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Table S2. Extracted data from experimental studies
Reference Sample Characteristics
Study Design Randomisation Methodology & Details of Blinding
Details of Training (duration, sessions, task stimuli)
Underlying Automatic and/or Regulatory Processes
Primary Outcomes (related to food or automatic/ regulatory processes)
Additional Outcomes Reported (i.e. engagement, attrition, adverse effects)
Key Findings Quality Assessment
Boutelle et al., 2014
*Effect sizes calculated for d
29 children8-12 yearsMean age: 10.83 (1.28)BMI = 26.04kg/m2
(4.08)F: 46%; M: 54%
Training condition14 childrenMean age: 10.40 (1.24)BMI = 25.70kg/m2
(3.78)F: 53.3%; M: 46.7%
Control condition15 childrenMean age: 11.29 (1.20)BMI = 26.40kg/m2
(4.48)F: 35.7%; M: 64.3
Randomised controlled trial
Not specified Type of training: Attention bias modification
1-session; 288 trials
Training condition:Attention trained away from unhealthy food words toward neutral words 100% of the time
Control condition:Attention trained toward unhealthy food words 50% of the time and neutral words 50% of the time
Attention bias Pre-and-post training
Eating in absence of hunger (EAH) paradigmUnhealthy snack consumption in the absence of hungerCalculated calories consumed (EAH kcal) and percent of daily calorie needs consumed (EAH percent)
Modified dot probe paradigm (stimuli not trained)Attention bias
Attention bias
No significant group by time interaction for attention bias, p = 0.073;No significant difference in attention bias in the training condition (p = 0.546, d = 0.26), or in the control condition p = 0.073, d = 0.63 from pre-to-post training.
Significant group by time interaction for EAH percent, p = 0.018;No significant change in EAH percent in the training condition from baseline to post-training (p = 0.466, d = 0.12).Control condition significantly increased EAH percent from baseline (M = 9.6, SD = 3.6); to post-training (M = 12.2, SD = 2.4), p = 0.006, d = 0.85.
Significant group by time interaction for EAH kcal, p = .022.No significant change in EAH kcal in the training condition from baseline to post-training (p = 0.542, d = 0.12).Significant increase in EAH
52%; Fair
kcal in the control condition from baseline (M = 246.9, SD = 104.1) to post-training (M = 312, SD = 79.3), p = 0.009, d = 0.70.
Baseline attention bias did not moderate the between group change in EAH percent (β = 2.18, t = 1.46, p = 0.159) or EAH kcal (β = 2.49, t = 1.71, p = 0.103).
(Folkvord, Veling et al. 2016)
133 children7-10 yearsObese (3.8%); overweight (18.9%); normal-weight (73.5%); underweight (3.8%)F: 47%; M: 53%
Randomised controlled trial
Not specified Type of trainingModification of implicit processes in relation to eating behaviour
1-session; 132 trials
Go/no-go task
Go/no-go food task; 22 images of cute animals (go trials); 22 different images of jelly candy (no-go trials)
Go/no-go control task; 22 images of cute animals (go trials); 22 control images (coloured circles) (no-go trials)
Implicit biases Post-training
Food intake; jelly candy (trained stimuli); milk chocolate candy shells (stimuli not trained)Ad libitum food intake of unhealthy foods
Food intake
Significant between-group difference in total food intake, F(1, 129) = 6.32, p = 0.01, d = 0.44;Children in the go/no-go food task consumed significantly less (M = 169.6 kcal, SD = 117.0 kcal) than those in the go/no-go control task (M = 226.0 kcal, SD = 142.2 kcal).
50%; Fair
(Jiang, He et al. 2016)
40 children
Training condition20 childrenMean age: 6.30 years (0.47)
Randomised controlled trial
Randomised according to student number
Blinding not specified
Type of trainingInhibitory response modification
Training
Generic inhibitory control
Pre-and-post training
Generic go/no-go task paradigm (stimuli not trained)Generic inhibitory
Generic inhibitory control
Significant correlation between BMI and commission errors in the pre-training go/no-go task (r
50%; Fair
BMI range = 12.56- 19.66BMI = 15.97kg/m2
(1.68)F:10; M: 10
Control condition20 childrenMean age: 6.40 years (0.50)BMI range 13.92-19.68BMI = 16.05kg/m2
(1.64)F:10; M: 10
condition
6 consecutive days of training; 10 minutes per day; 5 blocks of 40 trials
3 within-subjects conditions1. Inhibition
manipulation; food paired with no-go signal
2. Impulsivity manipulation; food paired with a go signal
3. Control manipulation;50% of time food paired with go signal, 50% of time food paired with no-go signal
Control Condition6 consecutive days; 10 minutes per day
Played with Lego blocks
control
Taste test; foods used during trainingFood consumption
= 0.70, p < 0.001).
Training condition: commission errors significantly reduced from pre-training (M = 9.13, SD = 4.54) to post-training (5.93, SD = 4.85),t(19) = 3.17, p = 0.005, r2 = 0.35, errors of omission significantly reduced from pre-training (M = 9.38, SD = 5.13) to post-training (M = 5.13, SD = 6.86), t(19) = 3.70, p = 0.002, r2 = 0.42,go response time was significantly faster post-training (M = 561.25, SD = 125.03) than pre-training (M = 631, SD = 123.07), t(19) = 3.64, p = 0.002, r2 = 0.41.
No significant differences pre-and-post training in the control condition.
Food consumption
Intake of Food A (paired with inhibition manipulation) was significantly lower post-training (M = 31.46g, SD = 15.62) compared with pre-training (M = 46.99g, SD = 16.66), p < 0.01No difference in consumption of Food B (paired with impulsivity manipulation) from pre-training (M = 42.30g, SD = 16.14) to post training (M = 43.26, SD = 17.28).
No significant difference in intake of Food C (paired with control manipulation)
from pre-training (M = 41.87g, SD = 14.33) to post-training (M = 39.89g, SD = 13.29).
Consumption of Food A post-training significantly lower than consumption of Food B, t(18) = -4.25, p < 0.001, ŋp
2 = 0.50.
No difference in consumption of Food B and Food C post-training, t(18) = 1.79, p = 0.30, ŋp
2 = 0.15.(Liu, Zhu et al. 2015)
Training condition20 childrenMean age: 4.87 years (0.26)F: 8; M: 12
Control condition20 childrenMean age: 4.88 years (0.20)F: 10; M: 10
Randomised controlled trial
Not specified Training Type Inhibitory control training
3 weeks, 15 minutes per day, 4 training days per week,12 sessions in total
Training Condition
Commercial game on IPad tablet; “Fruit Ninja”; Food-specific Go/no-go paradigm; respond to fruits (go stimuli) and inhibit responses to bombs (no-go stimuli)
Control condition
3 weeks, 15 minutes day, 2 days per week, 6 sessions in
Inhibition; fluid intelligence; working memory
Pre-post testing
Generic go/no-go task (stimuli not trained)Generic inhibition
Day-night Stroop TasksInference control
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-III (WPPSI-III);digit span subtestWorking memory
Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices TestNonverbal abstract reasoning
Inhibition
No significant main effects of group for performance on the go-no/go task, F(1, 29) = 0.12, p = 0.727, ŋp
2 = 0.004.
Inference control
No significant main effects of group on the Stroop Task, F(1, 31) = 1.68, p = 0.204, ŋp
2 = 0.051.
Nonverbal abstract reasoning
Significant main effect of group on the Ravens’ task, F(1, 31) = 4.96, p = 0.03, ŋp
2
= 0.14.
Digit span
No significant main effects of group for the digit span task, F(1, 31) = 0.77, p = 0.386, ŋp
2 = 0.02.
46%; Poor
total
Colour game on IPad tablet
(Porter, Bailey-Jones et al. 2018)
Study 1142 childrenMean age: 7.69 years (1.67)5-11 yearsF: 74% ; M: 26%
Training condition72 childrenMean age: 7.76 years (1.63)F: 53%; M: 47%
Control condition70 childrenMean age: 7.61 years (1.73)F: 51%; M: 49%
Study 2
81 children4-11 yearsMean age: 7.53 years (2.11)
Active food condition29 childrenMean age: 7.60 years (2.29)F: 16; M: 13
Control food condition25 childrenMean age: 7.42 years (2.29)F: 10; M: 15
Control non-food condition27 children
Randomised controlled trial
Not specified Study 1
Type of trainingInhibitory control training
1 training session; 4 blocks of 32 trials
Go/no-go task; 16 food stimuli; 8 healthy images healthy food; 8 images unhealthy food; go signal happy emoticons; no-go signal; sad emoticons
Active food condition (n = 72)Unhealthy foods paired with no-go signalHealthy foods paired with go signal
Control food condition (n = 70)Food stimuli paired with both signal types equally
Study 2
Inhibitory control
Study 1
Post-training
Food choice shopping task; 16 food images (half foods included in training); 8 healthy food; 8 unhealthy food; children asked to selected 8 foods they would most like to eat
Study 2
Pre-post training
Food choice shopping task; 12 food images (8 images of foods closely matched to those included in training); 6 healthy food; 6 unhealthy food; children asked to selected 8 foods they would most like to eat
Post-training
Real food task; 6 snack foods to choose from as participation reward (all foods had appeared in training); half healthy foods; half unhealthy foods
Study 1
Food choice shopping task
Significant effect of condition on number of healthy foods chosen, F(1, 136) = 5.03, p = 0.026, ŋp
2 = 0.036;Participants in the active food condition (M = 4.19, SD = 2.21) chose significantly more healthy foods than participants in the control food condition (M = 3.50, SD = 1.78).
Study 2
Food choice shopping task
Significant main effect of condition was found, F(1, 77) = 5.17, p = 0.008, ŋp
2 = 0.118;Those in the active food condition (M = 3.01, SE = 0.20) chose significantly more healthy foods than those in the control food (M = 2.30, SE = 0.22, p = 0.012) and control non-food condition (M = 2.15, SE = 0.21, p = 0.005).
Significant change in proportion of health foods cards chosen from pre-post training in the active food condition, t(28) = -4.79, p < 0.001, dz = 0.89.
Study 1: 60%; FairStudy 2: 54%; Fair
Mean age: 7.57 years (2.17)F: 10; M: 17
Type of trainingInhibitory control training
1 training session; 3 blocks of 32 trials
Go/no-go task; see Study 1
Active food condition (n = 29); see Study 1
Control food condition (n = 25); see Study 1
Control non-food condition (n = 27); 8 images of technological games equipment (paired with no-go signal); 8 images of sports equipment (paired with go signal)
No significant change in the control food condition (p = 0.477, dz = 0.14) or control non-food condition (p = 0.353, dz = 0.18) in proportion of health food cards chosen
Real food task
Significant effect of condition on real food task, X2 = 4.76, p = 0.047.
Significant difference found between the active food condition (M = 1.00, SD = 0.76) and the control non-food condition (M = 0.52, SD = 0.67) in healthy foods selected, p = 0.028 .
No differences between active food condition and control food condition and control food control and control non-food condition in healthy foods selected (p > 0.204).
(Soetens and Braet 2007)
45 youngsters with overweightMean age: 14.98 years (1.51)Mean adjusted BMI: 175.76% (25.81)F: 30; M: 15
42 youngsters of normal-weightMean age: 14.74 years (1.81)Mean adjusted BMI: 104.78% (11.80)
Randomised controlled trial
Not specified Experimental condition (24 overweight; 20 normal-weight)Suppression condition; instructed to not think about food or eating
Control condition (21 overweight; 22 normal weight)
Attentional processing; explicit memory
Imbedded Word Task (IWT)Stimuli: 12 high caloric food words; 12 control wordsAttention processing
Recall task; recall words from IWTExplicit memory
Attentional processing
No significant interaction between word content and weight condition in the IWT, F(1, 79) =1.18, p = 0.28.
No significant interaction between word content, suppression condition and weight condition F(1, 79) = 0.31, p = 0.58.
Explicit Memory
54%; Fair
F: 27; M: 15 Non-suppression condition; instructed to think about anything
Significant interaction between word content and weight condition in the free recall task, F(1, 79) = 7.59, p < 0.01.
Youngsters with overweight participants recalled significantly more food words than control words, t(44) = 5.22, p < 0.001 and recalled significantly more food words than youngsters of normal weight, t(85) = 2.31, p < 0.05.
No significant difference in recall of food words and control words in youngsters of normal weight, t(41) = 1.10, p = 0.28.
No significant interaction between word content, suppression condition and weight condition, F(1, 79) = 0.23, p = 0.63.
(Thorell, Lindqvist et al. 2009)
4-5 yearsMean age: 56 months (5.18)
Working memory training condition17 childrenMean age: 54 monthsF: 8; M: 9
Inhibition training condition18 childrenMean age: 54 monthsF: 9; M: 9
Randomised controlled trial
Randomisation not specifiedPre-post assessments conducted by blind assessor
Type of trainingWorking memory training; inhibition training
Training occurred over a 5-week period, for 15 minutes per day
Working MemoryCondition
Mean number of training days for
Working memory; inhibition; attention; problem solving; response speed
Pre-post training
WAIS-R-NI; Span Board TaskVisuo-spatial working memory
Word Span TaskVerbal working memory
Day-Night Stroop TaskInference control
Go/no-go TaskResponse inhibition
Working memory
Children in the working memory training condition improved significantly on both the visuo-spatial working memory task (p < 0.05) and verbal working memory task (p < 0.01) relative to the control condition.
No significant improvement in visuo-spatial working memory or verbal working memory in those in the inhibitory training condition
46%; Poor
Active control condition14 childrenMean age: 58 monthsF: 7 ; M: 7
the working memory training condition (M = 23 days, SD = 2.5)
Computer game; visual stimuli presented on computer; child had to remember location and order of stimuli; task difficulty manipulated
Inhibition training condition
Mean number of training days for inhibition training condition (M = 23 days, SD = 2.8)
Computer game; Food-specific Go/no-go paradigm; Food-specific Stop-signal task; Flanker task
Active control condition
Mean number of training days for active control condition (M = 22 days, SD = 3.2)
(commissions); attention (omissions); response speed (reaction time)
NEPSY; auditory continuous performance taskAuditory attention
WPPSI-R; Block Design SubtestProblem solving
relative to those in the control condition (ps > 0.05).
Inhibition
No significant improvement in inference control or errors of commission in children in the working memory training condition or inhibitory training condition relative to those in the control condition (ps > 0.05).
Children in the inhibitory control condition significantly improved their performance on trained tasks including; the go/no-go paradigm (p < 0.01) and Flanker Task (p < 0.05) but not the stop-signal task (p > 0.05).
Attention
Children in the working memory training condition improved significantly on the auditory attention (p < 0.05) and attention as measured by errors of omission on the go/no-go task (p < 0.05) relative to the control condition.
Children in the inhibitory control condition demonstrated no significant improvements in attention relative to the control condition (p values not reported).
Problem solving
Commercially available computer game
No significant improvement in problem solving in children in the working memory training condition or inhibitory training condition relative to those in the control condition (ps > 0.05).
Response speed
No significant improvement in response speed in children in the working memory training condition or inhibitory training condition relative to those in the control condition (ps > 0.05).
(Verbeken, Braet et al. 2013)
44 children in final phase of a 10-month inpatient treatment program8-14 yearsMean age: 9.79 years (1.09)F: 50%; M: 50%
Training condition22 childrenMean age: 11.50 years (1.60)Admission adjusted BMI: 181.88 (32.65)F: 11; M: 11
Care-as-usual condition22 childrenMean age: 11.41 years (1.93)Admission adjusted BMI: 185.65 (25.06)F: 9; M: 13
Randomised controlled trial
Randomisation using a random number generator by a person blind to the study
Blind assessor for post-test and follow-up measures
Type of trainingExecutive function training
Training condition
25 training sessions over 6 weeks; training sessions were completed 4 times a week and were comprised of two blocks of two training sessions; working memory training task; and inhibition training task
Training was embedded in a game-world ‘Braingame Brian’; each completed block
Executive functioning
Pre training, 1-week post-training
BRIEF; inhibition subscale; working memory subscale; meta-cognition index; total scale (completed by childcare worker)Executive function
Corsi Block-Tapping Task-forward and backwardVisuo-spatial working memory
The Stop TaskInhibition
Pre training, 1-week post-training, 8 weeks and 12 weeks after the treatment program
Height and weightBMI
Diary completed by child; VAS scales of liking of training; less fun (< 5); fun ( >5); and degree to which they tried hard to score well; little hard (<2.5); hard ( > 2.5)Training acceptability
Executive functioning
No significant time by condition interaction effect on the BRIEF inhibition scale, F(1, 41) = 0.57, p > 0.05, ŋ2= 0.01.
Significant condition by time interactions on the BRIEF working memory subscale F(1, 41) = 4.54, p < 0.05, ŋ2 = 0.10 and meta-cognition index F(1, 41) = 5.57, p < 0.05, ŋ2 = 0.12.
No significant time by condition interaction effect on the BRIEF total scale, F(1, 41) = 3.33, p > 0.05, ŋ2= 0.08.
Visuo-spatial working memory
Significant condition by time interaction effect for Corsi Block-Tapping forward, F(1, 40) = 5.75, p ≤ 0.05, ŋ2 =
69%; Good
of training tasks child received an elaboration of game-world or extra powers for Brian (main character of game)
Working memory training task; reproduction of sequence of rectangles (length of sequence is adapted)
Inhibition training task;Generic Go/no-no task
Care-as-usual condition
Teaching of healthy food choices; providing the opportunity to engage in daily physical activity; and provision of Cognitive Behavioural Techniques
0.13 and Corsi Block- Tapping backward, F(1, 40) = 5.22, p ≤ 0.05, ŋ2 = 0.12.
Inhibition
No significant time by condition interaction effect for inhibition, F(1, 40) = 0.02, p > 0.05, ŋ2 = 0.00.
Weight Loss
Significant time by condition interaction for adjusted BMI F(1, 38) = 3.58, p ≤ 0.05, ŋ2
= 0.22;Children in the training condition demonstrated significantly greater weight loss from post-test to 8-weeks follow-up than those in the care-as-usual condition, F(1,40) = 7.75, p ≤ 0.01, ŋ2 = 0.16.No significant between-group difference in weight loss from 8 weeks to 12 weeks follow up, F(1, 40) = 0.54, p > 0.05, ŋ2 = 0.01.
Treatment acceptability
94.74% tried hard to score well during the training tasks; M = 4.18, SD = 0.8244% reported that the training sessions were fun; M = 5.95, SD = 2.72.
(Verbeken, Boendermaker et al. 2018)
40 children attending 10-months inpatient obesity treatment programMean age: 12.58 years (1.43)F: 52.5%; M: 47.5%
Randomised controlled trial
Randomisation using a random number generator by a person blind to the study
Type of trainingApproach-avoidance training (AAT)
Training condition
Approach bias; attention bias; implicit association bias
Pre-post training
Approach/avoidance task; stimuli; 10 pictures of health food; 10 pictures of unhealthy food; 10
After each training session
Acceptability of computer task on 5 point Likert Scales;Liking scale (very
Approach bias; attentional bias; adjusted BMI
No significant (ps > 0.30) between-group differences in mean changes from pre-post training in attention
63%; Fair
Training condition21 participantsMean age: 12.38 (1.63)Adjusted BMI = 145.77% (22.30)F: 12; M: 9
Control condition19 participantsMean age: 12.79 (1.18)Adjusted BMI: 136.69% (16.06)F: 9; M: 10
Blind assessor for post-test and follow-up measures
10 sessions over 4-weeks; sessions were comprised of 2 training blocks
AAT embedded in game; earn points for correct responses; points used to build virtual cities; social element
Stimuli: 8 pictures of healthy food; 8 pictures of unhealthy food
Unhealthy pictures push (avoid)Healthy pictures pull (approach)
Control Condition
Tetris computer game
pictures of neutral stimuliAttentional bias
Implicit association task; stimuli: pleasant words; unpleasant words and unhealthy food wordsImplicit association bias
Visual probe task; stimuli: heathy and unhealthy food picturesAttentional bias
Height and weightAdjusted BMI
nice to very boring) and difficulty scale (very difficult to very easy)
bias for unhealthy food; training condition (M = 5.94, SD = 46.61); control condition (M = 16.31, SD = 56.58); approach bias for unhealthy food; training condition (M = 73.61, SD = 123.97); control condition (M = 47.38, SD = 146.15); approach bias for healthy food; training condition (M = 47.06, SD = 85.26); control condition (M = 69.82, SD = 152.72; adjusted BMI; training condition (M = -7.37, SD = 4.19); control condition (M = -8.35, SD = 4.29).
Significant decrease in approach bias toward unhealthy food (p = 0.022) and toward healthy food (p = 0.032) pre-to-post training in the training condition, no significant change in control condition.
Implicit association bias
No significant (ps > 0.30) between-group differences in mean changes from pre-post training in implicit association bias; training condition (M= -0.04, SD = 0.58); control condition (M = 0.03, SD = 0.51).
Training acceptability
Liking of training (M = 2.80, SD = .92)Difficult of training (M = 3.30, SD = 1.06)
(Verbeken, Braet et al.
36 youngsters of an inpatient obesity
Randomised controlled trial
Not specified Type of trainingInhibition;
Inhibition; attentional
Pre-post training FeasibilityAttrition rates
Cognitive training effects 52%; Fair
2018) treatment program of a rehabilitation centre9-15 yearsMean age: 12.06 years (1.47)F: 52.8%; M: 47.2%
Training condition21 participantsMean age: 12.00 years (1.55)Adjusted BMI = 136.18% (18.78)F: 9; M: 12
Control condition15 participantsMean age: 12.00 years (1.41)Adjusted BMI = 130.67% (18.59)F: 7; M: 8
attentional bias; approach bias6 sessions over 5 weeks
Three training tasks (all tasks trained 4 times; 2 tasks a session);
1. Inhibition trainingGo/no-go paradigm Stimuli; healthy or unhealthy food pictures
Training condition-Go-related letter cue paired with healthy food picturesNo-go letter cue related with unhealthy food pictures
Control condition- letter-cues matched 50/50 with healthy and unhealthy food pictures
2. Attentional trainingVisual probe attention
bias; approach bias
Go/no-go paradigmIdentical paradigm used during control condition trainingFood-related inhibition
Visual-probe attention taskIdentical paradigmused during control condition trainingAttentional bias
Approach/avoidance taskIdentical paradigmused during control condition trainingApproach bias
Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning BRIEF; inhibition subscaleInhibition
Self-report version of the BRIEF-SR; inhibition subscaleInhibition
Height and weightBMI
No significant between-group differences in approach bias toward unhealthy foods (ŋp
2= 0.006); attention bias towards unhealthy foods, (ŋp
2= 0.004); mean reaction times for healthy (ŋp
2 < 0.001) and unhealthy foods (ŋp
2 < 0.001) on the go trials.
Inhibition
Significant interaction between time and condition F(1, 34) = 12, 343, p = 0.001 (ŋ2= 0.26) on the BRIEF inhibition subscale;Inhibition scores significantly decreased in training condition from pre-training (M = 15.524, SD = 1.125) to post-training (M = 14.286, SD = 1.165).Inhibition increased in control group from pre-training (M = 18.133, SD = 1.331) to post-training (m = 19.267, SD = 1.379).
BRIEF-SR inhibition subscale no significant interaction effect (F < 1; p = .928).
Weight
No significant interaction between time and condition on weight, F(1, 34) = 0.765, p = .388, ŋp
2 = 0.02.
Significant main effect of time, p = 0.009, ŋp
2 = 0.247;Significant difference in
task;presented series of pictures of healthy and unhealthy foods, arrow presented on one picture
Training condition- arrow always appeared on healthy food
Control condition -matching of arrow placement and content of pictures was 50/50
3. Approach biasStimuli: healthy and unhealthy foods
Training condition-Unhealthy food tilted to right – instructed to press up key; pictures zooms out (avoid)Healthy food tilted to left – instructed to press down
weight between pre-training and post-training, p = .000.Significant difference in weight between post-training and follow-up, p = .035.No significant difference in weight between pre-training and follow-up, p = .433.
Feasibility
93% of participants completed the training program
key; pictures zooms in (approach)
Control condition-matching between tilt and content of pictures was 50/50
(Warschburger, Gmeiner et al. 2018)
59 participants8-16 yearsOverweight or obeseF: 33; M: 26
Explicit training condition30 participants
Implicit training condition29 participants
Randomised controlled trial
Cluster randomisation
Type of trainingApproach-avoidance training (AAT)
6 sessions over two weeks (first 4 daily basis, remaining sessions after break of 2-3 days)
AAT-20 photographs of high-energy snacks and 20 pictures of vegetables
Implicit training React to shape of plate-push square plates (snacks) pull circular plates (vegetables)
Explicit trainingReact to type of foodPush snacks, pull vegetables
Approach tendencies; implicit associations
Pre-post training
AAT response latencies (trained stimuli)Compatibility scores calculated; positive values corresponding to intended training effect (push snacks, pull vegetables)
Implicit Association Test (stimuli not trained)7 images of high energy snacks, 7 images of positive and negatively valenced wordsImplicit associations
Height and weightBMI-SDS
Rating of general liking of training on 5-point Likert scaleAcceptance of AAT
Approach-avoidance tendencies
Compatibility scores for snacks and vegetables; significant main effect of time (p < 0.001, ŋ2 = 0.18); no main effect of training condition (p = 0.375, ŋ2 = 0.01) or interaction between time and training condition (p = 0.383, ŋ2 = 0.01).
Compatibility scores for snacks; significant main effect of time (p < 0.001, ŋ2= 0.290, and interaction between time and training condition (p < 0.001, ŋ2 = 0.14), no main effect of training condition (p = 0.39, ŋ2= 0.01)
Compatibility scores for vegetables; no significant main effects of time (p = 0.53, ŋ2= 0.08), training condition (p = 0.66, ŋ2= 0.00) or interaction between time and training condition, (p = 0.133, ŋ2= 0.04).
Significant increases in compatibility scores were identified only for the first
58%; Fair
two sessions with large effect sizes; session 1 F(1, 54) = 18.11, p < 0.001, ŋ2= 0.25; session 2 F(1, 54) = 9.98, p = 0.003, ŋ2= 0.16.
Change in compatability scores was not significantly correlated with BMI-SDS ( r = 0.19, p = 0.165).
Implicit association
No significant changes in implicit association over timeF(1, 54) = 0.14, p = 0.712.No significant effect of training condition on implicit association F(1, 54) = 0.08, p = 0.773, or interaction between time and training condition F(1, 54) = 0.04, p = 0.837.
Post-training compatibility scores were negatively correlated with post training IAT scores , r = -0.29, p = 0.03.
No significant correlations between implicit association and BMI-SDS, pre (r = 0.20, p = 0.139) or post training (r = -0.02, p = 0.861).
Training acceptability
Mean liking score of the training was 2.46 (1.04)
Mean liking score of the explicit condition (M = 2.73, SD = 0.98) was higher than that of the implicit condition
(M = 2.17, SD = 1.04).
Significant correlation between acceptance scores and change in compatibility scores (r = 0.30, p = 0.02).
(Warschburger, Gmeiner et al. 2018)
232 children and adolescentsinpatients for obesity treatment8-16 yearsMean age: 13.09 years (1.84)BMI-SDS = 2.7 (0.47)F: 53.9%; 46.1%
Participants demographics not reported for each group (no significant differences between groups)
Randomised control trial
Not specified Type of trainingApproach-avoidance training
6 sessions over two weeks
AAT training condition
Vegetables pictures placed on circular plates instructed to pull plate towards them (approach)Snack pictures placed on square plates instructed to push plate away (avoid)
Control condition
Vegetable and snack pictures presented equally on circular and square plates
Implicit association bias; attention bias; response inhibition; eating behaviours
Pre-post training
Modified Implicit Association TestStimuli (not trained); high-calorie snacks; neutral objects; attributes with positive/negative valenceImplicit association bias
Modified dot probe taskStimuli (not trained); high-calorie snack pictures and non-food picturesAttention bias
Stroop testComputer-based ( ≥ 12 years); stimuli (not trained); fruits and vegetables Paper-and-pencil (<12 years); stimuli; colour wordsResponse inhibition
Pre-training, post training, 6-month follow-up, 12-months follow-up
Food consumption based on list of food items
Approach-avoidance bias
Significant time by group interaction for approach-avoidance bias reaction time p = 0.023, ŋ2= 0.02;Training group baseline (M = 65.37, SD = 229.37); post-training (M = 105.14, SD = 199.91); control condition (M = 43.81, SD = 233.85); post-training (M = -4.23, SD = 188.85).
Significant time by group interaction for approach-avoidance bias error rate; p = 0.01, ŋ2= 0.03Training group; baseline (M = 0.01, SD = 0.15); post-training (M = 0.01, SD = 0.16); control condition; baseline (M = 0.08, SD = 0.35); post-training (M = -0.03, SD = 0.14).
Implicit Association Bias
No significant effect of training on implicit association bias, p = 0.55, ŋ2 <0.01.
Attention bias
No significant effect of training on attention bias, p = 0.126, ŋ2 = 0.01.
63%; Fair
Problematic, unproblematic food consumption
Brief Self-Control ScaleSelf-control
German Eating Disturbance QuestionnaireDisinhibition of eating due to internal and external cues
Height and weightBMI-SDS
Inhibition
No significant effect of training on computer based F (1,141) = 0.95, p = 0.332, or paper and‐pencil‐based inhibition measures, F (1,72) = 1.07, p = 0.305.
Eating behaviours/weight-related outcomes
Significant effect of training on problematic food consumption at 6-months (p = 0.014, ŋ2= 0.05) but not at 12-months (p = 0.331, ŋ2= 0.01).
Significant effect of training on self-control at 6-months (p = 0.011, ŋ2 = 0.05) but not at 12-months (p = 0.19, ŋp= 0.01).
No significant effect of training on BMI-SDS at 6-months (p = 0.115, ŋ2= 0.02) or 12-months (p = 0.276, ŋ2
= 0.01.
No effect of training on disinhibited eating at 6-months (p = 0.495, ŋ2 < 0.01) or 12-months (p = 0.341, (ŋ2= 0.01).
(Zhao, Chen et al. 2015)
30 children
15 children in training conditionMean age: 10.07 years (1.28)F:8; M:7
15 children in control condition
Randomised controlled trial
Randomly assigned according to last 2 digits of participant’s student number
Details of blinding not specified
Type of TrainingInhibitory response modification
Training occurred for 20 minutes on 7 consecutive days; sessions
Response inhibition; inference control
Pre-post training
Go/no-go taskResponse inhibition
The stroop colour-word inference taskInference control
Inhibition
Post-training (M = 8.67, SD = 7.15) children in the training condition made significantly fewer errors of omission than pre-training (M = 12.60, SD = 7.66), p ≤ 0.01.No significant change in
48%; Poor
Mean age: 10.60 years (1.35)F:8; M:7
comprised of 7 blocks of 30 trials
Training condition
Execution of response to command if followed by verbal expression “Wesley says”; inhibition of response if not followed by command
Control condition
Children participated in extracurricular activities unrelated to training game
control condition, p > 0.05.
Post-training (M = 7.93, SD = 7.51) children in the training condition made significantly fewer errors of commission than pre-training (M = 13.27, SD = 8.10), p ≤ 0.01.No significant change control condition, p > 0.05.
Inference control
No significant within-group changes or between-group differences in inference control reaction time.
No significant within-group changes or between-group differences in inference control accuracy.
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