Next the metal ore must he smelted. This is usually a process of chemical reduction where carbon removes oxygen from the metal oxide. It is interesting to speculate on what the Sumarians and Assyrians and ancient Chinese thought thev were doine when thev smelted conner. or tin. or. later. what the ~ i t t i c e s believed happened when'they mad; iron: None of our modern ideas from the science of chemistry were available to them. Nevertheless, they made metal-not very efficiently and not in laree suantitv-hut thev did make it. I wonder to what extent tKe r;ling&mans knekor cared how their armament was obtained, hut I hope that I am not foolish in wanting to change that, a t least for the graduates of American collepes.

Anyway, to thetable of materials required to make a light bulb we must add copper ore, and the chemicals needed as flotation agents. ~ u t we must also add the machinery re- quired for the mining and crushing of ore. This means, among other things, internal combustion engines, and steel to make the mining machinery, and special alloy steels for the teeth of the buckets that bite into the hard rock of the low-grade ores. The alloy steels in turn require many ele- ments in addition to iron, such as cobalt, nickel, and molyh- denum. Moreover, the manufacture of steel requires manga- nese as a deoxygenating agent-no effective substitute has been found. Manganese, cobalt, and nickel are imported, nickel mostly from Canada, cobalt largely from South Afri- ca, and manganese from India, Africa, and elsewhere. The only good material so far found for the filament of ordinary incandescent light bulbs is tungsten, and much tungsten is imported from the People's Republic of China. As I suggest- ed~earlier. this brines international trade into the victure: one has to'build freiihters and engage in international law i i order to turn on an electric light.

Well, this is probably more than enough detail for the present concerning what you must learn and what you must do in order to have the light go on when you flick the switch. Somewhere along the way you will have to learn how to construct a dynamo, which is fairly modern technology and depends upon the laws of electromagnetism; you will also have to solve the problems connected with the insulation of wire. To get modern insulation, you must create a huge chemical industry; to tun the various internal combustion engines of the mining machinery and the ships needed to imuort ore vou need the vetroleurn industrv: to eenerate the ". electricity you need the electrical utility industry. The dis- cussion of this vrohlem eiven above is lone. factual. hut still -. incomplete.

If vou wish then. to eo a hit further in consideriue the . - education of students, you can ask some other "simple" suestions, parallel to the suestion of how to turn on an ilectric lighi. In order to understand how to tune a radio, one must learn enough calculus to solve a second-order differen- tial equation. ~ k n i c i ~ ~ i n has been a great blessing to the citizens of the world. If you want to know what penicillin does, how it works, you have to know a trace of bacteriology, and its convenient-no, it is really necessary-to know some oreanic chemistrv. Similarlv. vou need to know a little or- gakc chemistry & unders&d how to wash your clothes. The modern detergent industry is technology built on sci- ence. The manufacture of soap was a cottage industry before soap was understood, so you could wash your hands with soap without anyone understanding organic chemistry, but you cannot wash your shirt with detergents unless someone, somewhere, knows chemistry. You might also consider dis- cussing with students a somewhat more grandiose project- how to build an atomic homh-and work out some of the science involved. If you consider the practical problems of our society, including some that might lead to national sui- cide and some that might he regarded as trivial, you get fairly quickly into basic science.

In order to avoid heing lynched by my colleagues in the humanities, I will hasten to say that I am not entirely igno-

rant of the importance to civilization of the invention of writing in general and of an alphabet in particular, and I realize that the quality of civilization depends on law, litera- ture, art, architecture, and music as well as upon telephones, penicillin, the printing press, structural steel, and pianos. But all of the humanities-and even law-are somewhat dependent on technology. Civilization as we know i t has always been limited by technology, and can only rise to a level that is limited by the state of technological achieve- ment a t any particular time. Of course, it need not rise to that level, and with sufficient war, or civil disorder, or plain poor government, one can achieve much less. The nuclear holocaust that we all fear, and some of us expect, will take careof civilization for a long time, even if it does not eradi- cate mankind as a species. But the Athenians could not have electric lights or penicillin, regardless of the efficiency or idealism of their government. The history of mankind is not merely grossly incomplete, it is quite deceptive unless i t includes, and perhaps emphasizes, the role of technological development in the progress of civilization.

Art Hazards-Educating the Artist Allen A. Denlo University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire Eau Claire, WI 54701

Artists do not limit their efforts to brushing paints on a canvas. By its very nature their creativity often requires them to experiment in unfamiliar areas, thereby possibly exposing themselves to substances that can cause health prbhlems. Traditionally artists have little or no background in science, especially in chemistry, with the result that most graduates of college and university art programs are a t risk as they begin their careers as artists or art teachers. If they work in a home studio, the problems may also he shared with family members and friends.

The number of chemical hazards faced in art studios is impressive. The challenge is to educate art students and facultv members before their health is imvaired. The litera- ture dealing with these problems is ahunbant and deserves much more attention (1-16). We in chemistw have a moral obligation to help colleagues in art departments become more aware of the dangers heing faced. Assistance can he provided in purchasing decisions, storage and dispensing conditions, studio use and waste disposal. This paper dis- cusses some of the health hazards associated with art and my efforts to help colleagues in the art department to recognize these hazard; in theii euvionment andto promote safe prac- tices in their teaching.

As earlv as 1974. a nonmaior course was initiated with a special slant toward artists and a t buffs (In, and in 1977 a text and slide-tane vroeram was sneciallv desiened for stu- dent potters (18):~oweker, low enrollment andbudget pres- sures forced this well-received course out of existence.

More recently, a new approach was tried. Instead of initi- ating a course we undertook a joint project with Professor Katrosits of the art faculty to study and identify a wide variety of art hazards and to devise plans to increase aware- ness of these problems among art faculty and their students. This effort was funded one year by the university's System Fund for the Improvement of Undergraduate Instruction.

Common Art Hazards

The summer of 1983 was spent researching the literature on art health hazards and gathering materials. Visits were made to examine the studio facilities a t other,institutions. We met with a local dermatologist and a pulmonary disease specialist. The following will give an overview of our find- ings.

772 Journal of Chemical Education

Organic solvents are frequently used in painting and printmaking studios. ~ m o n g t h e s e a r e toluene, the xdenes, methanol, acetone, methvlene chloride, ethyl acetate, meth- yl ethyl ketone, turpentine, mineral spirits (a petroleum distillate) and carhon tetrachloride. While these vary in tox- icity and flammability, they should be handled with great care! This involves proper storage, careful usage with good ventilation, and safe disposal. Containers for most of these solvents are labelled "use with adequate ventilation," a rath- er ambiguous statement. Unfortunately, few college or uni- versity studios provide adequate ventilation due to poor building design or energy conservation measures. Home stu- dios are often worse.

Fortunatelv, there is little henzene left in circulation. Ben- zine, howeve;, looks and sounds the same! This petroleum distillate, sometimes sold as V.M. and P. Naphtha, is inter- mediate in volatility between mineral spirits and gasoline. There is a potential for someone to confuse the two and end up inhaling the carcinogen henzene when he or she thinks they have benzine.

Thc relati\.e haeard levels of some common solventscan be assessed by comparing the OSHA levels permitted in an 8-h work dav of a 40-h work wrrk. Several solvents are listed. together with carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone, in the table.

OSHA Levels Permitted

Substance P P ~ Substance P P ~

acetone 1.000 xvlanas 100 pelroleum d 9111 alas (naphma) 500 carDon monoxrde 50 OSOP~OPY a con0 400 caroon lelracnlorlde 10 melhy ethyl retone 200 nwogen d oxlae 5 0

Note that acetone is regarded as quite harmless a t 1,000 ppm, hut one should not overlook its flammability. Turpen- tine. used hv oainters for centuries. is Dermittedat t h e 100 " . . . ppm level. Some people are allergic to this solvent, suffering skin and resniratorv irritations. Carbon tetrachloride and benzene shoild not be used by artists. Carbon monoxide is a hazard to Dotters working near ooorlv vented kilns. Nitroeen dioxide is;ery deadly an2 is a problem for printmakers who etch copper plates with nitric acid. Ozone is included as a "lower limit" value-fortunately it is not often a problem in studio areas.

Painters, printmakers, and potters work with a great vari- ety of pigments. Some contain lead, chromium, mercury, cadmium, barium, and nickel. Working with these pigments in the form of fine powders should be avoided.

Aerosol paints and varnishes represent a significant haz- ard. They release finely divided liquid droplets, many of which are tinv enoueh to be colloidal. This ~ e r m i t s them to remain susp&ded in the air fur long periods during which they are readil\, inhaled. These liouid d ro~ le t s contain sol- vents, pigments, and film-forming chemicali. Aerosol paint- ing should be done in a spray booth that meets OSHA stan- dards. However, these are very costly and beyond the reach of many academic art departments as well as artists with their own studios.

A relatively new device is the airless spray gun that eject8 the paint at very high pressures (2,000 to 3,300 psi). This can drive the paint through the skin layer and into underlying tissue. reouirine sureical removal. Fineers have reouired am- . . " - putation after heing used to unplug the spray nozzle.

The ootterv studio mav be free of oreanic solvents but the glaze f&mul&ion area often contains a variety of lead glaze additives. Also of concern are compounds of chromium, co- halt, nickel, and barium. Fortunately, uranium compounds

are no longer in use by most potters. One colleague asked me to take his large jar of uranium oxide. Its level of radioactiv- ity was quite impressive!

Clav dust. if inhaled for a lone Deriod of time. can cause -. silicosis, a fatal lung disease. Talc, a glaze additive, has been found to contain up to 5% asbestos fibers in some cases. This is cause for concern, given the known relationship between inhaling these fibers and the development of mesothelioma.

Fiber workers may he exposed to dyes that are carcinogen- ic. The use of chromium salts to form metal-dve com~lexes is also hazardous, and some dye baths requirethe use of acid solutions that can cause skin and eye damage.

Artists working with metals often do soldering, brazing, or welding, activities that require good ventilation. Soft solder contains lead, some of which is vaporized during use. A similar problem exists with silver solder which contains cad- mium.

Another operation that has become popular among some artists is electro~latine. often done in a bath containing metal cyanide cokplexm. The need for pH control here is essential to avoid the release of hvdroeen cvanide. - .

llydrufluuricacid is treated wi&great respect hy chemists au,are of its ~roperties. However, it is often handled rareless- ly by artisgin etching glass.

Educational Efforts

Once we had identified the major areas of health hazards, our mission then began to focus on how to best educate members of the art faculty and their students. Several ap- proaches are heing used, including the following

1) A variety of reference materials (14-26) were purchased and made available to faculty members on loan from the Art departmen- tal office.

2) A commercial slide-tape presentation on art hazards was pur- chased for classroom use.

3) A slide-tape presentation has been prepared on this campus by the Media Development Center. This will be made available to others at a reasonable price.

4) The American Chemical Society has produced an audiocas- sette in the Dimensions in Science series (Chemistry for the Artist) that emphasizes the need for artists to become more aware of the health hazards that they encounter.

5) Handouts for art students dealing with specific health hazards are beine oreoared. ... . 6) Ikn>mmendations hare heen made to the Fine A r b Huilding

Addiurm Cummittre for better storage areas, improvrd ventilarion, increased studio space, and a lounge area.

7) A presentation on health hazards in the arts was given at a meeting of the Art Students Association on this campus.

8) Professor Katrosits and I plan to continue our efforts to im- prove the awareness of art health hazards on this campus and he- yond. We hope to offer a summer workshop for school art teachers and area residents.

Acknowledgment

We thank the University of Wisconsin System for the Undergraduate Teaching Improvement Grant for 1983-84. Their support is greatly appreciated.

Literature Cited (11 Agoston, G. A , Laonordo, 2,373 (19691. (2) Bararani, G. C., "Safe Practic~s in the Arband Crafts: A StudioGuide," College Art

Assoc.,16E.52nd.NewYork,N.Y. 1W22, 1977. (31 Eckardt, R. E.. J. Occup. Med, 15.808 (19731. 14) Goalstone, J., Amor. LungA8mc. Bull., 69 131 (19831. 15) Graham. J. A. G., Msxton, D. G., and Tworl. C. H. C., Loncof. I159 INov. 21,19811, 16) Klein, M.etal..N.Engl. J. Md.283, j131.66911970). (7) Kotrazo, C., Amar. Artist, 45. 14631 64 (19811. 18) Katz, M. L., and KoU, N., ARTnews, 80 141.69 119811. (9) Lsndrigan,P. J., Western J.Med., 137.534 11982).

(10) Lehmann.P.E.,Sciqusst, 52,171,13 (19791. (111 Malhias,C. G.T.,and Maibach, H.I., WestarnJ.Med., 137,486119821. (121 Pond, S. M., Wedarn J. Med.. 137,506 119821. (13) Shellpard, D., Westem J. Med., 137,480 119821. (14) Siedlecki, J.T.. JAMA.204 1176 11968). 1151 Siedlecki. J.T..Art Educ.25, 121. 21 119721. (16) "Ceramic Foodware Safety: Sampling, Analysis and Limits fm h a d and Cadmium

Release." WHO Report, Food Additives Unit, World Health Org., 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland. 1977.

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