common siegecannon66778910

llM

4Ji555

88H

2H3 3M 3

3M 4 5

astardcannon .

Lightculverin;commonbatteringcannonastardculverin;Common culverin;reinforcedannonliegitimate culverinlegitimate caimon.....Legitimate culverin;double-fortifiedcannon-Double-fortifiedulverin. Paaavolante

Whileherewasittleealrogressnmobilityntilheay sfGus-tavusAdolphus,thewheeledartillerycarriageseemstohavebeeninventedbytheVenetiansinthefifteenthcentury.Theessentialpartsofthedesignwerearlystablished:woarge,eavyheeksrid eiecesetnnaxleandconnectedbytransoms.Thegunwascradledbetweenthecheeks,theearndsfwhichormed trail"forstabilizingndmaneuveringthepiece.

Wheelswereerhapshereatestproblem.Asarlyashe500'sar-pentersndwheelwrightswereebatingwhetherishedheelswere40


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best.Theyay,"eportedCollado,thathedished]wheelwillevertwistwhenhertillerysnhemarch.Othersayhat wheelwithspokesngledbeyondtheaskcannotcarrytheweightofthepiecewith-outwistinghespoke,ohewheeloe snotlastlong. mofthesameopinion,ortsertainhat erpendicularwheel illuffermoreweighthanhether.Theefectfwistingnderieieceswhennthemarchwillberemediedby makingthecartalittlewiderthanusual."However,advocatesof thedishedwheelfinally won.

SMOOTHBORESOFTHELATERPERIODFromthegunsofQueenElizabeth'stimecamethe6 -,9 -,2-,8- ,24 - ,

32- ,and42-pounderclassifications adoptedby Cromwell'sgovernmentandusedyheEnglishwellhroughheighteenthentury.OnheConti-nent,uringmuchofthisperiod,theFrenchwereacknowledgedleadersLouisXIV1643-1715)roughteveraloreignun sntoisrdnance,standardizingase tofcaUbers4 -,8-,2 -,6 -,24- ,32- ,and48-pounders)quitedifferentfromHenryII'sinthepreviouscentury.Theannonftheate600'swasnornatemasterpiecefhefoun-dryman'srt,overedwithscutcheons,loralelief,crolls,ndeavymoldings,themostcharacteristicofwhichwasperhapsthebandedmuzzle(figs.3b-c,5,6a-b),hatulbousitfrnamentationwhichadbeenpopularwithdesignerssincethedaysofthebombards.Theflaredorbell-shaped uzzlefigs.3 a,6 c,7),idotupplantheandedmuzzleuntilheighteenthcentury,nd,whiletheflaringbellis usualcharacteristicofordnancefoundedbetween7 30and830,somebanded-muzzlegunsweremadeslateas7 46fig.26a).By750,however,designandconstructionwerefairlywellstandardizedin gunfmuchleanerlinehanheannonof650.Althoughasyet

j tliereadeenoharpreakwithhelderraditions,hehapendi weightfheannonnelationohetressesfiringwereecoming

increasinglyimportanttohemenwhoidheesigning.ConditionsineighteenthcenturyEnglandweremoreorlesst>T)ical:n

the730'surveyor-GeneralArmstrong'sormulaeorunesignwerehardlymorehanontinuationsofthearlierways.Hisgunswerebout2 0caliberslong,withtheseoutsideproportions:

1streinforce=2/7ofthegun'slength.2deinforce=1/7plus aliber,chase4/7less aliber.Therunnions,bout aliberinize,werelocatedwellorward3/7ofthegun'slength)topreventthepiecefromkickingupbehind"whenitwasired.Gunnerslamedhi suckingendencynheracticefcenteringtherunnionsnheowerfineofthebore.Butwhatwillnotpeopledotosupportanoldcustomletitbeeversoabsurd?"askedJohn

Miiller,hemastergunnerofWoolwich.n756 ,MuUerraisedthetrun-nionsotheenterofthebore,nmprovementhatgreatlylessenedhestrainontheguncarriage.

4 1


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H

0*

Im .

: l ^^^'l!;;!'a ^

FIGURE6EIGHTEENTHENTURYANNON,Spanishronze4-pounderf746.^Frenchronze4-pounderofth early700*8.English iron-pounderfh emiddle700's. The-pounderispartofth ermamen ttCastillo eanMarcos.42


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FIGURE7SPANISH4-POUNDERCAST-IRONGUN (1693). Notehemodemlinesofthiscannon,withitsflatbreechandslightmuzzleswell.

Thealiberoftheguncontinuedtobetheyardstickfor"fortification"oftheborewalls:

Vent 6 partsEndfsteinforce4/2 do BeginningfecondeinforceS/a do Endfecondeinforce2/2 do Beginningfhase1/ do Endfhase do Forbothronzendronguns,hebovefiguresweretheame,utforbronze,Armstrongividedhealiberinto6arts;orironitwasnly 14parts.Thewallsofanirongunthuswereslightlythickerthanthoseofabronzeone.Thisighteenthenturyannonwas astun,utoopsndingsgavetheuilt-upookfhearrel-staveombard,whenoopswerereallyfunctionalpartsfheannon.Reinforcesmadeheunoo kike"threefrustumsofconesjoinedtogether,soasthelesserbaseoftheformerislwaysreaterhanhereatestfheucceedingne."Ornamentalfillets,stragals,ndmoldings,orrowedfromarchitecture,ncreasedheillusionf ectionaliece.Testswith4-poundersfifferentengthsshowedgunsfrom8o21aliberslonggavegenerallythebestperform-ance,utwhatwasrueorhe4-pounderwasotecessarilyrueforotherieces.Whywashe2-pounderbrassatteringiece" ncheslongerhants2-pounderrother?ohnMullerwonderedboutuchinconsistenciesndetutoevise ewystemfrdnanceorEng-land.Likemanymeneforeim,Mulleroughtoncreasehealiberfcannonvdthoutincreasingweight.Hemanageditintwoways:emodi-fiedxteriordesignoavenmetal,ndhelessenedhepowderchargetopermitshorteningandlighteningthegun.Miiller'sgunshadnoheavyreinforces;hemetalasistributedlongheoren aperrompowderchambertomuzzleswell.Butrealizingman'sreluctancetoacceptnewhings,earefullypecifiedheocationndizeoreachmoldingonisun,rotestingllhewhileheutilityfuc hrnaments.NotuntilthelasthalfofthenextcenturyweretheexpertswellenoughVersedinmetallurgyandinteriorballisticstosloughoffalltheuselessmetal.So ,singowderhargesboutone-thirdheweightofherojectile,

Miillerdesigned4-caliberlightfieldpiecesand5-calibershipguns.Hisgarrisonndatteringcannon,whereweightwasoreatisadvantage,

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were8alibersong.Theiguresnheableollowingepresentheprincipalimensionsorheourypesfannonallast-ironxceptforheronzeiegeuns.Theirstinenheablehowsheengthoftheannon.Toproportionheestofhepiece,Miillerdividedheshotdiameterinto4partsanduseditasayardstick.Thecaliberofthegun,forinstance,was25parts,or25/24thoftheshotdiameter.Thefewotherdimensionsthicknessfhereech,engthfheuneforehearrelbegantsaper,ortificationtventndhase^wereexpressedhesameway.

Field Ship Siege Garrison Lengthin calibers

(Otherproportionsin24thsc Caliber14 )f theshot2514 39 16 8

15 diameter2524 49 25

12J

18 2516 4018 9

1825Thicknessof breech24 LengthfrombreechtotaperThicknessatvent49 25Thicknessatmuzzle12J^TheeaviestfMiiller'sarrisonunsveragedom e7 2oundsfironforeverypoundoftheshot,whileashipgunweighedonly46 ,ess thanalfheronhatwentntoheixteenthenturycannon.AndoraseafaringnationuchasEngland,hesewereimportantthings.erhaps

theoppositetablewillgiveafairideaofthechangesinEnglishordnanceduringheighteenthentury.tsasedponohnMiiller'sistsf1 7 5 6 ;heold"rdnancencludesannontillnseuringMiiller'stime,whilethe"new"ordnanceisMiiller'sown.

WindageintheEnglishgunof7 50wasabout20percentgreaterthaninFrenchieces.TheEnglishatiofhotoaliberwas20:21;crossthehanneltwas6:27.Thus,nEnglish-pounderfired .00-inchballrom .20-inchore;heFrench-pounderallwas.1 8nchesandthebore4 .34 .

TheEnglishfiguredgreaterwindagewasbothconvenientandeconom-ical:windage,saidthey,oughttobe justasthickasthemetalinthegun-ner'sladle;standingshotstuckintheboreandunlessitcouldbeloosened withheadle,hadoefiredawayandost.ohnMiillerbrushedasidesuchargumentsimpatiently.Withaproperwadovertheshot,nodustordirtcouldgetin;andwhenthemuzzlewaslowered,saidMiiller,theshot"willollutfourse."esides,omparedwithncreasedccuracy,helossf hotwasrifling.urthermore,withessoomorhehotobounceroundheore,heannonwouldnotepoiledooon."Miillerse ttheratioofshottocaliberas24:25.

Inhe700'sast-ironunsecameherincipalrtilleryfloatndashore,etastronzewasuperiorinwithstandingthestressesffiring.Becauseofit stoughness,essmetalwasneededinabronzegunthaninacast-ironone,soinspiteofthefactthatbronzeisabout2 0percentheavier44


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o

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k 1 (M .OO-*M . o .> * inDo-0N o z^ J j s o b e kt > k ei.Opppp* . \0 h-. 00 C\ ON O N

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h3 o r O O OVO VO O vO 0 ^ h r^ . 00 O N ON O N Ov O Ov .

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i TfOvOTfONO-t NOZ cr .T'iJDnNo r>-r oooo g g b bo o VO VO 0 . 00 CV o\ C v .

t * k h Ok-fz . C .VVohOT 3 fl : s oIn

2 V so o VO 0 . ^ . lO ir>

uU 1 T; i[j&&febS3bfebb3 t3T3CT3tJT)T3dT)T3T3< 3

N? * 'laS.S,S,aH.S.a,S,|,* t* '. vicNOONvifioA1 1 -"'- g T- "J-

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thanron,hebronzepiecewasusuallythelighterofthetwo.Forposi- tion"gunsinpermanentfortificationswhereweightwasnodisadvantage,ironeigneduprementilhedventfteeluns.Buton-rustingbronzewasalwayspreferableaboardshiporinseacoastforts.

Miillertronglydvocatedronzeorhipuns.Notwithstandingll therecautionshataneakenomakeronGunsf ufficientstrength,"eaid,yetccidentswillometimesappen,itheryhemismanagementfheailors,ryrostyweather,whichendersronveryrittle." ronze4-pounderos t156,omparedwith75ortheroniece,uthenitialavingwasffsetwhenheunworeut.Theronunwashenoodorothingxceptcrap- at arthingperpound,whiletheronzecannoncouldberecastasoftenasyo uplease."In740 ,MaritzofSwitzerlandmadeanoutstandingcontributiontothetechniquefrdnancemanufacture.nsteadfollowastingthats,formingtheboreby castingthegunaroundacore),Maritzcastthegunsolid,henrilledheore,husmprovingtsniformity.Butlthoughtheboremightbedrilledquitesmooth,theoutsideofacast-irongunwas alwaysrough. ronzecannon,however,ouldbeputinthelathestotrueupvenhexterior.Whilefter7 50heoundrieseldomurnedutbronzepiecesasornateastheRenaissanceculverins,afewdecorationsre-mainedandmanygunswerestillpersonalizedwithnamesinraisedlettersonhegun.CastillodeanMarcoshas 4-pounder"SanMarcos,"nd,indeed,aints'ameswereotncommonnpanishrdnance.OthertypicalameswereElEspantoTheTerror),ElDestrozoThe es -troyer),GenerosoGenerous),ElToroTheBull),andElBelicosoTheQuarrelsomeOne).

Inom enstances,ecorationwasseful.TheFrench,orinstance,ton etimeuseddifferentshapesofcascabelstodenotecertaincalibers;andeven fancycascabelshapedlikealion'sheadwasalways handyplacefornchoringreechingacklermaneuveringines.Theolphinsrhandlesatopbronzegunswerenevermerelyornaments.Usuallytheywereathealancepointoftheun;acklerunhroughthemandhookedothebigtripodor"gin"liftedthecannonfromits carriage.

GARRISONANDSHIPGUNSCannonorpermanentortificationswerefvariousizesndalibers,

dependingponheerrainhathadoeefended.AtCastilloeanMarcos,ornstance,hetrongestrmament asnhewaterront;lighterunswerenheandector,nreaaturallyprotectedyhedifficultterrainexistinginthecolonialperiod.BeforeheCastilloasompleted,unsweremountednlynhebastionsrprojectingomersofthefort.A683nventoryclearlyshows

thatheaviestgunswereinheSanAgustln,orsoutheasternbastion,om-mandingnotonlytheharboranditsentrancebutthetownofSt.Augus-tineaswelLSanPablo,henorthwesternbastion,overlookedthelandap-4 6


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FIGURE28EIGHTEENTHCENTURYPANISHGARRISONGUN.proachtoheCastillondhetowngate;nd,houghits armamentwas lighter,twaslmostsumerousshatnanAgustin.astionanPedrootheouthwestwaswithinthetownlimits,ndit sfewlightgunswereareserveforSanPablo.ThewatchtowerbastionofSanCarlosover-lookedheorthernmarshlandndhearbor jtsrmamentwasike-wisemall.Theollowinglistetailshevarietyndocationftherd-nance:

CannonmountedatCastillode SanMarcosin1683 Location No. Caliber Class Metal Remarks

InthebastionofSanAgustfn

40-pounder18-pounder16-pounder 12-pounder12-pounder8-pounder7-pounder4-pounder3-pounder

Cannon..do..do..do..do..do..do..do..do.Bronze..do..Iron.BronzeIron..BronzeIron....do..Bronze Carriageattered.ewarriage.....Oldarriages,wheelsad.ewarriage.o.ldarriage.arriagead.....Newarriage.o.

Inhebastionof Sanablo 16-pounder 10-pounder

9-pounder7-pounder7-pounder5-pounder

Demicannon.Demiculverin.CannonDemiculverinCannon..do...,.. Iron.BronzeIron.BronzeIron...do.. ldarriage.o.o.o... Carriagead.. Newcarriage.InthebastionofSanPedro 9-pounder7-pounder5-pounder

4-pounder

Cannon..do..do..doIron...do....do..Bronze ....Oldcarriage.....Carriagebad.o.....Old carriage.IntheastionofSanCarlos

10-pounder5-pounder5-pounder2-pounder

Cannon..do..do..doIron...do..BronzeIron.. ....Oldarriage....Newarriage...Goodarriage...Newarriage.

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TheotalumberfCastillounsnervicethisatewas7 ,uttherewereloseo ozenunmountedpiecesnhand,ncludingapairofedreros.Thermamentwasraduallyncreasedo0-oddunssconstructionworknheortmadedditionalpacevailable,ndsotheractorswarrantedmorerdnance. elows ummaryfCastilloarmamentthroughtheyears:

Armamentc /CastilloeSanMarcos 683-1834 Kindof gu n 1683 1706 1740 1763 1765 1812 1834

1 1 8 1 1 1 J 1 1 1 1 !

t-t1

2-pounder3-pounder4-pounder5-pounder6-pounder7-pounder8-pounder3J^-in.carronade9-pounder10-pounder12-pounder15-j)ounder16-pounder18-pounder24-pounder33-pounder36-pounder40-pounder24-pounderfieldhowitzer6-in.howitzer...8-in.howitzer...Smallmortar....6-in.mortar9-in.mortar....10-in.mortar....Large mortar....Stonemortar....

1 1 4 4

3 1 1 3

2

1 1 1 1 1

1 1

^ 1 1 sA CO

2 515 55

1 1

64 2

3 1 1 21 5

613 2 7 7

6

2 20

1

1

1 4

2

2

1 1

3

3

4 5

2 2 2

1 1

Total20 9 26 9 55 10 40 37 39 24 26 8 14 6 Grandtotal29 35 65 7 7 63 34 20Thistabulationreflectscontemporaryconditionsquiteclearly.ThemostseriousinvasionsofSpanishFloridatookplaceduringthefirsthalfoftheeighteenthentury,reciselyheimewhenheCastillormamentwas strongest.Whilemostofthegunswereinbatterycondition,thetabledoes haveom eiecesatednlyairndmaylsonclude ewnservice-ables.Colonialisolationmeantthatordnanceoftenservedlongerthanthenormal,200-roundlifeofanironpiece.Ausualfailurewasthedevelop-48


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mentofcracksroundheventorinhebore.ometimesamuzzleblew ofif.Theworstasualtiesfhe7 02iegeameromheburstingofniron6-pounderwhichkilledfourandseriouslywoundedsixmen.Atthatperiod,ncidentally,ulverinswereheonlygunswiththerangeoreachtheharborbarsome3,000yardsaway.

AlthoughwhenhepanisheftFloridaoBritainn7 63heyookserviceableannonwithhem,woun stCastilloeanMarcosNa-tionalMonumentodayappeartobeeventeenthcenturySpanishpieces.Mostfhe4 -nd2-pounderarrisonannon,owever,renglish-founded,fterheArmstrongpecificationsfhe730's ,ndwereartofheBritishrmamenturinghe760's.AmidstheeneralonfusionandhippingroubleshatttendedheBritishevacuationin784,om eordnanceeemsoaveeeneftbehind,oemainartftheefensesuntilthecessiontotheUnitedStatesin1821.

TheCastillolsoasom enterestingUnitedtatesuns,ncludingapairfarly4-pounderronieldowitzersc.777-1812).Duringthe1840'sheUnitedtatesmodernizedCastilloefensesyonstructingwaterbatteryinthemoatbehindtheseawall.Manyofthegunsforthatbatteryrextant,ncluding-inchColumbiads,2-pounderannon,-incheacoastndarrisonowitzers.t.Augustine'slazavenoastsconverted32-pounderrifle.

FIGURE9VAUBAN'SMARINECARRIAGEc.700).Garrisonndhiparriageswereariflferentromield,iege,nd

howitzermounts,whilemortared sweren eparatelassntirely.Basicroportionsorhearriagewerebtainedymeasuring1)hedistanceromrunnionoas eingfheun,2)heiameterfhebaseing,nd3)heiameterofheecondeinforceing.Theesultwas uadrilateraligurehaterveds ke yinayingouthearriagetoitheun.heeks,rideieces,fhearriagewere alibernthickness,oheiggerheun,hemoremassivehemount.A4-pounderheekwouldemadefimberbout ncheshick.

Thepaniardsftensedmahogany.Atamestown,nhearly600's,Capt.ohnmitheportedhemountingfevengreatiecesfrd-nanceponewarriagesfedar,"ndheFrencholonialslsosed thismaterial.Britishpecificationsnhemid-eighteenthenturyalledforcheeksandtransomsofdryelm,whichwasverypliableandnotlikelytosplit;utsomecarriagesweremadeofyoungoak,ndoakwasstand-

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ardforUnitedtatesgarrisoncarriagesuntilitwasreplacedby wrought-ironaftertheCivilWar.

For our-wheeledEnglisharriagef750,eightfheheekwas 454iametersfhehot,nlessom ehangenheighthadobemadetofi tagunportorembrasure.Topreventcannonfrompushingshuttersopenwhenhehipolledn torm,owertiercarriagesletthemuzzle oftheun,whenfullyelevated,uttagainstthesilloverthegunport.

OnheighteenthenturySpanishgarrisoncarriagefig.28),noboltswerehreaded;llwereeldithery eyunhrough lotnhefootoftheolt,rbybraddingthefootoveradecorativewasher.Com-pareddthAmericanmountsfheameypefigs.0nd1),heSpanisharriage asonsiderablymoreomplicated,ueartlyohegreatermountfecorativeronworkndartlyoheesignfhewoodenartswhich,withheirarefullyworkedmortises,equiredcraftsman'skill.Theheekfhepanisharriagewas inglereatplank.EnglishndAmericanonstructionalledor uilt-upheekfseverallanks,leverlyoggedrmortisedogetheroreventtartingunderthestrainoffiring.

FIGURE0ENGLISHGARRISONCARRIAGE1756). Bysubstitutingwood-en wheelsforthecast-ironones,thiscarriagebecameastandardnavalguncarriage.Miillerurnishedpecificationsoruildingruckfour-wheeled)ar-riagesor-o2-pounders.Aboardhip,fourse,heruckarriagewastandardorlmostverythingexceptheittlewivelunsndhe

mortars.Carriageruckswheels),nlesstheyweremadeofcastiron,hadiron

thimblesorbushingsdrivenintotheholeofthehub,andtosavethewoodofthexletree,hepindlenwhichhewheelevolvedwaspartlypro-tectedymetal.TheBritishutoppernheottomfhepindle;SpanishndFrenchesignersputcopperonthetop,thense tironaxle-treears"ntoheottom.Thesearstrengthenedhexletreende-sisted wear atthespindle.A4-pounderoreruckwas8nchesniameter.Rearruckswere

16nches.Theifferencenizeompensatedorhelopenheunplatformreckalopewhichelpedoheckecoil.Aboardhip,whereecoilpacewasimited,hekick"ftheunwasheckedy50


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heavyropealled reeching,hackledoheid efthevesselseefig.11).hiparriagesfhewo-rour-wheelypefig.1),werese d throughtheWarbetweentheStates,andtherewasnogreatchangeuntilthedventofautomaticrecoilmechanismsmadeastationarymountpos-sible.

X ) s e <

FIGURE1U..NAVALTRUCKCARRIAGE1866).Withgarrisoncarriages,however,hangescamemuchearlier.n7 43 ,

FortWilliamnheGeorgiaoastad airf8-poundersmounteduponcuriousmovinglatforms"whichwererobablyimilarohetraversinglatformstandardizedyGribeauvalnheatterpartfhecentury.UnitedStatesfortsoftheearly1800'susedcasemateandbarbettecarriagesfig.0)fheGribeauvalype,ndheraversinglatformofhesemountsmaderainingaimingheunightoreft)ompara-tivelyeasy.

Trainingtheoldtruckcarriagehadbeenheavyworkforthehandspike-men,wholsoelpedolevaterdepresshegun.Maximumelevationorepression asbout5achwayaboutheam esavalun susedduringtheCivilWar.fonequoinwasnotenoughtosecureproperdepression, blockoraseconduoinwasplacedbelowthefirst.Butbe -foreheunnerepressed moothboreelowzerolevation,eadoputitherawadragrommetovertheballokeepitfromrollingout.

Shipndarrisonannonwereotmovedroundnheirarriages.Iftheunhadobeakennydistance,twasismountedndhainedunder lingwagonrn blockarriage,"heigwheelsfwhicheasilyrolledoverdifficultterrain.twasnothardtodismountagun:hekeysockingheapquareswereemoved,ndhentheinwasiggedandhegunhoistedlearofthearriage.

Atypicalarrisonorshipcannoncouldfireanykindofprojectile,utsolidhot,hotshot,ombs,grape,ndanisterwereinwidestuse.Thesegunswereflattrajectoryweapons,withapoint-blankrangeofabout300yards.Theywereffectivethats,airlyccurateupoboutalfmile,lthoughhemaximumangefunsikeheColumbiadfhenineteenthentury,whenlevationwasotestrictedyunorton -fines,pproachedhe-mileangelaimedyhepanishorheix-

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teenthenturyulverin.TheollowingangesfUnitedtatesrdnanceinhe800'sreotarifferentromomparableunsfearlierate.

RangesofUnited Statessmoothboregarrisongunsof1861Caliber

18-poundersiegeandgarrison.24-poundersiegeandgarrison.32-pounderseacoast42-pounderseacoast8-inchColumbiad10-inchCk>Iumbiad12-inchColumbiadRangein yards1,592 1,901 1,922 1,9554,812 5,654 5,506 RangesofUnitedStatesnavalsmoothboresof1866

Caliber

32-pounderof 42 cwt.8-inchof 63cw tIX-inchshellgun.X-inchshellgun.

Xl-inchshellgun.XV-inchshellgun.

Point-blank Elevation rangeinyards313 5 330 5 350 15 340 11295 15 300 7

Rangein yards

1,756 1 , 7703,4503,0002,6502,100

RangesofUnitedStatesnavalriflesin866Caliber

20-pounderParrott30-pounderParrottlOO-pounderParrottInccuracyandangetherifleofthe860'sfarsurpassedthesmooth-bores,utuchremendousdvancesweremadeinthenextfewdecadeswithheintroductionofnewpropellantsandsteelgunsthattheperform-ancesftheldiflesoongerseememarkable.nheighteenthcen-tury, 4-poundermoothboreouldevelop muzzleelocityofabout1,700feetpersecond.The2-inchrifledannonofthelate800'shada muzzleelocityof2,300oot-seconds.n900,heecretaryoftheNavyproudlyeportedhatheew2-inchunsorMaine-classattleshipsproducedamuzzlevelocityof2,854foot-seconds,usingan850-poundpro-jectilend hargef6 0oundsfmokelessowder.

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Artillery Through the Ages