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the exposure of children to, and power of, marketing of

(unhealthy) foods . . ..7 The power of marketing includes the

use of persuasive marketing techniques, of which young chil-

dren lack the developmental capacity to identify the advertisers

persuasive intent.8

Research into the types of marketing techniques used to

advertise foods to children on television has substantial tradi-tion, with the earliest content analysis research conducted in

the USA by Barcus, published in 1980.9 Also in 1980, the

Journal of Communication published the research of Kaufman,

who analysed the 10 top-rating prime time television pro-

grammes in the USA in 1977, finding that food advertisements

usually depicted characters as a healthy weight with positive

personal and social characteristics, being happy in the pres-

ence of food, rarely eating alone and snacking often.10 More

recently, similar studies have described the range of elements,

cues and appeals used to advertise foods to children on tele-

vision. However, the variables measured in these studies are

inconsistent, limiting the ability to compare results over time

and across different settings.This research aims to comprehensively describe the marketing

techniques used to promote unhealthy foods to children on

Australian television, and to construct a systematic coding tool,

including definitions for measurement, that may be used to

compare results over time and across different settings.

Materials and Methods

Marketing techniques

A literature search was conducted (March to August 2009),

using the scientific databases ProQuest, Scopus, Medline,

CINAHL and Embase. Key search terms included children,

television and advertising. Studies included were published

in English from 1990 to 2009, analysing the content of tele-

vision food advertisements for marketing techniques designed

to target children.2,1129 The marketing techniques analysed in

the 20 eligible studies identified from the review were

compared, conceptually summarised, and organised to con-

struct a systematic coding tool, presented with definitions in

Table 1.

Data sample and coding

The coding tool was used to measure the frequency at which the

marketing techniques identified were used in a random sample

of 100 unique food advertisements. Advertisements were

sourced from 192 hours of Sydney television, recorded over

four days (1619 May 2009), on the three main free-to-air

channels, daily between 6:30 AM and 10:30 PM. The marketing

techniques presented in Table 1 were coded sequentially as they

occurred within each advertisement. Qualitative details of the

marketing techniques used were also recorded.

Advertised food products were coded as healthy/core (nutri-

ent dense, low energy, considered part of a healthy diet for

children), unhealthy/non-core (high in undesirable nutrients

and not considered part of a healthy diet for children) or mis-

cellaneous, further defined in our prior research.3,19

Data analysis

Using SPSS version 17.0 (IBM Corporation, Somers, NY, USA),

the analyses examined the frequency of each marketing

technique presented in Table 1 and investigated their use in

advertisements:

1 Advertising non-core foods (i.e. non-core vs. other food cat-egories: core, miscellaneous).

2 Featuring child actors (i.e. child actor present vs. not

present).

3 Emotionally appealing to parents (i.e.parental themesused vs.

not used).

4 Verbally addressing parents (i.e. direct audience address to

parents vs. parents not addressed).

Pearson c2 testing was conducted for these four binomial

relationships.

Coder reliability testing using Cohens kappa statistic, on a

random 10% sample, achieved 1.00 (perfect agreement) for

food type, actors, promotional characters and audience address,

and 0.78 (substantial agreement) and 0.88 (almost perfect

agreement) for food product appeals and emotional appeals,

respectively.

Results

Of the advertisements sampled, 65% were for non-core foods,

such as fast foods, sugared breakfast cereals, confectionery,

snack foods and sugared beverages; 19% were for core foods,

such as dairy products, and high-fibre and low-sugar cereals;

and 16% were for miscellaneous foods, such as dietary supple-

ments and tea/coffee.

Emotional appeals

Emotional appeals occurred in 78% of food advertisements,

with 202 total emotional appeals recorded across the 100 adver-

tisements analysed. Table 2 illustrates that emotional appeals

were slightly less prominent in non-core food advertising (ns),

featuring in 75% of non-core food advertisements versus 83%

of other food advertisements (core and miscellaneous). Those

emotional appeals with greater prominence in non-core food

advertising were: fantasy/imagination, used in 28% of non-core

food advertisements (e.g. promotion for a Speed Ball where a

child is forced into slow motion while preparing breakfast), and

fun/happiness, used in 17% (e.g. depicting children as happy,

playing and smiling).

A significantly higher proportion of advertisements featuring

at least one child actor, compared with no children, used two or

more emotional appeals (79% vs. 49%; c2 (1, n = 100) = 6.88,

P < 0.01), and a higher proportion used fun/happiness appeals

(63% vs. 3%).

A greater proportion of advertisements with emotional appeal

to parents, compared with those without, used fun/happiness

(58% vs. 4%) andfantasy/imagination(42% vs. 22%) themes to

appeal concurrently to children. Advertisements with emotional

appeal to parents also featured a significantly greater proportion

of general health or nutrition statements (38% vs. 17%; c2 (1, n =

100) = 4.42, P < 0.05). For example, an advertisement for a

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Table 1 Coding tool for measuring marketing techniques used in food and beverage advertisements with definitions for measurement

Category Subcategory Definition

Emotional appeals Fun/happiness Non-verbal display of happiness (e.g. smiling or playing) or uses words fun, happiness or similar

expressions.

Action/adventure Adventurous activities described or depicted, for example, mountain climbing.

Sports/physical performance/

athletic ability

Shows characters participating in sports or exercise, or states that the product improves sports performance,

strength, power, speed, stamina, etc.

Fantasy/imagination Shows imaginary characters, situations or events, or uses words fantasy, imagination or similar

expressions.

Hunger/thirst satisfaction Shows or states hunger or thirst relief, above merely enjoying eating/drinking the product.

Achievement/accomplishment Depicts an accomplishment/achievement tied to the product or uses words associated with achievement,

accomplishment or reaching goals.

Control of self or environment Food product is described/depicted as helping one to achieve control over themselves or the environment,

for example, consuming the product allows one to change their activity or normal functions of the human

body.

Independence/grown-up Consuming/acquiring the food product is described/depicted as being grown-up or a big-kid.

Tri umph/ hero Has a the me of triumph or be coming a h ero.

Social enhancement/peer

acceptance

Shows children in groups of friends or other children depicting themes of friendship, peer acceptance,

popularity or modelling behaviour of peers.

Coolness/hipness Consuming/acquiring the food product is described/depicted as cool or hip.

Anti-adult themes Consuming/acquiring the product is described/depicted as oppositional to parent/care giver wishes.

Parental pleasing Shows parents are pleased that their child (animated or human) is consuming the product.

Parental themes Visual/verbal attempts to tap into the hopes/fears of parents for their childrens well-being, growth and

development, or has themes of family life.

Increased self-confidence Depicts consumption/acquisition of a food product as enhancing self-confidence.

Physical attractiveness/beauty Shows physical attractiveness as a theme; depicts/states that the product is related to beauty, looks or

physical attractiveness; or uses words to this effect.

Romance/sexuality Shows romance/romantic affection as a theme; depicts/states the product is related to romance; or uses

words to this effect or the behaviour/dress of characters is sexy or provocative, or expressions are used to

this effect.

E nergy Food prod uct i s des cri bed /d epi cted as prov idi ng en erg y.

Food product appeals Convenience Food product is described/depicted as fast/easy to prepare or obtain.

Economical Food product is described/depicted as competitive or as value for money.

Palatability Food product is described/depicted as tasting or smell ing good.

Quality claim Claims relating to an overall sense of well-being including wholesome, natural, organic, real, full of

goodness or made with the finest ingredients.Novelty/new Food product is described/depicted as new, different, modern or in-fashion, or similar word.

Premium offer Food advertisement depicts a premium offer with purchase of the food product, for example, competition,

giveaway (such as a toy or tickets to a venue or show), rebate or voucher.

General nutrition/health

statements

General statement about health or nutritive benefits of food product to user.

Nutrition claim A statement regarding the presence or absence of a nutrient, energy or a biologically active substance in the

food and, in some cases, the amount of the component, for example, good source of dietary fibre.

High-level health claim Food product described to influence a serious disease (e.g. heart disease) or biomarker (e.g. cholesterol).

General-level health claim Food product is described as possessing a nutrient or substance that is stated to have an effect on a physical

or mental health function.

Visual el ements Huma n actors

Age Child (012 years), adolescent (1317 years), adult (18+years).

Food activity Eating/drinking alone or with friends/family, food purchasing/preparation or discussion/portrayal of food only.

Physical activity Physically active, sedentary (sitting, lying down), general activities of daily living.

Promotional characters Cartoon characters, celebrity/popular personality (including sports persons), health professional/scientist,

charity/organisation (e.g. Girl Guides).

Mea l portrayed Brea kfa st, lun ch, din ner, s nac k, dr in k.

Food setting Home, school, retail food outlets (e.g. food court or restaurant, grocery stores) public place, in a vehicle (car,

truck, etc.) or outdoors/travel (e.g. exotic locations or adventures).

Supplementary food references Incidental visual or verbal references to food other than the food/beverage product being advertised.

Audio elements Music/jingles Food advertisement features music or jingles.

Direct audience address Narration directly addresses audience: a general audience, parents, adolescents or children (e.g. Hey Kids).

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sugared breakfast cereal depicted a parent preparing the cereal

for their child, while a narrative voice-over described the food

having . . . the goodness of fibre . . . (while still treating) . . .

them . . . (their children) . . . with the chocolaty taste they love.

Food product appeals

Almost all advertisements (95%) featured at least one food

product appeal, with 207 total food product appeals recorded.

Food product appeals included appeals to the consumer using

aspects of the product itself, such as convenience of use, palat-

ability and claims about the products quality, health or nutritivevalue. Use of food product appeals occurred equally in non-core

and other food advertisements (94% and 97%, respectively).

Table 2 illustrates that the dominant food product appeals used

to advertise less healthy foods included: convenienceappeals (e.g.

instant noodles being advertised as quick to prepare for an

after-school snack) and palatability appeals (e.g. Once youve

eaten (product), a little flavour is never enough).

Convenience appeals were used in a significantly greater pro-

portion of advertisements that verbally addressed parents (77%

vs. 45%; c2 (1,n = 100) = 4.66,P< 0.05), for example, suggest-

ing ice cream as an easy way to give children their calcium

needs.

Visual elements

Child actors featured in 24% of food and beverage advertise-

ments, with a total of 36 child actors recorded over the 100

advertisements analysed. Where children interacted with the

food or beverage product (i.e. were eating, preparing or por-

traying the food), they were mostly depicted with friends or

family (69%; 11/16 child actors). In advertisements where food

was portrayed with child actors, the most common meal

depicted was snacking (35%; 7/20 advertisements), and of

these, six of seven were non-core snack foods including ice

creams, pastries/muffins, chocolate, a fruit bar and a sugary

breakfast cereal that was advertised as an after-school snack.

Child actors were equally depicted as being physically active(28%), sedentary (39%) or involved in general activities of daily

living (33%). All children who were physically active (n = 10)

had no association with the advertised food and were rather

used in advertisements having emotional appeal to parents over

childrens physical health and development. For example, an

advertisement for pasta featured a child talking to their parent

thanking them for helping them grow into a healthy, fit

sportsperson.

Promotional characters featured in 23% of advertisements, of

which 39% were cartoon or licensed characters (e.g. Home

Ice-creams Delivery Dan or Bugs Bunny); 48% were sportsper-

sons or celebrities (e.g. Julie Corletto (Australian netballer) or

The Stig from the television programme Top Gear); and 13%

were health professionals or scientists (e.g. accredited practising

dietitians or nutritionists). A higher proportion of advertise-

ments featuring at least one child actor used cartoon characters

(25% vs. 4%), although, overall, there was no difference in the

degree to which promotional characters were used to promote

non-core versus other foods (Table 2).

Only 13% of advertisements did not use a setting such as the

family home, beach, sports grounds or work places, but rather

used a plain-coloured background. While food advertisements

set within the home advertised a significantly higher proportion

of core or miscellaneous foods (c2 (1,n = 100) = 6.39,P< 0.05),

advertisements set in public places (outdoors and, to a lesser

Table 2 Proportion of advertisements for unhealthy (non-core) and

other foods (core and miscellaneous) that used each type of marketing

technique

Marketing techniques % non-core % other

(n= 65) (n= 35)

Any emotional appeal (n= 78) 75.3 82.9

Fantasy/imagination (n = 27) 27.7 25.7

Achievement/accomplishment

(n= 25)

21.5 31.4

Parental themes (n= 24) 23.1 28.6

Control of self or environment

(n= 22)

21.5 25.7

Fun/happiness (n= 17) 16.9 17.1

Two or more emotional appeals

(n= 56)

52.3 62.9

Any food product appeal (n = 95) 93.8 97.1

Convenience (n= 49) 52.3 42.9

Palatability (n= 47) 53.8 34.3

Quality claim (n= 32) 29.2 40.0Nutrition content claims (n= 24) 18.5 34.3

General health/nutrition statements

(n= 22)

16.9 31.4

Two or more food product appeals

(n= 76)

72.3 82.9

Visual elements

Child actors (n = 24) 21.5 28.6

Any promotional character (n = 23) 20.0 28.6

Cartoon characters (n= 9) 9.2 8.6

Celebrities or sportspersons

(n= 11)

9.2 14.3

Health professionals or scientists

(n= 3)

1.5 5.7

Meal portrayed

Meal (breakfast, lunch or dinner)

(n= 15)

13.8 17.1

Snack (n = 22) 27.7 11.4

Beverage (n= 16) 12.3 22.9

Food setting

Home (n = 35) 26.1 51.4*

Retail food outlets (n= 12) 13.8 8.6

Public places (outdoors/travel,

vehicles and schools) (n= 40)

49.2* 22.9

Supplementary food references

(n= 49)

41.5 62.9*

Audio elements

Music/jingles (n= 82) 86.2 74.3

Direct audience address

Children (n= 3) 4.6 0.0

Parents (n= 13) 12.3 14.3

*P < 0.05. Some categories have been collapsed to summarise the key

marketing techniques used.

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degree, in vehicles or at school) advertised a significantly higher

proportion of non-core foods (c2 (1, n = 100) = 6.59, P < 0.05)

(Table 2). For those advertisements featuring child actors, the

home environment was the main setting (50% vs. 30%; c2 (1,

n = 100) = 3.12, P= 0.08).

Almost half (49%) of all advertisements analysed featured

references to foods other than the product being advertised. Asignificantly lower proportion of non-core advertisements fea-

tured food references, compared with other advertisements

(42% vs. 63%; c2 (1,n = 100)= 4.14,P< 0.05) (Table 2). Where

the advertised food product was a non-core food or beverage,

the majority of supplementary food references (81%) was for

core foods including milk, fruit, vegetables, meats, cereals and

pasta.

Audio elements

Advertisements directly addressing the audience were over four

times more likely to be directed to parents (n=13) than children

(n = 3) (Table 2). Advertisements addressing parents, forexample, As a busy mum, I know it can be hard . . ., advertised

a variety of foods including pasta/noodles, sugared breakfast

cereals, low-fat milk, snack bars and fast food. However, all

advertisements directly addressing children were for non-core

foods (fast food and crumbed fish).

Discussion

The results of this study illustrate the range of techniques used

to advertise foods to children on commercial television. These

techniques are used in multiple combinations within advertising

communications and, interestingly, do not generally differ

according to the type of food advertised.

In defining advertisements that were specifically directedtowards children, the use of child actors visually or the direct

audio address of children was not useful as a single indicator, as

advertisers used a wide range of emotive appeals to target chil-

dren. Similar to other research,14 we found that while only 3%

of advertisements made a direct address to children, children

were depicted as happy, playing with friends and enjoying the

foods offered to them by parents, thus conveying indirect(sym-

bolic) messages to consumers, notably parents, that children

will be happier and healthier when consuming the product.

These findings indicate that simple terms of targeted at chil-

dren, clearly directed primarily to children, or childrens

advertisements found in regulatory initiatives and policy guide-

lines, nationally and internationally, are overly simplistic and

highly ambiguous.3032 They provide limited factors to consider

when deciding whether an advertisement is directed towards

children or not, and, in this way, circumvent or ignore the basic

features of marketing communications, such as the use of sym-

bolism.33 For example, the Australian Association of National

Advertisers code for advertising to children vaguely defines

advertising or marketing communications to children as

. . . having regard to the theme, visuals and language used, and

are directed primarily to Children . . ..34

The findings also highlighted that food advertisers are more

likely to directly address parents than children to promote foods

for childrens consumption. This may be related to an expecta-

tion that parents will be more likely to purchase an advertised

food product if the advertisement is targeted towards them, as

found by Jones and Fabrianesi.35 As food advertising restrictions

have focused primarily on children as a target audience of

marketing communications, this finding raises the need for

further exploration of the potential effects of advertising

unhealthy foods to parents on their purchasing intentions andon the foods their children ultimately consume.

Further issues identified were that the majority of visual

supplementary food references used in unhealthy food adver-

tising were for core foods and that children were frequently

depicted snacking on unhealthy foods. These aspects of adver-

tising potentially convey misleading or conflicting dietary mes-

sages to children and their parents, and contribute to the

normalisation of unhealthy foods in the daily diet.

To date, premium offers and licensed characters have been the

main techniques studied and considered for potential restric-

tion. While these techniques are known to influence child audi-

ences, this study illustrates the wider range of techniques

designed to appeal to children within the marketing repertoire,including emotive (symbolic) techniques, that would need to be

considered for any restrictions on the use of persuasive market-

ing techniques to be effective. Current advertising restrictions

also only apply during narrow time periods classified by the

Australian Communications Media Authority as childrens

viewing times. This research illustrated that techniques appealing

to children may occur outside these hours.

An important consideration, though, is the difficulty in coding

advertisements this way should advertising regulations restrict a

broader range of marketing techniques. Monitoring advertisers

compliance with such restrictions would be arduous and hence

a weak basis for regulation. It has been recommended that

policy makers instead focus food marketing policy on reducing

the frequency of unhealthy food advertising during times whenmost children are viewing, based on local television audience

measurement information.36 This would be less complicated to

implement and objectively monitor, enables better consumer

understanding for complaints and would be effective in reduc-

ing childrens exposure to unhealthy food advertising on

television.37

Although the sample of advertisements analysed in this study

were selected from a relatively short time period, for the pur-

poses of this study, the number of the unique advertisements

sampled was large compared with other literature and not

limited to advertising broadcast during childrens programming,

which, in Australia, does not reflect the times of day when most

children view television advertising.38

As the advertising sample used in this study is from a single

city, the findings may not be directly generalisable to other

countries, as the techniques used are likely to reflect local

cultural and social values, as found by Ji and McNeal.18

The proposed systematic coding tool has been developed

through the synthesis of international literature and therefore

provides a comprehensive tool for global application. A multi-

country study using this tool would be an important follow-up

study.

In conclusion, a vast range of emotive, food product and

visual marketing techniques are used in various combinations

to appeal to children through television food advertising. While



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36 Kelly B, King L, Bauman A, Smith BJ, Flood V. The effects of different

regulation systems on television food advertising to children. Aust.

New Zealand Health Policy2007;31: 3403.

37 Office of communications (Ofcom). HFSS advertising restrictions: final

review. 2010. Available from: http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/

binaries/research/tv-research/hfss-review-final.pdf [accessed 16

February 2011].

38 Australian Television Audience Measurement (OzTAM).Audience

Measure Specific Day Part across JanuaryDecember 2009, 512

years demographic group. Broken Down by Week-Days, Week-End

Days, and by Networks 7, 9 and 10. Television Audience Survey

Information, 2010.



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Art of Persuasion_Hebden 2011