Army TM 5-803-5Navy NAVFAC P-960Air Force AFM 88-431 March 1981

Installation Design

Army TM 5-803-5Navy NAVFAC P-960Air Force AFM 88-43

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Contents

1 Part I: General

2 Chapter 1: Introduction.

4 Chapter 2: Improving the Visual Quality of Military Installations.

9 Part II: Design Guidelines

11 Chapter 3: Buildings.12 Section I: Observations and Objectives14 Section II: Design Guidelines

27 Chapter 4: Roads.28 Section I: Observations and Objectives29 Section II: Design Guidelines

39 Chapter 5: Parking.40 Section I: Observations and Objectives.41 Section II: Design Guidelines

47 Chapter 6: Planting.48 Section I: Observations and Objectives49 Section II: Design Guidelines

59 Chapter 7: Plazas and Courtyards.60 Section I: Observations and Objectives61 Section II: Design Guidelines

67 Chapter 8: Walkways.68 Section I: Observations and Objectives69 Section II: Design Guidelines

77 Chapter 9: Bikeways.78 Section I: Observations and Objectives.79 Section II: Design Guidelines

85 Chapter 10: Signing.86 Section I: Observations and Objectives.87 Section II: Design Guidelines.

95 Chapter 11: Lighting.96 Section I: Observations and Objectives97 Section II: Design Guidelines

103 Chapter 12: Site Furnishings.104 Section I: Observations and Objectives.105 Section II: Design Guidelines

117 Chapter 13: Utilities.118 Section I: Observations and Objectives119 Section II: Design Guidelines.

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123 Part III: Prototype Areas

124 Chapter 14: Main Entrances.

126 Chapter 15: Administrative Headquarters.

128 Chapter 16: Housing.

134 Chapter 17: Community Facilities.

136 Chapter 18: Industrial/Warehousing Areas.

139 Appendices

141 Appendix A: Related Military References.

143 Appendix B: Annotated Bibliography.

155 Appendix C: Model Scope of Work Statement and Design Consultant Selection Criteria for thePreparation of Installation Design Guides.

This manual supersedes TM 5-803-3, 1 July 1966, TM 5-822-3, 1 April 1963, and TM 5-830-1/NAVFAC P-904, 15 June1976.

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1

Chapter 1.

Introduction.

1-1.Purpose of the Manual.

A. Introduction.Military installations should provideefficient and pleasant physicalenvironments conducive toattracting and retaining skilled andmotivated personnel. A militaryinstallation conveys a visual imagein terms of its design character andorganization that can be eitherclear, logical and attractive orcluttered, confused and disori-ented. The design, location andmaintenance of individual elementssuch as buildings, roads, parkinglots, signing and planting, affect thequality of the visual environ-ment.Each of these elements should befunctional, attractive andharmonious with its surroundingsto create an environment thatenhances the capability of instal-lations to support their missionsand fosters pride in and commit-ment to military service.

B. Objective.The objective of the InstallationDesign Manual is to provideguidance for improving the qualityof the visual environment on Army,Navy and Air Force installations.

C. Scope.The Installation Design Manual isa tool to improve the appearanceand functioning of militaryinstallations by enhancing naturalsite assets; compatibly relating thenatural and built environments;establishing an orderly organi-zation of activities, circulation andopen space system; achieving aconsistent architectural character;and coordinating site componentssuch as lighting, signing and streetfurniture to reduce clutter. Thismanual includes informationgathered from a variety of sourcesand is intended to serve as acomprehensive reference of designguidance for military installations.

1. The manual providesobservations of common problems,design objectives and specificdesign criteria for componentscomprising the exterior environ-ment of an installation. It alsoillustrates their practical applicationin terms of prototypical designsolutions for improving varioustypes of facility areas commonlyfound on installations. Further-more, the manual addresses howsuch guidance can be incorporatedinto the master planning and facilitydesign process.

2. These guidelines are directedtoward creating a visually cohesiveand attractive installation that isconsistent with good planning,design and environmental policy.They address both the design ofnew facilities as well as theimprovement of existing facilities;

and they encompass both visualand functional consider-ations.Because of the need to address avariety of conditions that could beencountered on variousinstallations, the design guidanceis primarily generic in nature.

3. The design guidance in thismanual has been devised forgeneral application at allinstallations. It is intended thateach installation will develop itsown design guide, tailored to itsspecific situation and containingthose guidelines dealing with suchlocationally specific conditions asclimate and prevailing architecturalcharacter. Other modificationsmay be necessary in response tospecific installation policies orsome atypical condition that mayexist at a particular installation.

D. Intended Users.Improving the appearance andfunctioning of military installationsrequires quality design. Thisentails the interaction of twoessential participants: 1) an en-lightened client and 2) competentdesign professionals. The gui-dance offered in this manual is foruse by Army, Navy and Air Forcepersonnel responsible for instal-lation planning and design as wellas design firms, particularly thoseoffering comprehensive architec-tural, planning and engineeringservices, who are under contract toplan and design military instal-lations or facilities. This manual isdirected to both audiences topromote a high level of awarenessof potential design solutions andstandards, as well as evaluationcriteria. It is directed at making themilitary a better client and aidingdesign professionals in performinga higher quality of service.

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1-2.Organization of the Manual.The Installation Design Manual isdivided into three major parts and aset of appendices:

A. Part One: General.Chapters 1 and 2 provide anintroduction to the purpose and useof the manual, principles forimproving the quality of militaryinstallations and the means ofincorporating visual designconsiderations into the installationmaster planning process.

B. Part Two: Design Guide-lines.Chapters 3-13 provide designguidance for component elementsthat comprise the environment ofmilitary installations. Theseinclude: buildings, roads, parking,planting, plazas and courtyards,walkways, bikeways, signing,lighting, site furnishings andutilities. Each chapter deals with aspecific component in terms ofcommonly observed problems,design objectives and designguidelines.

C. Part Three: PrototypeAreas.Chapters 14-18 illustrate how theuse of an installation design guidecan improve five prototypical facilityareas commonly found on militaryinstallations. These prototypeareas include: main installationentrances, admini-strative/headquarters areas, hous-ing areas, community facilities andindustrial/warehouse areas.

D. Appendices.

1. Appendix A: Related MilitaryReferences lists applicableDepartment of Defense, Army,Navy and Air Force publications.Personnel from each service needfollow only the references fromtheir service and those of theDepartment of Defense. The onlyexception to this direction is withrespect to handicapped criteriaBoth Army and Air Force personnelare to follow DOD 4270 1M Navypersonnel are to follow the specificguidance provided in DM-1 Series.

2. Appendix B: AnnotatedBibliography provides a selectedlisting of basic references on siteplanning and design.

3. Appendix C: Model Scope ofWork Statement and DesignConsultant Selection Criteria forthe Preparation of InstallationDesign Guides offers guidance inthe development of design guides.

1-3.Preparation of the Manual.

A. Process.The preparation of this manualtook over two years and involvedfour separate phases. Theseincluded field survey and research,during which visits were made to15 separate military installationsacross the United States; problemanalysis and organization, criteriadefinition and development; andcriteria coordination and synthesis.

B. Participants.This manual was prepared by aninterdisciplinary team of designprofessionals working incollaboration with projectrepresentatives of the Army, Navyand Air Force. The various designdisciplines involved includedarchitects, planners, civil andelectrical engineers, landscapearchitects and graphic designers.Army, Navy and Air Forcepersonnel involved in the planningand design of installation facilitiesextensively reviewed draft forms ofthis manual. This interdisciplinaryapproach and military participationwere utilized to produce aresponsive, practical andcomprehensive manual.

1-4.Proponent and User Comments.The proponent agency of thismanual is the Office of the Chief ofEngineers, Department of theArmy personnel are invited to sendcomments and suggestedimprovements on DA Form 2028(Recommended Changes toPublications) to HQDA (DAEN-MPE-I) Washington, D C 20314.Navy personnel should sendcomments to NAV-FACENGCOMHQ (Code 202), 200 Stovall Street,Alexandria, VA 22332. Air Forcepersonnel should send commentsto AF/LEEE, Washington, D C20332.

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Chapter 2.

Improving the Visual Quality ofMilitary Installation.

2-1.Background.A brief historical review of sitedevelopment on military instal-lations provides useful insights intothe genesis of most installationplans and the problems that havedeveloped over the years asmissions have changed and thefunctional requirements of siteplanning have become morecomplex.

A. Historical DevelopmentPhases.The historical development ofinstallation plan forms can begenerally grouped into threephases. The first of these phaseswas the quadrangle plan,influenced by defensive require-ments (fig. 2-1). The secondobservable phase was charac-terized by the rigid and formalgeometry of-the Beaux Arts Schoolwhich influenced military siteplanning in the late Nineteenth andearly Twentieth Century (fig. 2-2).

fig. 2-1.

fig. 2-2.

The third period, which continues tostrongly influence site planningtoday, was the World War II build-upwhich was characterized by theimposition of a gridiron circulationsystem and repetitive, checker-board, temporary construction (fig. 2-3). A dispersed plan concept wascommonly employed during thisperiod, locating facilities apart fromeach other in an attempt to minimizetheir vulnerability under a possiblebombing attack.

fig. 2-3.

B. Emerging Planning Issues.The present organization, operationsand development patterns ofinstallations continue to beinfluenced by the gridiron systemand the dispersed plan concept.The consequences of this erainclude facilities that exist asindividual entities which have littlerelationship to their neighbors, eitherin terms of their architecturalcharacter or their functional andefficient operation. Today, energyconservation, operational efficiencyand livability have emerged asprimary installation planningconsiderations, replacing those ofthe now strategically obsoletedispersed plan concept.

C. Other Considerations.Factors not related to the quality of siteplanning itself have contributed to thecurrent difficulties of improving thevisual image and functioning of militaryinstallations. These include limitedfunding resources for maintenance andimprovements as well as the increasedcomplexity and rapid changes in militarymissions and their programrequirements.

2-2.General Guidelines.The visual quality of a militaryinstallation cannot be fundamentallychanged by a limited cosmetic approachto aesthetic considerations. Instead, acomprehensive approach based uponthe following essential guidelines isnecessary.

A. Enhance Existing Assets.The overall physical image of militaryinstallations today can be significantlyimproved by enhancing those existingenvironmental assets present at eachinstallation These assets may includelarge reserves of natural open space,impressive landscape features, andhistoric and contemporary buildings ofdistinctive character.

B. Employ Practical, High QualityDesign.

Many installations can be vastlyimproved at modest costs by a fewsimple improvement programs, such asa tree planting program and acoordinated signing system program.Concomitantly, when major investmentsin new facilities are contemplated, theirdesign should contribute positively tothe overall image and attractiveness of

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the installation. This can beaccomplished within reasonablebudgetary restrictions by sensitive,practical, high quality design whichdoes not necessarily cost more,either in terms of design fee orconstruction costs, than aninefficient or poorly executeddesign solution.

C. Utilize Sound Site Planingand Design Principles.

1. Site Analysis as theFoundation of Site Planning andDesign. Careful consideration ofnatural and man-made siteconditions is the foundation of bothmaster planning and site planningdesign. Essential site featureswhich should be consideredinclude topography, vegetation,drainage, views, climate,availability of infrastructure(circulation and utility systems),and functional and aestheticrelationships to other site facilities.

2. Development o an OverallConceptual Framework. Soundsite planning cannot be achievedon a site-by-site, problem-by-problem basis, but must be basedon a master plan which is properlyconceived to allow each problem tobe resolved as a part of a totalconcept. This conceptualframework starts with land useplanning based on not onlyfunctional or mission requirements,but also on careful consideration ofthe ecological, physical and visualcharacter of the installation, onfuture growth flexibility, ondevelopment of a circulationsystem which serves but does notdominate the setting, and on theperception and continuity ofphysical form of the builtenvironment.

3. Integration and Coordi-nation of Site Components. Thedesign and detailing of site

components, including paving,plant materials, street furniture,lighting and signing, should bedeveloped as a consistent systemrelated functionally andaesthetically to such organizingelements as the circulation system,land use and activity centers. Thecoordination and orderly develop-ment of these component systemsadd greatly to establishing animproved image and morefunctional environment.

4. Energy Conservation.Energy conservation objectivesand site planning and designactivities interface both at themaster planning policy level as wellas in the design and siting ofindividual facilities. Land use andtransportation master planningshould strive to minimizenecessary auto trips by locatingrelated activities together anddeveloping a balanced transpor-tation system which encouragespedestrian, bike and public transitas attractive alternatives to theauto. Building orientation, massingand detailing, as well as theinterrelationship to adjacentbuildings and planting, all haveimplications on site design toreduce energy consumption. Thenecessities of energy conservationrequire new criteria affectingbuilding design decisions, andchanges in previous concepts ofbuilding form and site relationships.

2-3.Relationship to the MasterPlanning Process.While master planning proceduresof the Army, Navy, and Air Forceare different, they generally focuson existing physical conditions,future installation conditions, futureinstallation requirements, andproposed land use and circulation.

If the visual quality of militaryinstallations is to be improved,design procedures as well asguidelines must be incorporatedinto the installation master planningprocess. It is at the masterplanning level that there is anappropriate overview directed atensuring overall coordination andcompatibility among individualprogram needs. Formulation of aninstallation design guide as part ofthe master planning process is theproposed mechanism to guideimprovement of the visual quality ofa military installation. Theinstallation design guide wouldprovide visual design guidelinesand criteria consistent with masterplanning objectives.

2-4.Procedure for Developing aDesign Guide.

A. The development of theinstallation design guide would bebased on the general guidelines ofthe Installation Design Manual.However, the design guide wouldbe responsive to such locationallyspecific conditions as climate,prevailing architectural character,indigenous plant materials, andany other atypical installationconditions or policies.

B. An interdisciplinary designteam composed of architects,engineers, landscape architectsand graphic designers shoulddevelop and implement the designguide in a four-step process. Thisfour-step process, described indetail in the following paragraphs,is a general methodology forconsidering visual design impactsduring master planning, siteplanning, architectural design,renovation and maintenance ofinstallation facilities.

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Step 1: Assess the Existing VisualEnvironmentStep 2: Formulate the Design GuideStep 3: Implement the Design GuideStep 4: Evaluate and Update 8-8.

2-5.Step 1: Assess the ExistingVisual Environment.

A. Overview Visual Survey.An overview survey should beconducted initially to assess theexisting visual environment of theinstallation. The purpose of thissurvey is to evaluate the visualquality of the installation and toidentify dominant visualimpressions, both positive andnegative.

1. Those conducting the surveyshould imagine themselves seeingthe installation for the first time,approaching and entering maingates and proceeding to majordestinations within the installation.

2. Consideration should be givento conducting the overview surveyboth at nighttime as well asdaytime. The after dark survey canassist in evaluating signing andlighting.

fig. 2-4.

3. Taking photographic se-quences along these routes is auseful technique to documentobservations and to allow for amore careful study of specificelements that comprise the visualimage of the installation (fig. 2-4).

4. During the survey, dominantvisual impressions should berecorded on a map of theinstallation. A notation system canbe used to record importantobservations such as focal points,edges, scenic views, etc. Themapping should record theseelements as well as qualitativeimpressions such as attractiveareas, streetscape clutter, etc.

B. Supplementary VisualSurveys.Supplementary surveys directed atspecific elements such asarchitectural character, signing,plant materials, etc., can beconducted when identified as anarea of primary concern in theoverview visual survey. Thespecific approach and level of datacollection for these more detailedsurveys will depend upon theparticular requirements of theinstallation and the subject beingconsidered. (See DesignGuidelines chapters of Part II ofthis manual for more detaileddiscussion of specific elements,especially Chapter 3: Buildings;Chapter 6: Planting; and Chapter10: Signing.)

C. Documentation of Findings.The results of the visual surveyshould be documented in a writtenreport with supporting graphicillustrations.

1. The report should essentiallydeal with the overall visualorganization of the installation, itsmajor visual assets and liabilities orproblems and opportunities andany detailed visual reconnaissanceof specific problem elements.

2. The graphic illustrationsshould clearly depict the majorfindings of the survey. This can beeffectively done by an overlaymethod that locates and recordsmajor findings of the survey over abase map of the installation.Pertinent photographs and/orsketches can also be used tosupplement the mapping graphics.

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2-6.Step 2: Formulate the DesignGuide.

A. Goals and Objectives.In order to develop a design guide,it is necessary to establish specificgoals and objectives for improvingthe visual attractiveness of theinstallation. The specific mission,priorities, existing visual assets andliabilities, and planned changes foreach installation should influencethe formulation of these goals andobjectives.

B. Overall Design Criteria andGuidelines.After the design objectives of theindividual installation have beenestablished, design criteriaresponsive to these objectivesshould be formulated. Thesecriteria should be developed foreach of the major elementscomprising the visual environmentof the installation. Based uponthese criteria, the design guideshould establish overall designguidelines for the installation,including:

1. a general architectural designvernacular, indicating desiredarchitectural character, massing,scale, materials and color palette;

2. plant materials, prototypicalapplications and details that areappropriate to the installation andits climate;

3. site planning and designguidelines for site systemsincluding circulation (vehicular,pedestrian, bikeway), parking,signing, lighting and utilities;

4. a coordinated design systemfor site furnishings, signing andlighting.

C. Detailed Design Criteria andGuidelines.Beyond the overall designguidelines, the scope and detail ofthe design guide can vary dependingupon the specific needs of theinstallation. Initially, it could addressin detail any or all of the subjectsmost appropriate to the installation.The design guide should be thoughtof as an evolving publication, wheresections can be added or updatedover time as needed.

D. Format.The format of the design guideshould make it easy to use, expandand update. Typically consisting oftext, illustrations and photographs,the design guide should have itsnarrative keyed as directly aspossible to its supporting graphicillustrations or photographs. A blackand white, ring-bound format isrecom- mended as an economicalone that readily allows additions andupdating.

E. Example.As an example of what could beincluded in a design guide, thefollowing objective, design criteriaand design prototype weredeveloped for a military installation inthe Pacific Northwest.* "BuildingObjective: Architec-tural materialsshould be expressive of Northwestbuilding technology. Puget Sound istraditionally a lumber area. Thecenters of steel production andbuilding component manufacturingare far away. There is, however, anabundance of concrete aggregatematerials. Local clays for brickmanufacturing are available butmasonry labor rates are high."

*Design Guide to Architecture,Landscape, Lighting, Graphics - TridentSupport Site, (Bremerton, Washington)Department of Navy, pp 1-4, 1-6, 1-8and 2-12

"Building Design Criteria: It isrecommended that all buildings inthe core utilize architectural concreteas the basic wall material. Allconcrete, whether job poured orprecast, should utilize warm-tonedcement or color additive in order toovercome the cold grey tone, whichuntil recently was typical ofNorthwest concrete, especially asviewed in wet weather."

"Site Furnishings DesignPrototype: Bench (fig. 2-5): This isthe basic element of the system andillustrates the proposed combinationof concrete and wood. Concrete inthe form of a standardized pre-castconcrete slab with 3/4" chamferededges, incorporating light coloredcement with the end productsandblasted. The concrete elementforms the joint with the ground plane.Wood, treated with preservative butleft unstained, is used for the seatand back. Use of oversized woodmembers is to achieve appropriateruggedness and scale relationships.All edges shall be eased and alljoints bolted and plugged wherepossible. The design is adaptable toleaving the back off for areas whereshort-term seating is anticipated. Awooden bench design with concretesupports or frame and contouredseat should be included for areaswhere a really comfortable bench isdesirable."

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fig. 2-5.

D. Detailed Design andEvaluation.Once it has been determined toinclude a project in an annualwork program the selectedarchitect-engineer and theresponsible governmentpersonnel who serve as theclient should follow theinstallation design guide to thegreatest practical extent in bothdesigning and evaluating theproject. Furthermore, thedesign guide should be used byengineering, operations andmaintenance personnel, and allother decision-makers whoinfluence the visualenvironment on the installation.

2-8.Step 4: Evaluate andUpdate.Periodically, the guidelines ofthe manual should beevaluated and updated relativeto their effectiveness andpossible changes in mission orpriorities within the installation.

2-7.Step 3: Implement the DesignGuide.A. Funding.The plan for visual designimprovements must be balancedagainst fiscal capabilities. Specialfunding may be available forcertain projects, such as additionalmaintenance and renovationfunding for designated historicalstructures; however, almost all ofthese improvements will beaccomplished as part of themilitary construction program, andoperations and maintenance funds.

B. Priorities.The rank ordering of the visualdesign goals and objectives will aidin establishing priorities. Potentialprojects should be evaluated as totheir likely impact on these goalsand objectives. Often thisconscious exercise will result inmodifications to or elimination ofcontemplated projects.Maintenance and improvementprojects as well as constructionprojects should be evaluated in thismanner.

C. Scheduling.Projects should be scheduled inannual work programs and phasedaccording to their anticipated effecton all the goals and objectives ofthe master plan, not simply visualdesign considerations. Specialconsideration of system-wideimprovements is necessary inorder that the visual and functionalimpact of projects is not dispersedineffectively.

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Chapter 3. Buildings.

The image of an installation islargely determined by the designcharacter and siting of its buildings.The objectives of the site planningand architectural design processmust go beyond the need to satisfy

the functional requirements of afacility. It should strive to achievean ordered sense of place - acomfortable, attractive and func-tional setting for its intendedactivities.

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Section I:

Observationsand Objectives.

3-1.Typical Problems.While field conditions varyconsiderably according to aparticular installation’s mission andsetting, a number of commonproblems have occurred in thedesign character and siting ofbuildings at various installations.

A. Development Pattern.Buildings are typically organizedwithin a grid network of streets andutilities that can easily result in avisually monotonous developmentpattern and can limit facility designand expansion opportunities.

B. Design Process.

When facilities were sited on acase-by-case basis without anoverall conceptual framework ormaster plan, a chaotic develop-ment pattern often resulted wherefacilities were poorly related, bothvisually and functionally, to eachother as well as to the circulationand open space systems of theinstallation (fig. 3-1).

Fig. 3-1.

C. Relationship to SiteFeatures.

Natural site features such astopography, trees and scenic viewswere often ignored in facilitydesign. When properlyrecognized, such features can bepreserved and enhanced as assetsthat compatibly relate facilities withtheir natural setting. Furthermore,environment disruption andlandscape reconstruction costs canbe minimized (fig. 3-2).

fig. 3-2.

D. Parking.The voracious spatial demands ofautomobile parking and circulationcommonly dominate the physicalsetting of facilities (fig. 3-3).

fig. 3-3.

E. Architectural Character.The architectural character of newfacilities is often incompatible witholder development. In such cases,new buildings have either ignoredthe prevailing architecturalcharacter and scale of adjacentbuildings or unsuccessfullyattempted to relate them by somecosmetic or imitative technique.Successful examples have beenaccomplished by contemporarydesign that relates new buildings toolder development by means of acompatible scale, massing, form,color and materials (fig. 3-4).

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fig. 3-4.

F. Space between Building.The space between buildings hasoften been considered "left-over"space without appropriate planting(fig. 3-5).

fig. 3-5.

G. Coordination with SiteDevelopment Components.A lack of design coordination oftenexists between buildings and theirsite development componentssuch as lighting, signing and streetfurniture.

H. Historic Preservation.Many installations contain buildingsof noteworthy historicalarchitecture or areas of historicalsignificance that provide animportant sense of heritage. Insome cases the integrity of thebuilding or area has beendamaged by either insensitivedesign modifications orintroduction of incompatibleelements into the area (fig. 3-6).Through preservation and adaptive

reuse, many of these resources canprovide both functional facilities anda sense of history to an installation.

I. Climate Considerations.Many buildings have been designedand sited with little regard to climaticconditions. Instead, there has beena heavy reliance on the mechanicaland electrical systems of a buildingto overcome climatic conditions.Proper building orientation, buildingdesign and planting design canconserve energy as well as providepedestrian protection and comfortfrom inclement weather, temperatureextremes and intense sun glare(fig. 3-7).

fig. 3-6.

fig. 3-7.

3-2.Objectives.

A. Adapt Building Design; toNatural Site Conditions.

1. Physiographic Features.Respecting and using the naturalenvironment to advantage requirescareful consideration of site conditionssuch as topography, vegetation, treecover, climate and views. The carefulpreservation, accentuation or studiedalteration of natural site featuresenables new facilities to blend with theirnatural setting. Furthermore, suchpractices minimize plant replacementcosts and negative environmentalimpacts of construction as well as futuresite maintenance problems. Thedestruction of the natural environmentby the all too frequent developmentprocess of gross clearing, regrading toa "workable" profile, channelization ofnatural site drainage and thenreplanting should and can be avoided orminimized.

2. Climate. Proper considerationshould be given to prevailing winds,solar orientation and micro-climaticconditions. Building orientation asrelated to solar and wind conditions,building form in terms of shape,massing, fenestration and color, andplanting can all be used to modify theadverse effects of climate. This willhelp to conserve energy throughreduced dependence on a building’smechanical and electrical systems andto provide for pedestrian comfort andconvenience.

B. Relate Buildings in Groups.The most frequently encountered siteplanning problems on militaryinstallations is the planning of buildingsin groups. This may involve either thefitting of a new building into the contextof existing buildings or the incremental,long-range development of a plannedgroup of buildings.

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In either case, successful siteplanning and design requiresdealing with many more factorsthan simply dropping the buildinginto the center of a vacant site.Essential considerations includethe organization of site access; theseparation of auto, pedestrian andservice traffic; the functional andvisual organization of the spacebetween buildings; theestablishment of compatible scaleand architectural characterbetween buildings; provisions foranticipated growth and expansion;and the relationship of buildings tonatural site features.

C. Develop a CoherentArchitectural Character.Most military installations havebeen developed over a long periodof time. Often a new building islocated among older facilities in anarea with a prevailing characterestablished by a given architecturalstyle, material or scale. Thecharacter of the area may be theresult of an historic regional stylesuch as the Spanish Mission Styleat Fort Sam Houston and the SanDiego Naval Training Center. Inother instances, an order has beenestablished by a consistent use ofmaterials, such as brick, and asimilarity in massing and buildingheight. Many factors contribute toperpetuating a coherentarchitectural character includingscale, materials, color, massing,form, proportions, spatialrelationships and supporting sitecomponents. This requires thetalents of skilled architects.

A consistent and coherentarchitectural character fosters a"sense of order" and a "sense ofplace" within an installation. It isan important visual attribute to becarefully guarded and perpetuatedby future development.

D. Preserve Historic Buildingand Areas.Recognition and preservation of aninstallation’s historical areas andarchitecture are important aspectsof installation design and helpfoster and instill a sense ofheritage among military personneland civilians alike. In addition,these facilities provide an elementof visual interest and variety.Maintaining an appropriate settingfor these historic facilities isessential in preserving their visualintegrity. These facilities oftenoffer opportunities not limited tohistoric display, such as adaptivereuse of their interior space asfunctional facilities.

Section II:

DesignGuidelines.

3-3.Establishing and ImplementingArchitectural Guidelines.Every installation should developits own architectural guidelines topromote a coherent architecturalcharacter that provides visualorder, clarity, interest and humanscale within the installation Thesearchitectural guidelines should bespecific enough to assure basicharmony and coordination ofarchitecture, yet flexible enough topromote variety and visual interestEmploy the following generalprocess to establish architecturalguidelines for an installation

A. Assess the ExistingArchitectural Character.Initially, the architectural characterof most existing buildings within theinstallation should be identified andanalyzed. This can beaccomplished by a visual surveyand background researchconducted by a trained architect orteam of architects, documentingtheir findings on a survey form,maps and photographs. Thearchitectural style, historical orarchitectural importance, exteriorcondition and alterations of thesebuildings should be determined. Inaddition, the compatibility of each

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building with its setting should beevaluated in terms of building formand height, materials, color andarchitectural details. Architectureof merit as well as areas ofcoherent architectural characterand interest should serve toestablish a prevailing architecturalcharacter upon which thearchitectural guidelines are to bebased.

B. Evaluate Other ArchitecturalDeterminants. Architecturalguidelines should also be basedupon other factors influencing thearchitectural character of theinstallation. These factors includeclimate, land form, landscapecharacter, contemporary buildingtechnologies and economics of thearea.

C. Formulate ArchitecturalGuidelines. Based upon theprevailing architectural characterand other architecturaldeterminants, architecturalguidelines should be developed forthe installation. These guidelinesshould specify the generalarchitectural style, massing, form,materials, colors and details fornew as well as renovated facilities.These architectural guidelines canbe developed at three levels ofdetail:1. overall guidelines governingthe entire installation,2. general guidelines forfunctional subareas or districtswithin the installation, and3. specific design guidelines andcriteria for a particular facility orbuilding complex.

D. Implement ArchitecturalGuidelines. The architecturalguidelines should becomplemented in a twofoldmanner. First, they should serveas design criteria for architectsunder contract to prepare designplans for new or renovatedfacilities. Second, they shouldserve as evaluation criteria formilitary personnel responsible foroverseeing the design of thesenew or renovated facilities.

Consideration can also be given toestablishing a Design Review Boardcomposed of government personneland/or independent designconsultants who would beresponsible for reviewing designproposals and suggestingmodifications prior to final approval ofthe design plans.

3-4.Adapt Buildings to Natural SiteConditions.The site planning and design ofbuildings should relate harmoniouslyto the landscape character andclimatic conditions.

A. Landscape Character.Apply the following principles tominimize adverse impacts on theexisting site (figs. 3-8 and 3-9).

fig. 3-8.

fig. 3-9.

1. Inventory existing natural terrain,vegetation and views prior toformulation of a site developmentconcept.

2. Preserve, enhance and useadvantageously such natural site featuresas mature trees and vegetation, terrain,and topographic features and scenic viewsand vistas.

3. Locate facilities that have expansivebuilding types and parking requirementson relatively flat terrain. Generally, theseare site areas with less than 6% slopegradients (fig. 3-10).

fig. 3-10.

4. Use moderately sloping (6 to 15%slope gradient) areas for residential orother less expansive building types thatcan adapt to the sloping terrain (fig. 3-11).

fig. 3-11.

5. Avoid development in steeper slope(greater than 15% slope gradient) areaswhere adverse environmental impacts anddevelopment costs begin to escalatedramatically.

6. Avoid development in naturaldrainage ways and flood plains; land usesfor flood plain areas should be limited toopen space preserves and outdoorrecreation facilities.

7. Provide a reasonable balance of cutand fill.

8. Provide adequate continuous slopesfor all parts of the site not occupied bybuildings. These slopes should be gradedto drain toward streets or natural drainagecourses to keep to a minimum the numberof required storm drains. Grassed slopesaway from buildings should be a minimumof 6 inches vertical for a horizontaldistance of 10 feet.

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B. Climate.Site and design buildings inresponse to the local climate toprovide a comfortable setting foroutdoor activities and to conserveenergy by lessening the demandson the heating and air conditioningsystems of a building. Generalguidelines for the siting and design

fig. 3-12

of buildings in various climaticregions are set forth below. Figure3-12 illustrates the general extentof the four major climatic regionswithin the continental UnitedStates.

1. Cool Regions. Design andsite buildings primarily for winterheat conservation by maximizingthe warming effect of solarradiation in winter and reducing theimpact of cold winter winds.

a. Utilize south and southeastfacing slopes.

b. Orient active outdoorpedestrian areas of the building tothe south.

c. Create protected sun pocketsfor outdoor pedestrian areas (fig.3-13).

d. Utilize medium coloredbuilding surfaces exposed to thesun and dark colors on recessedsurfaces to absorb solar radiation.

e. Use generous south facingwindows to capture warming solarradiation within the building interior.

fig. 3-13.

fig. 3-14.

f. Locate buildings on theleeward side of hills in the "windshadow" (fig. 3-14).

g. Use the natural insulation ofthe earth where possible, such asbuilding into hillsides, to reducewinter heat loss (fig. 3-14).

h. Use evergreens, earth bermsor mounds and walls to providewinter wind screening of northernfacing building walls.

i. Minimize unshielded windowareas on exposed northern facingwalls that face prevailing winterwinds.

fig. 3-15.

j. Minimize the extent of abuilding’s exterior surface area byconsolidating buildings or building

masses into a compactconfiguration (fig. 3-15).

2. Temperate Regions.Design and site buildings tobalance the effects of seasonalthermal variations, promoting bothwinter warming and summercooling in terms of seasonal solarorientation and prevailing winddirection.

a. Use deciduous trees to theeast and west that allowpenetration of warming winter sunbut shade from the hot summersun (fig. 3-16).

b. Utilize roof overhangs thatshield window areas on southfacing walls from the highersummer sun but admit the lowerwinter sun (fig. 3-17).

c. On higher buildings, sunshades can be used to controlsummer sun: horizontal sunshadesover south facing windows,eggcrate type sunshades over eastand west facing windows, andvertical fins on north facingwindows are most effective.

16

fig. 3-16. fig. 3-18.

fig. 3-17. fig. 3-19.

b. Avoid paved ground surfaceswhich hold beat and produce sunglare (fig. 3-21).

c. Use light colored walls androofs that reflect solar radiation;use dark colors under overhangsto reduce solar reflection intobuilding interiors.

d. Shelter windows from directsolar radiation with sunshades,roof overhangs and plants; avoideast and west facing windows thatare difficult to shade from low sunangles; set windows high in wallsto avoid ground-reflected solarradiation.

d. Use medium color surfaceson exterior walls to balance theneed for summer reflection andwinter absorption of solar radiation;use light colored roofs to reflectsummer sun; use dark absorbentcolors only in recessed placesprotected from summer sun.e. Use steeply pitched roofs onthe winter windward side to deflectwinter winds and reduce theexposed roof area directly facingwinter winds (fig. 3-18).

f. Protect building walls exposedto winter winds with evergreens,earth berms or mounds, fences,walls or outbuildings such asgarages or storage sheds that canserve as wind screens (fig. 3-18).

g. In appropriate buildings thatwill not be air conditioned,encourage cross ventilation androof ventilation by prevailingsummer breezes for cooling duringhot summer months. This can beaccomplished in terms of buildingorientation and window placement,roof and gable ventilation andplanting based upon prevailingsummer breezes (fig. 3-19).

3. Hot Arid Regions.Design primarily to minimizebuilding heat gain by solar radiationwhile maximizing shade andencouraging humidity in outdoorspaces around buildings.

a. Utilize densely arranged andshaded layouts of buildings,compact building shapes andshaded walkways and courtyards(fig. 3-20).

fig. 3-20.

fig. 3-21.

fig. 3-22.

e. Incorporate water features insite development concepts tomaximize humidity and the coolingeffects of evaporation from water(fig. 3-22).

f. Utilize dense overheadplanting to provide shade, slowevaporation and hold humidity nearground level (fig. 3-23).

fig. 3-23.g. Minimize paved areas andmaximize planted ground covers topromote humidity and reduce solarreflection and glare.

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4. Hot Humid Regions.Design primarily to minimizebuilding heat gain by solar radiationwhile promoting air movement andcross ventilation for comfort fromhumidity.

a. Maximize shade throughoutthe day, both to reduce solarradiation and sun glare.

b. Use window sunshadingdevices that provide protectionfrom solar radiation but encourageair flow; minimize east and westfacing walls and windows wheresolar control from low sun angles isdifficult (fig. 3-24).

fig. 3-24.

c. Use roof overhangs for sunscreening, rain and sun glareprotection; utilize trellises aseffective sun and glare controldevices.

d. Utilize light colored roofs toreflect solar radiation.

e. Shade outside walkways withtrees, building canopies orarcades.

f. Encourage closely located butphysically separated buildingarrangements that promote airmovement between buildings.

g. Orient streets and buildings tomaximize cooling breezes; usevegetation to channel coolingbreezes (fig. 3-25).

h. In non-air-conditionedbuildings maximize roof ventilationand cross ventilation of living andworking spaces.

fig. 3-25.

i. Maximize openings andwindows that promote crossventilation.

j. Select building sites near thecrest of hills or on the windward sideor ridges to maximize wind flow.

k. Use high branching sitevegetation that provides shade butallows passage of cooling breezesnear ground level; avoid lowvegetation that blocks air movementinto and around buildings (fig. 3-26).

fig. 3-26.3-5.Relate Buildings in Groups.Buildings that are located in groupsshould have strong visual andfunctional interrelationships. Thedesign process of establishingcompatible relationships betweenbuildings in groups may entail eitherintegrating a new building into anexisting group of buildings ordesigning a totally new group ofbuildings that may be implementedat one time or in a phaseddevelopment sequence.

A. Site OrganizationThe design of new buildings that are tobecome part of a group of buildingsshould be based upon an overall sitedevelopment concept with adequateprovisions for future flexibility andexpansion.

1. Overall Site DevelopmentConcept.Establish an overall site developmentconcept that provides the frameworkwithin which individual buildings can becompatibly integrated and coordinatedwith other buildings and associated sitedevelopment (fig. 3-27).

a. Carefully inventory existing siteconditions, land suitability, buildings,parking, circulation, utilities and openspace systems and climate prior toformulation of a site design concept.

b. Formulate a development programthat includes: building spacerequirements; access requirements forpedestrians, vehicular and servicetraffic; parking requirements; adjacencyrequirements with other buildings; andutility service requirements.

c. Coordinate circulation and parkingthat serves the entire building group.

d. Coordinate the open spacenetwork of the building group with theoverall open space system of theinstallation.

e. Formulate the general location,massing and orientation of newbuildings in response to their programrequirements and desired relationship toother buildings, site circulation systems,parking, open space, natural sitefeatures and climate.

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fig. 3-27.

3. Security Requirements.By considering security requirements in theearly phases of site planning, expensiveand unsightly future modification can oftenbe avoided. Use of natural barriers and theintegration of security measures into facilitydesign can minimize the necessity forobtrusive solutions, such as barbed wirefences, barricaded entrances and barredwindows.

fig. 3-32.2. Expansion Capability.Anticipate future expansion needsof buildings in groups andincorporate them into the sitedevelopment concept.

fig. 3-28.

a. Consider a cluster develop-ment pattern that can facilitateefficient use of land and preservevacant land for future expansion offacilities (fig. 3-28).

fig. 3-29.

b. Consider future horizontalexpansion for buildings such ascompany administration facilities(fig. 3-29).

fig. 3-30.

c. Consider vertical expansion ofbuildings to preserve open spaceor adjacent buildings. Verticalexpansion of buildings tends to bemore costly and disruptive ofexisting building operations thanhorizontal expansion and requiresthe provision of adequate structuraldesign, future parking and utilities(fig. 3-30).d. Consider conversion ofsurface parking lots to multi-levelparking structures to provide forbuilding expansion when land isscarce and the intensity of newdevelopment can off-set theadditional costs of the parkingstructure (fig. 3-31).e. (consider vacatingunnecessary streets or modifyingthe road network to make availablespace for building expansion withinstreet right-of-ways. Carefulattention must be given to anyunderground utilities within thevacated rights-of-way which can becostly to relocate.

fig. 3-31.

B. Site Design.Relate buildings compatibly ingroups by means of site designthat sensitively interrelates buildingforms and massing, open spacebetween buildings, site circulationsystems and site edges. (See TM5-812-1 for minimum requiredspace between buildings.)

1. Massing. The massing of abuilding refers to its overall bulk, orthe volume of space which thebuilding encloses. When massinga new building, the size andproportion of its exterior envelopeand elevations should be designedto relate compatibly with adjacentstructures. A large facility can bemade to better relate to existingsmaller facilities by dividing itsmass into smaller components tocreate a building elevation that ismore compatible orcomplementary, in terms of its sizeand proportions, to the adjacentstructures. This is accomplishedby manipulating the configurationof the floor plan and/or buildingheight to break down the mass ofthe building into smaller elements(fig. 3-32).

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2. Form. A building’s form is anarticulation of its basic massingand is characterized by shape andsilhouette that should be employedto compatibly relate adjacentbuildings. The size and proportionof a building’s elevations and itsroof are the primary form-givingcharacteristics that are important inrelating a new building to itssetting. In terms of their basicform, new buildings should becontemporary architecturalexpressions that adhere to and areevocative of the prevailingarchitectural forms of adjacentbuildings. Similar forms should beemployed not only to relate newbuildings to adjacent structures

fig. 3-33.

but also to contribute to the overallarchitectural coherence of theinstallation (fig. 3-33).

3. Open Space. Create outdooropen spaces between buildingsthat relate buildings together andconvey an appropriate scale,character and quality for theirintended use. (See Chapter 7:Plazas and Courtyards.)

a. Enclosure. Use buildingsand planting as elements of spatialenclosure to visually define andcontain outdoor space. Thedegree of enclosure that isconveyed is determined by the typeand number of containing sidesthat define the space, theirdistance apart and their height.The nature and extent of enclosurecan be used to orient or directpeople, to create a distinct senseof place or to create a transitionalspace between the built andnatural environment (fig. 3-34).

fig. 3-34.

b. Scale. Use the scale or sizeof an outdoor space as defined bybuildings and planting to reinforceits intended use and desiredcharacter. Large outdoor spacesbetween buildings, especiallysymmetrical ones, tend to beformal and ceremonial incharacter, while smaller spacesconvey a more personal andintimate setting (fig. 3-35).

fig. 3-35.

c. Spatial Sequence. Modulateoutdoor spaces between buildings,through variations in their volumeand sense of enclosure, to providea more interesting visualexperience and identifiable

fig. 3-36.

hierarchy of spaces with within thegroup of buildings (fig. 3-36). Anordered sequence of outdoorspaces can provide a valuablesense of orientation, whilediscontinuous or maze-likesequences may be confusing anddisorienting.

d. View Framing. The groupingof buildings can frame views, orientpeople to building entrances, oraccentuate a key facility, landmarkor dramatic vista (fig. 3-37). Theseviews created by the arrangementof buildings and open space areimportant aspects of the visualquality of the environment that canbe employed not only for visualinterest but also to provide a senseof orientation for people using thefacilities.

fig. 3-37.4. Circulation and Parking.

Coordinate circulation systems andparking to relate buildings ingroups.

a. Provide a balanced andcoordinated circulation system toserve a group of buildings,including walkways, bikeways,automobile and service traffic.(See Chapter 4: Roads; Chapter 8:Walkways; and Chapter 9:Bikeways.)

fig. 3-38.

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b. Provide direct pedestrianconnections between buildings, avoidingwalkways that cross roads or parking lots(fig. 3-38).

c. Locate all building loading docks off-street and out-of-sight of main roadwaysand building entrances; employ appro-

fig. 3-39. fig. 3-41.priate fencing and/or planting toscreen loading docks fromadjacent buildings or areas (fig.3-39).

d. Provide attractive andconvenient parking by coordinatingall parking that serves the group ofbuildings. (See Chapter 5:Parking.)

e. Prevent parking fromdominating the visual setting ofbuildings in groups, especially from

fig. 3-40.

main roadways and other primarypublic viewing areas (fig. 3-40).

5. Site Edges. Provideappropriate and consistentlandscape edge planting betweenoffstreet parking facilities and mainroadways, between pedestrian andvehicular-oriented areas, betweendifferent building groupings or landuse areas, and along the perimeterof the installation. (See Chapter 6:Planting.)

a. Use plant materials as atransition or edge treatmentbetween compatible adjacentfacilities or to define and channelpedestrian traffic along a walkway.

b. Use a dense evergreen bufferarea or planted earth berm for siteedges where visual screening isneeded, such as between visuallyincompatible facilities and land useareas or between parking areas anda building or street (fig. 3-41).

c. Use an earth berm or a solidwall combined with an open spacebuffer of dense planting, especiallyevergreens, for site edges whereacoustical buffering as well as visualscreening are necessary, such asbetween a major roadway and aresidential area. (TM 5-803-2,NAVFAC P-970 and AFM 19-10provide a comprehensive discussionof noise reduction techniques.)

d. Use a dense evergreen edgetreatment where windscreening fromchilling winter winds is desired, suchas along pedestrian walkways.

e. Use fencing and walls at siteedges only where essential for visualscreening, security or acousticalbuffering and where space does notpermit landscape screening (fig.3-42)

fig. 3-42.

C. Architectural Fenestration.Building facades in terms of window anddoor openings and related details aredefined as architectural fenestration.Design elements that can create acompatible fenestration treatmentinclude scale, materials, color andrhythm.

1. Scale. Proportion and detail abuilding’s exterior fenestration to thescale of adjacent buildings. Scale isconveyed by the fenestration of thebuilding facade, where doorways,windows and other details enablepeople to gage its relative size andcharacter in relationship to the size ofthe human body.

fig. 3-43.

a. When relating a new building to itssetting, it is important that its designconveys a sense of scale that iscompatible with adjacent buildings (fig.3-43).

21

fig. 3-44.

However, economies. The use ofsimilar materials, complementary colorsand a compatibly scaled building cansuccessfully relate new buildings to anhistoric style or setting.

3. Color. Relate buildings withcompatible and complementary colors.Color is closely linked to theappropriate selection of exteriorbuilding materials and is a criticaldesign element in relating adjacentbuildings and creating a compatiblevisual environment within aninstallation.

a. In general, colors should beThis can be accomplished byfenestration that is similarly sizedand proportioned in terms of floorheights, window openings andstrength of details.

b. Larger building facades withover-sized fenestration elementstend to create a more monumentalscale while smaller buildings withmore finely detailed fenestrationstend to create a more human scale(fig. 3-44).

c. Blank wall treatments tend notto convey scale, while buildingelevations with detailedfenestrations created by windowsand relief, accentuated by shadowlines or color, convey a strongsense of scale (fig. 3-45).

fig. 3-45.

2. Materials. Exterior buildingmaterials should provide acohesive and consistentarchitectural character. If existingbuildings have an architecturalstyle worthy of merit, all future newconstruction should be compatibleto that style.

a. Types of materials selectedshould vary with climatic conditions,thermal qualities, reflectivity anddurability.

b. A cluttered, cosmeticapplication of a number of differentmaterials on a facade should beavoided. Materials should be usedconsistently on all facades of abuilding.

c. Materials should be selectedbased upon their appropriateness tothe building type, climatic conditionsand the prevailing architecturaldesign and landscape character ofthe installation. Wood, masonry andstucco tend to be the mostappropriate materials for residentialuses; masonry, steel, aluminum,concrete and glass tend to be themost appropriate materials foradministrative or educational uses;masonry or steel frame with infillmaterials tend to be mostappropriate for industrial uses.

d. Materials distinctive to anestablished architectural characterworthy of merit should be adhered toconsistently throughout aninstallation. Deviations fromestablished materials should not beallowed without good reason.

integral rather than applied to exteriorbuilding materials. Avoid surfaces thatrequire costly periodic repainting.

b. Colors should be selected on thebasis of the desired appearance andattractiveness of the building, itscompatibility with adjacent buildingcolors and the prevailing color schemeof the architectural and naturallandscape character of the installation.

c. Colors should also be carefullyselected for their ability to modifyclimatic conditions. Generally, light-colored building exteriors tend to reflectsolar radiation and promote heat loss,but increase glare; dark-coloredexteriors tend to absorb solar radiation,promote heat gain and reduce glare.

d. Exterior building colors should belimited in number and controlled by anestablished color palette for usethroughout the installation. This paletteshould specify a limited number ofcoordinated and complementary colorsthat are subdued and harmonious.

e. Strong, loud colors shouldgenerally be avoided and used only forspecial identification purposes; where

22

they are employed they should notdominate or overpower the visualcharacter of the setting.

f. Colors can be used to evokean historic al or regionalarchitectural style that should beemployed only where appropriate.Examples of this are the whitestucco with red tile roof of theSpanish mission style in SanDiego, subdued earthtones (huesof brown, soft green and beige’s)associated with the Victorian era,and pastels associated withtropical architecture (pale violets,purples, greens and pinks). (SeeTM 5-807-7, Color For Buildings.

fig. 3-46

fig. 3-47.

4. Rhythm. Use the visualrhythm created by a fenestrationdesign to compatibly relatebuildings in groups.

a. Rhythm refers to the visualpattern or sequence of solids andvoids that is created by structuralexpression, fenestration andshadow, lines along a buildingfacade as well as the sequence ofbuilding masses and open space

between buildings. The pattern ofthis rhythm may be either uniform orvaried as well as vertical orhorizontal in accent (figs. 3-46 and3-47).

b. The visual rhythm establishedby existing buildings should berecognized and utilized as a designtool to integrate a new building withits surroundings.

3-6.

Develop a Coherent ArchitecturalCharacter.A compatible and coherent overallarchitectural character should bepromoted within an installation.Buildings within an installationshould be designed within acommon architectural vernacular ordesign vocabulary that promotes acoherent physical appearance,character, image and identity to theinstallation.

A. Derivations of a CoherentDesign Character.Establish architectural guidelinesthat specify a general designvocabulary for all buildings within theinstallation. The formulation of theseguidelines should be derived fromthe following considerations as theyrelate to establishing a coherentmassing, form, scale and materialsamong buildings within theinstallation.

1. Landscape/LandformCharacter. The natural sitecharacter of the installation in termsof its terrain and vegetation may lenditself to a particular character ofdevelopment and architecture.

2. Urban/Rural Context.The general character ofdevelopment within the installation,in terms of its intensity of land use,indicates a type and scale ofdevelopment pattern andarchitecture that can range from

dense and urban to sparse and rural.The guidelines should specify a desiredcharacter or transition in characteramong facilities within the installation.

3. Climate. The climate of aninstallation should heavily dictate anappropriate character of developmentand architecture that is conducive touser comfort and energy conservation.

4. Prevailing Regional ArchitecturalCharacter.A regional architectural character thathas historically developed in responseto the climate, natural setting andavailable building materials of the regioncan provide a useful model forestablishing the overall architecturalguidelines for the installation.

5. Prevailing ArchitecturalCharacter of the Installation. Theinstallation's prevailing architecturalcharacter may serve as the practicalbasis for establishing the guidelines fora coherent architectural character withinthe installation.

B. Design Applications.Establish a coherent overallarchitectural character within theinstallation that can apply both to newbuilding design and the renovation ofexisting buildings.

1. New Building Design.Design new buildings to promote acoherent architectural character bymeans of a compatible contemporaryarchitectural design expression.

a. Avoid trite cosmetic application ofstylistic elements that allude to thearchitectural style of older installationbuildings.

b. Encourage variety that iscompatible with the overall character ofthe installation; avoid promoting a rigidly

23

homogeneous and monotonousarchitectural character.

c. Avoid prefabricated ormodular prototype buildingsystems whose designs are out ofcontext with the natural setting orarchitectural character of theinstallation; utilize only thosebuilding systems that can beadapted compatibly to the site andarchitectural character of theinstallation. Where procurementschedules or economics dictate theuse of these building systems,select those of compatible design,scale, color and materials.Consider the use of plant materialand screening walls to lessen anynegative visual impact of thesebuilding systems.

d. Installation planners should beparticularly cognizant of the designand construction of communitycenters. There are usually two ormore design and constructionactivities involved in thedevelopment of a communitycenter, each with individual fundingsources and methods ofprocurement Considering this,each installation should establisharchitectural, site and functionalstandards very early in theplanning of a community centerCoordination must beaccomplished by an installationplanner to ensure the standardsare observed Differences betweendesigners should never result indeviations from the objective of aunified design for the communitycenter.

2. Renovation of ExistingBuildings. Consider designmodifications that are harmoniouswith the desired overall visualimage and character of theinstallation.

3-7Preserve Historical Buildingsand Areas.The visual integrity of historicallynoteworthy buildings and areas onmilitary installations must bemaintained and preserved. (TM 5-801-1 and TM 5-801-2providespecific guidance.)

A. Types of NoteworthyFacilities.There are three categories ofnoteworthy buildings and areaswhich should be preserved.

1. Historical Architecture.Buildings that are noteworthy froman architectural point of view andare examples of a particular styleor period.

2. Historical Places. Buildingsand areas that are noteworthy froman historical point of view becausea significant event in national ormilitary history occurred there.

3. Other Historical Facilities.Buildings that are less noteworthyfrom either an architectural orhistorical point of view, but are stillusable and functional facilities thatalso provide visual interest and asense of heritage to theinstallation.

B. Preservation Techniques.Utilize appropriate preservationtechniques to maintain the visualintegrity of historically noteworthybuildings or areas and coordinatethese with appropriate fundingprograms for repair, renovation orreplacement.

1. Conservation is appropriatefor buildings which are physicallysound and have their originaldesign integrity and value that

require only maintenance, such ascleaning, repointing or repainting,to preserve their good condition.

2. Renovation is applicable tobuildings that require generalupgrading of either their exterior ortheir interior.

3. Rehabilitation is applicable tobuildings which have deterioratedor are economically andfunctionally outmoded, and requiremodernization of electrical,mechanical and structuralelements to extend their useful life.

4. Restoration is applicable tostructures of noteworthy historic,architectural or aestheticimportance whose integrity hasbeen lost or covered up and mustbe restored to achieve their originalappearance; this may requireeither full or partial restoration ofeither their interior or exterior.

5. Adaptive reuse is a form ofrehabilitation whereby structuresare converted from their originaluse to an entirely new use which isproductive or practical.

6. Reconstruction or replicationrefers to structures that arerecreated from original designs toportray some historical setting or toserve as an historical museum ordisplay.

24

C. Preservation Guidelines.Use the following procedures andtreatments to preserve the visualintegrity of historically noteworthybuildings or areas.

1. Inventory and documentsignificant or noteworthy historicalarchitecture and settings within theinstallation. (Required byExecutive Order 11593, May1973.)

2. Preserve and appropriatelyuse historic buildings or settingswithin the installation.

3. Avoid alterations that detractfrom the design integrity of historicbuildings and their setting, such asinappropriate building modificationsand intrusion of incompatible uses,buildings or structures into theirsetting.

4. When altering an historicstructure, try to retain, uncoverand/or restore as much of theoriginal materials, details anddesign character of the building asis feasible; when introducing newparts or mixing old with newelements on the building exterior, itis essential to preserve the originaldesign character. This should beaccom-plished by obtainingcompetent professional designassistance.

5. Avoid imitative designs whenintroducing new buildings within thesetting of historic buildings;encourage contemporary designsthat are compatible with the old intheir scale, form and use ofmaterials.

6. Encourage adaptive reuse ofhistoric buildings as an economicalmeans of providing functionalspace while providing a sense ofheritage to the setting of theinstallation.

25

Chapter 4. Roads.

The vehicular circulation systemprovides not only a primary meansof on-site access but also aprimary vantage point along whichpeople see an installation. In mostcases, the road network ishistorically predetermined. Whilethe existing road network may befunctionally deficient, it may becostly and difficult to changebecause of the land uses, buildings

and utilities which have beenlocated in response to itsalignment. However, much can bedone to improve the road network,both functionally and visually.Functionally, a hierarchical networkcan be created that separatesincompatible types of traffic andpromotes energy efficiency.Visually, this hierarchy can bereinforced to promote a better

comprehension, sense oforientation and ease of circulationfor the motorist as well as a moreattractive streetscape. (Forguidance on road constructiondetails and geometric designcriteria, see TM 5-822-2; AFM 88-7, Chapter 5; and NAVFAC DM-5Series.)

27

Section I:

Observations and Objectives.

fig. 4-1.4-1.Typical Problems.

A. Road Network.Most installations typically have agrid network of streets. However,strict adherence to this gridnetwork often neglects natural sitefeatures and can constrain buildingdesign and expansion capabilities.Sometimes the grid system iscombined with a curvilinear patternof streets which can result in visualas well as functional problems inunderstanding the circulationsystem.

B. Circulation Hierarchy.Various classification systems existdefining different functions that aroad performs, i.e., primary,secondary, tertiary. It is desirablethat road rights-of-way, pavementwidths, speed limits, provisions ofcurbs and sidewalks, streetlighting, street trees, traffic andparking controls, and othercharacteristics be varied to reflectand facilitate the functions that theroad performs. This is often notthe case on installations whereundifferentiated networks result ina variety of problems such asthrough-traffic on local residentialstreets. In many cases a sense ofthe road hierarchy does not exist orhas not been visually reinforced,resulting in an unclear system aswell as unnecessary streetsegments.

C. Intersections and TrafficControls.The grid network, most prevalenton installations, results in amaximum number of four-wayintersections and necessitates agreater dependency onsignalization and other trafficcontrol devices. There has beeninadequate consideration of thepedestrian and his safety wherevehicular and pedestrian networksinterface (fig. 4-1).

D. Channelization.A common problem on militaryinstallations is unsafe and unsightlytechniques for channeling vehicles,such as poles or guardrailsmounted in the road pavementwithout protective curbing (fig. 4-2).The need for these devices is mostoften the result of improperintersection

fig. 4-2.

fig. 4-3.

design, but when necessary, theirdesign need not be unsafe tomotorists. In other cases wheremedians are used forchannelization, planting thatrequires a high amount ofmaintenance or unattractive pavingtechniques are common, despitethe availability of attractive butrelatively maintenance-free plantmaterials that could be used.

E. Curbs and Gutters.The incremental construction ofcurbs and gutters is typical atinstallations and often results inawkward transition areas(fig. 4-3).

28

4-2.Objectives.A. Circulation System.The circulation system shoulddefine a hierarchy of flow from theinstallation entrance to major andminor roads leading to specificdestinations. A clearly structuredand consistent circulation systemcan provide coherence to theoverall installation. If visuallyreinforced, the system can simplifydriver decisions, decrease motoristconfusion, and provide a level ofvisual continuity and cohesivenessto the installation.

B. Adapt Roads to SiteConditions.New road alignments should relateto the natural contours of the landin order to minimize grading anddisruption of the naturalenvironment. Within developedareas, planting, screening,setbacks and other techniques canbe used to visually integrate roadswith the land use areas that theyserve. All necessary signs andcoordinated site furnishings shouldbe employed to enhance thestreetscape.

C. Improve the ExistingNetwork for Growth, Safety andAppearance.1. Growth. Closely spacedgrid street systems that areunderutilized may provide theopportunity to create large facilitydevelopment areas through theclosing of unnecessary streets.

2. Safety and Appearance.The clarity of a circulation systempromotes safety for its users. Theconfused driver slowing down atintersections or finding himself inthe wrong lane near his destinationincreases the likelihood of causingan accident. Intersection details,sight lines and traffic controldevices are all important safety-related considerations.

A clear and unconfusing circulationsystem is also less cluttered andthereby more attractive to its users.

3. Maintenance and Repair.Roads occupy a large percentageof the total land area of aninstallation, especially in densedevelopments. The design anddetailing of roads should facilitatecleaning, snow removal and otherassociated maintenance and repairoperations. Planting of shouldersand medians should be ofappropriate low maintenance plantmaterials.

Section II:

DesignGuidelines

4-3.Establish a Coherent RoadNetwork Hierarchy.The road network of an installationshould functionally and visuallyreflect a logical hierarchy of trafficcirculation. The network shouldseparate types of traffic byfunction, ranging from through-traffic to local traffic. The visualcharacter of each segment of thenetwork should appropriately

fig. 4-4.

convey its role and function withinthe overall network (fig. 4-4). Thebasic hierarchy of the network canbe generally classified as follows interms of the type, character andappearance of roads.

29

HIGHWAYFig. 4-5.

5. At-grade channelizedintersection with traffic signalcontrols.6. On-street parking prohibited.7. Adjacent sidewalks separatedfrom the road by sizable plantingstrip.8. Medians, street lighting,signing and planting that reinforcethe moderate-to-high speed natureand importance of the road.

A Highways.Highways provide primary high-speed traffic access to, around orthrough a military installation (fig.4-5). Design characteristics ofhighways include:1. Continuous, relativelystraight or large radii curvilinearalignments that carry high speedthrough-traffic movement betweenmajor activity centers within theregion.2. A minimum of two lanes ineach direction, typically divided bya median or median barrier.3. Alignments that border landuse areas rather than bisect them,and greenspace buffers betweenthe road and adjacent uses.4. Controlled access onto theroad.5. Either grade-separated or atgrade channelized intersectionswith traffic signal controls.6. Shoulders for emergencystopping but strict prohibition of on-street parking.7. Street signing, lighting andplanting that reflect the high speednature of traffic movement.

B. Primary.These roads provide the networkconnecting major activity centers withinthe installation (fig. 4-6). Designcharacteristics include:1. Continuous, through-trafficalignments that are relatively straightor large-radii curvilinear to handlemoderate-to-high speed traffic.

Fig. 4-6.

Fig. 4-7.

2. Alignments that form theboundary between different land useareas rather than bisect an area.3. Two to three moving lanes ineach direction, typically divided by amedian.4. Controlled access and aminimum of curb cuts limited toentrance-ways to major facilities orbuilding groups.

C. Secondary.These roads provide the means oftraffic movement between primaryand tertiary roads (fig. 4-7). Designcharacteristics include:1. Continuous through-trafficalignments between primary roads,either straight or curvilinear based

Fig. 4-8.

upon the desired design speed,topography and land use pattern.2. Direct access to abuttingproperty.3. A maximum of two movingtraffic lanes in each direction, eitherundivided or a boulevard withplanted median.4. On-street parking generallyprohibited.5. Sidewalks separated from theroad by a planting strip.

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6. Street lighting, signing andplanting that reflect the moderate-to-slow speed nature of traffic andthe character of the land use areathey are within.

D. Tertiary.These roads handle local trafficmovement from secondary streetsand provide direct access toabutting property (fig. 4-8). Designcharacteristics include:

1. Discontinuous alignments,except between secondary streets,to discourage through traffic.

2. Relatively short, straight orsmaller radii curvilinear alignmentsin keeping with topography, landuse and slow speed nature oftraffic.

3. Generally a maximum of twomoving traffic lanes, one in eachdirection.4. On-street parking allowableon an infrequent overflow basis bythe addition of a parallel parkinglane or bay.

5. Curbs, gutters and sidewalksgenerally provided in residentialareas with densities greater thantwo dwelling units per acre;sidewalks may be limited to onlyone side, depending upon need.

6. Street lighting, signing andplanting in character with the slowspeed nature of traffic and the landuse area within which the road islocated.

E. Cul-de-sacs.These are short dead-end tertiarystreets, primarily in residentialareas. They connect at one end toa tertiary or secondary street andhave a turnaround at their otherend, providing direct access toabutting property while preventingthrough traffic. Designcharacteristics include:

Fig. 4-9.1. Short, straight or smallerradii curvilinear alignments thatserve abutting property.

2. Generally a maximum of twotraffic lanes, one in each direction.

3. Generally a maximum lengthof 600 feet, except in areas whereterrain and low densitydevelopment indicate a longerlength, which in no case shouldexceed 1200 feet or 20 dwellingunits, whichever is the lesser (fig.4-9).

4. Turnarounds generally 70 to90 feet in diameter at their ends toaccommodate not only cars, butalso fire and garbage trucks (fig. 4-10); turnarounds can be eithersymmetrical or offset; turnaroundscan have center planting islands toreduce the expanse of paved areaat the turnaround.

Fig. 4-10.5. Infrequent over-spill parkingcan be provided on street by eitherparallel parking bays or withincenter island area of over-sizedturnarounds.

6. Sidewalks, if any, aregenerally limited to one side of theroad.7. Street lighting, signing andplanting in character with the slowspeed nature of traffic and the landuse area being served.

F. Other Roadway Types.The vehicular circulation system ofan installation can also containseveral other types of roadwaysincluding rural roads and patrolroads.

1. Rural Roads. These roadsare for traffic through sparselydeveloped areas of the installation(fig. 4-11). Design characteristicsinclude:

Fig. 4-11.a. Generally two traffic lanes,one in each direction, withemergency pull-off shoulders.b. Curbs and on-street parkinggenerally not provided.c. Street lighting generally notprovided except at intersections.d. Planting in character with thedesign speed and naturallandscape character of thealignment; storm drainage inswales or ditches that blend intothe natural landform.

2. Service Roads. Theseroads provide for service trafficonly to adjacent buildings. Designcharacteristics include:a. A maximum pavement widthof 18 to 20 feet.b. Continuous alignmentbetween tertiary streets.c. A possible location foroverhead utility service tobuildings.

31

Fig. 4-12.

3. Patrol Roads. These arespecial roads for surveillance andsecurity purposes that carryrestricted, low volume vehiculartraffic (fig. 4-12). Designcharacteristics include:a. Sixteen-foot wide road whichmay be paved without curbs andcontoured to the natural landform.b. Turnaround lanes every 1/4mile.

Fig. 4-13.

4-4.Adapt Roads to Site Conditions.New road alignments as well asimprovements to existing roadsshould be harmonious with naturalsite conditions and the land usepattern of the installation. Theyshould be designed to minimizenegative environmental impacts,relieve driver monotony andprovide a positive visualexperience for the motorist.

Fig. 4-14.

A. Blend Roads with theNatural Landform.The horizontal and verticalalignment of roads shouldminimize landform disturbance andblend with the natural setting (fig.4-13).

1. Minimize cut and fill slopes.a. Avoid steep terrain thatrequires excess cut and fill toaccommodate road alignments (fig.4-14).b. In rolling terrain, align roadsto cross slopes diagonally orparallel to contours rather thanperpendicular to contours (fig. 4-15).c. Consider variable-widthmedians in rolling topography tominimize site disturbance (fig. 4-16). Medians can be used in thismanner to reduce continuouspavement width, accommodatevertical grade differences betweenroadway surfaces within themedian and preserve as much ofthe natural landform andvegetation as possible.2. Mold cut and fill slopes toblend into the natural landform.

CROSS CONTOURS DIAGONALLY

Fig. 4-15.

a. Round slopes to avoidcreating sharp and unnaturalslopes that contrast with thenatural landform (fig. 4-17).b. Warp slopes to become anextension of the natural landformby rounding them both horizontallyand vertically (fig. 4-18).c. Use excess excavationmaterials to create either moundsor fill areas that blend the road intothe natural landform.

Fig. 4-16.d. Use natural rockoutcroppings as slope retainingelements (fig. 4-19). Form them ina natural way by randomscarification when they must bepartially removed to accommodatethe road alignment.3. Blend road drainage ditches,swales or channels into the naturallandform.a. Round the edges of roaddrainage ways to reduce contrastswith the natural landform (fig. 4-20).

Fig. 4-17.

32

b. Vary the alignment of roaddrainage ways from that of theroad according to the naturaldrainage system of the terrain,avoiding perfectly parallelalignments that are unnatural inappearance.

Fig. 4-18.

4. Consider the use of clusterdevelopment patterns since theyminimize site disturbance as wellas the costs of road development,especially in residential areas (fig.4-21).5. Utilize natural topographicconditions to create grade-separated pedestrian and bikewayroad crossings.a. At depressed road areasdesign overpasses connecting highpoints of natural terrain.

Fig.4-19.

Fig. 4-20.

b. At elevated road areasdesign underpasses connectinglow points of natural terrain (fig. 4-22).

Fig. 4-21.

B. Adapt Roads to the NaturalLandscape Character.Design roads to minimizedisturbance to existing vegetation,to encourage revegetation indisturbed areas and to reduce thevisual impact of landscapedisturbance.1. Minimize the amount ofclearance of existing vegetation.a. Align roads in open areasalong the edge of forested areas,rather than through forested areas,whenever possible (fig. 4-23).b. Carefully align roads tominimize earthwork, thereforereducing necessary clearing limits.

Fig. 4-22.

c. Clear only to the edge ofnecessary regrading or sightdistance lines, rather than auniform right-of-way clearancewidth (fig. 4-24).

Fig. 4-23.

Fig. 4-24.

33

Fig. 4-25.

d. Utilize tree wells or retainingwalls to preserve noteworthyspecimen trees where cut and fillslopes would otherwise threatenthe root system and survival of thetree (fig. 4-25).2. Provide optimum conditionsfor revegetation of disturbed areas.a. Follow proper fertilization,mulching and watering practices toencourage revegetation ofdisturbed areas.b. Utilize proper plantingtechniques and planting seasons topromote revegetation and highsurvival rates of plant materials.c. Consider planting holes orpockets and serrated slope edgeson steeper cut and fill slopes toencourage revegetation andmoisture retention on these slopes(fig. 4-26).

Fig. 4-26.3. Revegetate disturbed areasto minimize their visual impact.a. Use irregular or free-formclearing limits with undulatingedges to vary the sequence ofenclosure along the road; this adds

visual variety, promotes a naturallandscape appearance andrelieves visual monotony formotorists.b. Feather edges with carefulclearing of trees and shrubs tocreate a gradual transition ofvegetation along the road, ratherthan a contrasting edge (fig. 4-27).c. Encourage an informalmixture of native plant materialsthat will blend naturally withadjacent undisturbed vegetation.d. Disperse new planting intoundisturbed adjacent areas toreduce the contrast of the clearingedge.

Fig. 4-27.

Fig. 4-28.

e. Use massed plantings ofappropriate size and form; avoidhaphazard scattering as well aswidely and regularly spacedplanting that create a spottyappearance.f. Use planting to emphasizepositive visual elements, such asframing scenic views, and tominimize negative conditions, suchas screening unsightly features.4. Employ roadway planting

effectively for functional and safety-related uses as well as aestheticones.a. Plant disturbed areas tominimize soil erosion and providesediment control; follow proper soilerosion and sediment controlpractices during road construction.b. Use planting to assist indriver guidance by delineatingdirectional changes in the roadalignment; planted edges make iteasier for the driver to discern theoutline of an oncoming curve (fig.4-28).c. Use planting to screenoncoming headlight glare.d. Use planting to help controlsnow drifting onto the road.e. Use planting to visuallyscreen adjacent lands uses fromroad traffic.C. Minimize Adverse Impactsof Roads on Adjacent LandUses.1. Air Pollution. Locate roadalignments to minimize the impactof traffic-emitted pollutants onadjacent facilities.a. Locate roads adjacent toland uses that are minimallyaffected by traffic-emitted airpollutants.b. Reduce the impact of trafficemitted pollutants on moresensitive land use areas byproviding planted buffers betweenthem and locating roadwaysdownwind of the prevailing windpattern, especially summer winds.2. Noise Pollution. Thenecessary abatement of excessivenoise levels generated by auto

34

Fig. 4-29.

Fig. 4-30.

mobile and truck traffic should betaken into account when locatingnew roads or land uses; excessivetraffic noise creates undesirablephysical and psychological effectson people and their activities. (SeeTM 5-803-2, NAVFAC P-970 andAFM 19-10 for techniques toameliorate the impact of vehiculargenerated noise, as well as thatgenerated by aircraft, weapons andtrains.)a. Physically separate primaryroadways from adjacent land useswhose normal functioning would beimpaired by auto and truck trafficnoise. Land uses consideredsensitive to excessive traffic noiselevels include:Residential areasHospital and medical facilitiesEducational facilitiesRecreational facilitiesReligious facilitiesAdministrative facilitiesLibrariesCommunity facilitiesChild care facilitiesb. Utilize noise abatementtechniques such as earth berms,

sound walls and plant materials toreduce noise levels generated bytraffic adjacent to sensitive landuse areas (figs. 4-29 and 4-30).c. Reroute truck traffic toroadways with less sensitive landuses adjacent to them; roadwaynoise nuisance is primarilyassociated with truck traffic.

4-5.Improve the Existing Networkfor Growth, Safety andAppearance.The existing road network of aninstallation should be improved asneeded for growth, safety andappearance. This may entailnetwork changes, removal of traffichazards and enhancement of thestreetscape.

A. Network Modifications.Modify and improve the existingroad network as needed toaccommodate increased trafficcapacity, facility expansion, control

of undesirable through traffic, orintersection safety and flow.1. Increasing TrafficCapacity. Minimize the visualimpact of necessary streetimprovements for increased traffic(capacity.

ONE-WAY COUPLET STREETSFig. 4-31.

a. Create one-way coupletstreets on adjacent parallel streetsto increase traffic flow capacitywithout new road construction (fig.4-31).b. When adding lanes to anexisting street to increase itscapacity, use a center medianbetween the existing road and theproposed new lanes to preserveexisting street trees (fig. 4-32).

Fig. 4-32.

35

2. Accommodating FacilityGrowth. The introduction of amega-block concept toaccommodate either facilityexpansion or creation of apedestrian precinct within a groupof buildings that are presentlyseparated by streets can beconsidered. Existing grid streetsystems that are undifferentiatedand underutilized lend themselvesto being converted to mega-blocks.Mega-blocks can be created byconsolidating several blocks andutilizing existing perimeter streetsmore efficiently to enableabandoning interior street rights-ofway (fig. 4-33).

MEGA-BLOCK CONCEPTFig. 4-33.

3. Discouraging ThroughTraffic. Modify existing streets todiscourage through traffic on localroads, especially in residentialareas.a. Convert a grid system into aseries of internal loop roads thatdiscourage through-traffic (fig. 4-34). This will also allow thecreation of a central walkwaywhere the existing grid system hasbeen discontinued.b. Convert a grid system into aseries of internal cul-de-sacs thatdo not allow through-traffic (fig. 4-35). This may also provideadditional home sites or a centralwalkway at the end of those streetsthat have been terminated.

4. Providing Safe andAttractive Intersections.Improve existing intersections asneeded to provide safe andefficient traffic flow for bothpedestrian and vehicular traffic.

Fig. 4-34.

Fig. 4-35.

a. Introduce "T" intersectionsfor tertiary road intersections withsecondary or primary roads Thistype of intersection has only threepotential turning conflict points (asopposed to 16 at four-wayintersections) and is particularlyappropriate to reduce through-traffic and promote safety inresidential and pedestrian areas(fig. 4-36).

INTERSECTIONSFig. 4-36.

b. Provide turning lanes toeliminate interference with through-traffic flow at major four-wayintersections (fig. 4-37).

Fig. 4-37.

c. Provide safe pedestriancrosswalks at signalizedintersections. (See Chapter 8:Walkways.)d. Avoid complex intersectionsand correct existing ones. Thesetype intersections include thosewith skewed approaches, joggedalignments, or with more than fourapproaches that create operationaldifficulties, safety hazards,decreased traffic flow capacity andunsightly large expanses of paving.e. Connect parallel streets priorto an intersection with a majorarterial or highway to minimizeintersections with the major road(fig. 4-38).f. Create local service drivesparalleling a major road to provideaccess to individual abuttingfacilities while minimizing curb cutsalong the main road which areunsafe and disruptive to traffic flow(fig. 4-39).B. Removal of TrafficHazards.Remove and correct all existingtraffic hazards along roads.Corrections of these deficiencieswill often be justifiable on the basisof safety as well as appearance.

36

1. Inventory and Rank TrafficHazards. Survey the installation toidentify all potential traffic hazardsand determine a priority listing ofproblems to be corrected basedupon the severity of the hazard topersonal safety.2. Correct Unsafe PhysicalObstructions near Streets.Many of these obstructions, inaddition to being unsafe, addgreatly to the cluttered appearanceof the streetscape.a. Replace or correct culvertsor headwalls that are too close tothe street; provide protectivecurbing, guardrails and/or collisioncushions.b. Relocate signs, utility polesor fire hydrants that are too closeto the street. In built-up areas,these should be no closer than twofeet to the curb; along primaryroads and highways these shouldbe set back to a

Fig. 4-38.

Fig. 4-39.minimum of twelve feet from theedge of the pavement. Breakawayutility poles are desirable alonghighways.

Fig. 4-40.

Fig. 4-41.

3. Correct Unsafe PhysicalObstructions within theRoadway.a. Provide curbing wherenecessary instead of usingbollards, cones or guardrails.b. The use of concrete medianbarriers that provide their owncurbing are ideally suited for high-speed roads. These barriersshould be continuous and theirexposed ends should be detailedfor safety.

c. Provide proper lighting andreflectors on potential roadwaysafety hazards.C. Streetscape Improvement.Enhance the appearance of thestreetscape by a coordinateddesign of its various components(figs. 4-40 and 4-41).

37

1. Minimize StreetscapeClutter. Coordinate the design ofstreetscape elements to minimizeclutter and provide an attractiveroadway in keeping with itsintended function and hierarchy inthe overall network.a. Planting. Consider plantingas one of the simplest and mosteffective means of improving thevisual quality of the installation’sstreetscape Planting should beused to define the road hierarchy.Furthermore, planting should beused to screen headlight glare andto reduce the visual impact ofadjacent surface parking lots andoverhead utilities. (See Chapter 6:Planting; Chapter 5 Parking, andChapter 13: Utilities.)b. Lighting. Street lightingshould be effectively used not onlyfor public safety and security butalso to strengthen thecomprehension of the roadhierarchy by varying the height,spacing and intensity of luminairesaccording to the type of road. (SeeChapter 11: Lighting)c. Signing. Create a unified,coordinated and consistentstreetscape signing system thatprovides direction and informationin an effective and attractivemanner. (See Chapter 10:Signing.)d. Utilities. Bury utilitieswherever possible to avoid theirunsightliness and cluttering of thestreetscape. The burial of existingutilities should be associated withthe construction of new structuresand the renovation or demolition ofexisting structures. Whereoverhead utilities along the streetare unavoidable, use trees andtopographic features to minimizetheir visual impact. (See Chapter13: Utilities.)

e. Street Furniture. Use acoordinated and unified design offunctional street furniture along thestreetscape, employing multi-useclustering of elements whereverpossible to reduce clutter. (SeeChapter 12: Site Furnishings.)

f. Paving. Use special pavingto differentiate between pedestrianand vehicular areas, articulateareas of pedestrian and vehicularconflicts and indicate directions orcontrols in the circulation network.Paving designs such as atcrosswalks should be consistent indesign and application (SeeChapter 8: Walkways.)

2. Curbs and Gutters. Use aconsistent design and applicationof curbs and gutters (fig. 4-42).a. Use curbs and gutters todefine the road edge and channelstorm drainage in more denselydeveloped areas of the installation.b. Where density is relativelylow or in rural areas, avoid curbsand gutters in favor of drainageswales or ditches that blend intothe natural landform.c. Provide necessary curbswith a unified design, avoidinconsistent or scatteredapplications of curbs and gutterswithin developed districts of theinstallation.3. Medians. Use medians tosafely separate or channel traffic,to reinforce the circulationhierarchy of the road network

Fig. 4-42.

and to provide safety islands forpedestrians at wide streetcrossings; provide appropriateplanting of medians to visuallyreinforce the road hierarchy andminimize maintenance.a. Grass can be usedattractively in medians, but usuallyrequires frequent mowing to bemaintained.b. Ground cover, such as ivy,requires little maintenance buttends to catch litter when used inmedians.c. Trees and shrubs with barkground cover can provide both anattractive and relativelymaintenance-free median if thebark can be controlled fromscattering onto the road.d. Concrete or paved medianstend to be utilitarian and relativelymaintenance-free medians bestsuited for pedestrian areas; inother areas they can beunattractive if not combined withstreet trees.e. Consider the possibilities ofhistoric military equipment displaysor flagpoles along medians tovisually highlight special areassuch as main entrances to theinstallation. However, care shouldbe exercised in the design of thesedisplays to avoid a clutteredappearance.

38

Chapter 5. Parking.

Parking is one of the most space-consuming land uses on militaryinstallations and typicallydominates the landscape setting offacilities. It usually is one of themost visually disruptive elementswithin an installation. Opportunitiesfor creating pleasant people-oriented spaces around andbetween buildings or providing

good views to and from buildingsare too often given over toexpansive surface parking lots withminimum design treatments tomitigate their negative impact onthe visual quality of an installation.By locating facilities conveniently toeach other and encouragingalternative modes of access, muchcan be accomplished to reduce

dependence upon the automobileand its parking requirements.While the provision of convenientparking facilities is essential,appropriate site planning anddesign treatments can be used tominimize their negative visualimpact.

39

Section I:

Observations and Objectives.

5-1.Typical Problems.The design of parking facilities hastoo often been handledinsensitively. They have beenfrequently located in poorrelationship to streets, the facilitiesthey serve, adjacent land uses andnatural site features (fig. 5-1).

Fig. 5-1.

A. Off-street Parking.Parking lots have often beendesigned without provision for plantmaterials, thereby creating theappearance of an unrelieved oceanof cars (fig. 5-2). Sometimes theyhave been built with unrestrictedaccess from the street, mixinghigher-speed street traffic withinternal parking circulation, whichis both unattractive and dangerous.

B. On-street Parking.On-street parking, common inmost military installations, results inlarge expanses of pavement, andoften provides no opportunity for amore pleasant and attractivetransition between the street andadjacent buildings (fig. 5-3). Inaddition, on-street parking reducesthe traffic-carrying capacity of theroadway.

Fig. 5-2.

Fig. 5-3.

5-2.Objectives.A. Reduce the Visual Impactof Parking Facilities.The provision of sufficient,conveniently located parking is afunctional prerequisite in the sitedesign of military installations.However, simply reacting to thisneed is not enough. Every feasiblemeasure should be taken to

minimize the obtrusive effect ofparking on the visual environment.

B. Minimize ParkingRequirements and LandCoverage.Parking requirements can bereduced by encouraging carpoolingand alternative modes of travel.Areas within parking lots may bedesigned with smaller stalls toaccommodate only small cars and-motorcycles thus reducing the totalrequired land coverage.Furthermore, the economic andenvironmental factors thatinfluence the use of parkingstructures should be taken intoaccount.

40

Section II:

Design Guidelines.

5-3.Types of Parking Facilities.Provide parking in accordance withthe following overall guidelines forvarious parking facility types.A. On-street Parking.On-street parking facilities includeparallel parking on one or bothsides of the street, and angled orperpendicular parking bays. Ingeneral, on-street parking shouldbe avoided (fig. 5-4). Parallel on-street parking should only beallowed on cul-de-sacs and tertiarystreets where infrequent visitor oroverflow parking needs occur.Employee parking should not beallowed on residential streets.

Fig. 5-4.

B. Off-street Surface Parking.Adequate off-street parking

eliminates the need for on-streetparking. It should be the

predominant method of automobile

Fig. 5-5.

parking on installations. Allinstallation facilities should providesufficient off-street parking to meettheir particular needs (fig. 5-5).C. Parking Structures.Parking structures, both below orabove grade, have limitedapplication at certain installations,particularly in densely developedareas where available land isscarce. Parking structures areexpensive but can provide anumber of benefits includingefficient land use, reduced visualimpact and protection of vehiclesfrom inclement weather (fig. 5-6).

Fig. 5-6.

5-4. Off-street Surface Parking.A. Area Requirements.The total quantity of parking in anyone location will vary with theneeds of the facility. Criteria fordetermining the number of parkingspaces for non-organizationalvehicles authorized for varioustypes of facilities are listed in Table4-1 of DOD 4270. 1-M.

1. Allocate 400 square feet percar (includes access drives andplanting islands) for initial planningpurposes. (DOD authorizes 35square yards or 315 square feetper car for parking lot space withnormal entrance and exit.)2. Minimize parkingrequirements of a facility byselecting a site that will allow thesharing of parking with otherrelated activities and will promoteother means of access, such aswalkways and bikeways, betweenactivities to reduce dependence onthe automobile.3. Small parking lots areusually preferable to large lots, asthey enhance the visualenvironment by increasing thepercentage of landscaped area topaved area and allow moreconformance to natural topography(fig. 5-7). The unrelievedmonotony of large parking areasmay be altered by developingalternative designs, such ascurvilinear plans (fig. 5-8).However careful design ofcurvilinear parking lots isnecessary to avoid exceeding theauthorized space per car.

Fig. 5-7.

Fig. 5-8.

41

B. Locational Guidelines.Locate parking facilities forconvenience and safety.1. Locate off-street parkingconvenient to building entrances.2. Dead-end parking lotsshould generally be avoided.3. Provide the opportunity forvehicular/pedestrian separation,especially in large parking lots.4. Develop parking on relativelylevel areas to avoid excessive cutand fill situations that createerosion and landscapereconstruction problems (fig. 5-9).

Fig. 5-9.5. Use natural topography andexisting trees to visually screenparking areas from adjacentfacilities or other parking bays.6. Headlight glare from parkingvehicles may be avoided inresidential areas if parking islocated at a lower elevation thanthe structure. Parking located onthe downgrade can be easilyscreened and will not obstruct sitelines from the structure (fig. 5-10).If site conditions necessitate thelocation of parking at the samelevel or at a higher elevation thanthe structure, various screeningtechniques may be employed toshield headlight glare and reducethe negative visual impact of theparking lot.

Fig. 5-10.

C. Parking Lot Layout.In order to economize on spaceand provide easy circulation,parking areas should usually belaid out with 90-degree stalls andwith aisles wide enough for two-way traffic. Where a slow rate ofturnover is expected, 90 degreeparking is particularly desirable.

Fig. 5-11.

Fig. 5-12.

Where a fast rate of turnover isexpected or where required by sitelimitations, 60 or 45-degreeparking with one-way aisles maybe used. However, the advantageof easy execution of 60- and 45-degree parking is frequently offsetby the inconvenience of one-wayaisles and roundabout circulation.

Fig. 5-13.

Fig. 5-14.

42

1. A separate parking area foremployees of a facility should beconsidered to avoid a mixture ofall-day parking with customerparking that has a fast turnoverrate An employee parking areashould be physically separatedfrom the main parking area by abarrier or should be locatedadjacent to and with access off of aservice road to the facility.2. Information on the designvehicle and dimensions for typicalparking areas, with stalls arrangedat 90 degrees, 60 degrees, 45degrees and parallel to the aisle,are illustrated in figures 5-11through 5-20. Note where thedimensions for perimeter parkingstalls vary from those in the interiorand from those against a wall.3. When 90-degree on-streetparking must be used, increase thestall length by 4 feet. When 60-or0 45-degree on-street parkingmust be used, increase the stalllength by 2 feet. For parallel on-street parking, increase the widthby 2 feet.4. When very large numbers ofcars must be accommodated, aprovision for small car parking isencouraged. Separate bays orportions of lots can be morecompactly designed and therebyreduce the required amount ofpaving per car. Small car parkingbays should be provided with 90-degree stalls, 7’-6" stall widths, and17’-0" stall lengths with nooverhang and 15’-0" stall length onthe perimeter where an overhangis permitted. Driving aisles shouldbe two-way and 18 feet wide.

Fig. 5-15.

Fig. 5-16.

Fig. 5-19.

Fig. 5-17.

Fig. 5-18.

Fig. 5-20.

43

.

5. To minimize conflicts withstreet traffic, parking areaentrances and exits should be keptto the minimum necessary forpeak-hour requirements andlocated at least 50 feet from streetintersections. Provide a minimumof 20 feet for the buffer stripseparating a parking area from astreet (fig. 5-21).

Fig. 5-21.

6. Avoid parking directlyadjacent to buildings. Allowadequate space for planting and/orwalks (20 feet minimum) betweenparking areas and adjacentbuildings (fig. 5-22).

Fig. 5-22.

7. Walkways at the head ofparking stalls should be two (2)feet wider than required bypedestrians to accommodatebumpers overhang (fig. 5-23).

Fig. 5-23.

Fig. 5-24.

8. When islands are used toseparate parallel parking bays, theminimum width should be 12’-0" toprovide a margin betweenoverhanging bumpers and plants(fig. 5-24). Widths should varyupwards to accommodate existingtopography and trees.9. Intermediate islands, aminimum of 9’-0" wide, should beused to help define vehicularcirculation areas in large parking

areas. To be effective thereshould be no more. than 18parking spaces between islands(fig. 5-25). Islands can bestaggered and irregular in width topreserve existing trees, creating anatural or informal character, orthey may be aligned regularly andof the same width, creating aformal character (fig. 5-26).

Fig. 5-25.

D. Other Type Vehicles.Consider parking requirements ofother type vehicles that may usethe parking lot.1. Design special parkingspaces for recreational vehicles,boats and trailers as needed andwith knowledge of their dimensionsand turning radii.

Fig. 5-26.

2. Provide properly signedparking areas for motorcycles andmotorbikes within parking lots asneeded. Parking lot corners canbe used for motorcycle and bikeparking (fig. 5-27).

44

Fig. 5-27.

E. Parking Lot Details.1. Paving. Provide hard-surfaced paving for high-useparking areas. Generally avoidgravel or- cinder paving, except fortemporary construction uses.2. Striping. All parking spacesand pedestrian crosswalks shouldbe properly striped to define thespace or crossing area. Stripingcolor should contrast withpavement color. Double paintedstripes between stalls are moreeffective for encouraging orderlyparking than are single paintedstripes (figures 5-28 through 5-30).

Fig. 5-28.

Fig. 5-29.

Fig. 5-30.

3. Drainage. Design drainageas a function of parking lot size,slope and drainage networklocation. Drainage to the naturallylower edge of a lot rather than thecenter of a lot is preferable.4. Curbing. Use continuouscurbing where possible to containand channel drainage and to serveas wheel stops. Curbing is easierto maintain and visually preferableto wheel stops, but is more costlyand must be designed with rampsfor the handicapped.5. Light Poles. Parking lotlight fixtures should be located outof the way of traffic aisles andparking stalls. Ideally, lightingpoles should be located in centeror side islands, protected by raisedcurbs (fig. 5-31). Poles andfixtures should be in scale with thesetting while providing the desiredlevel of nighttime illumination.6. Screen Planting. Perimeterscreen planting of conifers caneffectively control the adversevisual impact of parking lots (fig. 5-32).(See Chapter 6: Planting.) inaddition, screen planting is aneffective measure to prevent snowdrifting into parking lots that arebelow surrounding grades (fig. 5-33) Screens must be set back from

Fig. 5-31.

the pavement areas so that driftswill accumulate on the borderingarea rather than on the pavement.7. Earth Berms. Earth bermscan effectively screen parking lotsfrom view along major roadways(fig. 5-34). Planted earth bermsalong the perimeter of the lotfacing the street should bedesigned relative to the 52" viewingheight, or eye level, of a motorist.Earth berm design should beappropriate to the

landscape character of the setting,i.e., it can vary from a natural,informal shape and landscapecharacter to a more formalcharacter with even height andregimented planting .

Fig. 5-32.

Fig. 5-33.

Fig. 5-34.

45

8. Overhead Canopy. Usetrees in islands to relieve visualmonotony and to provide shade inlarge parking lots.

5-5 Parking Structures.A. Feasibility.Because multi-level parking is amore intense use of land, it permitsland conservation for otherpotential uses such as buildingexpansion and avoids the adversevisual impacts of its alternative-surface parking lots. However,since construction costs of parkingstructures are typically five to sixtimes greater than surface parking,a dense land use configuration anda relative scarcity of land arenormally required to justify theirprovision.B. General Guidelines.1. Location. The siting ofmulti-level parking structures mustbe done in relation to an overallmaster plan Parking structuresshould be located close to activitiesgenerating parking requirements.In this regard, several well locatedsmaller structures are preferable toone large structure.2. Site Adaptation.a. The design of multi-levelparking structures should generallyconform to the design guidelines ofChapter 3: Buildings.b. Topography. Use existingtopography to advantage in thedesign of parking structures.Multi-level parking structures canbe accommodated on steepertopography more easily than largesurface parking lots because largegrade differences may l)enegotiated in a relatively shorthorizontal distance This can alsofacilitate dual level access (fig. 5-35).

Fig. 5-35.

c. Efficiency. An above-gradecontinuous ramp par-king structureis generally the most efficient andeconomical configuration.However, the ramped (non-horizontal) nature of the structureshould be carefully designedrelative to its appearance andrelationship to adjacent buildings(fig. 5-36).

Fig. 5-36.

Fig. 5-37.

Fig. 5-38.

3. Roof Treatment. Parkingstructure roofs should be attractivefrom common vantage points suchas adjacent buildings or roadsConsider the potential for creatingattractive and functional uses ofparking structure roofs, such asplazas atop under groundstructures (fig. 5-37), andrecreational uses such as roofgardens, playgrounds, or0 tenniscourts on pal king structure roofs(fig 5-38).

46

Chapter 6. Planting.

Most military installations containgenerous areas of indigenousnatural vegetation They haveprovided not only a pleasant settingand visual asset but also haveserved to minimize theenvironmental impact ofdevelopment while also modifying

climatic extremes in most olderinstallations, past plantingprograms for streets, installationboundaries, open space andbuildings have reached maturityand provide a characterunmatched in more recentdevelopment (figs 6-1 and 6-2)

47

Section I:

Observations and Objectives.

6-1.Typical Problems.A. Budgets.Budgets for plant materials haveoften been eliminated or reduced inrecent developments creatingstark, sparsely planted facilitysettings (fig. 6-3).B. Functional Uses.Planting design is sometimesmisconceived as a means ofproviding only decoration orornamentation, while ignoring themany functional uses.C. Maintenance.The planting design and selectionof plant materials has too oftenignored future maintenance costs.6-2.Objectives.The overall objectives of plantingare to improve the physical andpsychological well-being of peoplewho live and work on militaryinstallations. The specificobjectives of planting can be statedas:

Fig. 6-2.

A. Preserve and EnhanceExisting Landscape Resources.Existing trees, forest lands anddetail planting features areimportant resources and visualassets that should be carefullypreserved and enhanced forfunctional as well as aestheticuses.

B. Improve the Overall VisualQuality.Aesthetic and functionalapplications of appropriate plantmaterials should be properlyrecognized and employed to helpimprove the landscape character

48

of military installations. Thisobjective includes: harmoniouslyblending the built with the naturalenvironment; providing scale andcomfort to pedestrianenvironments; visually reinforcingthe hierarchy of the road network;screening unsightly views orelements; and bufferingincompatible land uses.C. Improve the EnvironmentalQuality of the Installation.Better use should be made of plantmaterials for environmental qualityand energy conservation. Plantscan be effectively used in a varietyof environmental applicationsincluding soil erosion control, airpurification, noise abatement andclimate modification.

Fig. 6-3.

D. Minimize MaintenanceRequirements.Appropriate plant selection anddetailing can minimizemaintenance requirements whileimproving the visual quality of aninstallation.

Section II:

DesignGuidelines.

6-3.Process.A design process that includesconscientious site analysis, sitedesign, plant selection and sitedetailing should be employed toachieve the desired objectives of aplanting program.A. Site Analysis.A complete site survey andanalysis of existing conditions mustbe undertaken, including aninventory of both natural and builtenvironments. Site factors offundamental concern relative toboth the retention of existing, aswell as the installation of new, plantmaterials include:1. Visual factors2. Climatic data3. Existing vegetation4. Soils5. Hydrology6. Topography/slope analysis7. Spatial analysis8. Program analysis9. Circulation patterns10. Noise factors11. Security requirements12. Maintenance requirements

B. Programming.Before a planting design is begun,development of a program isnecessary. A description of userrequirements and environmentaldesign objectives constitutes theprogram User needs,environmental problems andmaintenance capabilities should becarefully and thoroughly studied.In general, facilities in the 300,500, 600 and 700 classes, asdescribed in AR 415-28, NAVFACP-72 and AFM 300-4, Vol. 4,require some planting. The extentof the planting will vary with eachclass and with each category offacility within the class. Thefunction and prominence of thefacility should be the guiding factorin determining the scope ofplanting.C. Conceptual Design.After site analysis and programdata have been evaluated, aconceptual design can begin. Thisinvolves arranging plant materialmasses on the site to satisfy theneeds and requirementsestablished by the site analysis andprogram. Plant masses should bearranged in terms of their intendeduse relative to their forms andsizes, as opposed to specificspecies and varieties. The primaryconcern of the conceptual plantingdesign phase is to providesolutions to the functionalrequirements of the site, uponwhich preliminary costing andphasing can be developed.D. Specification of PlantMaterials.After a satisfactory conceptualdesign is developed and adequatefunding is assured, a final plantingplan should be prepared. Thisinvolves translating the desiredforms and sizes of plant massesdetermined at the conceptualphase into specific species andvarieties of plant materials. Tosuccessfully make this translation,a thorough knowledge of availableplant materials and their functionalcharacteristics is required.

49

6-4.Principles.A. Unity.Unity is the most importantrequirement of a good plantingdesign.1. One means of producingunity in planting design is toenclose an open space or frame avista. Open areas may be unifiedinto attractive landscape featuresfor a variety of uses such asathletic fields and parade grounds.Where a view beyond the openarea reveals objectionable featuresin the winter, a screen composedprimarily of evergreen material maybe used. Where the view beyondis pleasant, deciduous trees andshrubs may predominantly be usedin the landscape screen.2. In an area of buildingsotherwise characterized bymundane or incompatiblearchitecture, the colors andtextures of mature trees andshrubs tend to lessen the contrastbetween buildings, and visuallyunify the total composition of thearea (fig. 6-4).

Fig. 6-4.

3. A plant or plant mass can beeither a focal object that providesvisual delight or a support elementthat helps to reinforce or frame afocal element such as a view, apiece of sculpture or a building (fig.6-5).

Fig. 6-5.

4. Plants can play two roles inrelating a building to its setting. Ata detail level, plants can visuallyintegrate a building with its sitewhere the outdoor ground planemeets the building mass (fig. 6-6).On a larger scale, plants can serveto naturally blend a building with itsoverall site setting.B. Balance.Balance is the arrangement ofmasses (plants or groups of plants)to achieve visual equilibrium byemploying either a symmetrical orasymmetrical pattern.

Fig. 6-6.

1. Symmetrical or formal balanceexists where the same number, size andtype of plants are placed on each side ofa visual dividing line such as a walkway.While informal or natural arrangement ofplants is often desirable for overallappearance, the importance of certainareas, selected buildings or approachesto them can be emphasized by formalplanting (fig. 6-7). Formality in plantingrequires high maintenance to retain aconsistently satisfactory appearance.Plant losses are conspicuous, anddifficult and costly to replace. Informal ornaturalistic plantings soften theenvironment and, if losses occur, theyare inconspicuous and may be replacedeasily with small plants.

50

Fig. 6-7.

In planting along streets, excellentdesign results may be obtained bya combination of formal andinformal planting of trees. Plantingshould be predominantly informalwith only occasional use ofsymmetry to accent a particulararchitectural or site feature.2. Asymmetrical balance canbe achieved by using differenttypes of plants in a mass or groupwhich appear to balance. A largeshade tree may have a balancingeffect when used with a group ofsmaller ornamental trees orshrubs. Asymmetrical balance ismore difficult to create becauseseasonal changes and growth alterthe appearance of plants.However, if the plants are carefullyselected, asymmetrical balancethroughout the year is possible.Some deciduous plants, forexample, have branching patternswhich balance with other plants inthe composition even during thewinter when foliage color haschanged or disappeared.C. Contrast.Contrast is achieved by thearrangement of plants in relation toeach other in such a way thatdifferences in size, shape, textureor color are apparent.Plants can be selected andarranged to focus attention onother plants, as in the case of anevergreen hedge serving as aneffective background for flowering

shrubs. A mass of low plantsprovides a good base for anentrance sign and in this wayfocuses attention on the sign.Similarly, large trees may be usedto emphasize a building entrance(fig. 6-8) or a site feature, such asa gateway. In both cases the treescreate a more human scaledenvironment and the contrastdraws attention when seen from adistance or close-up.

Fig. 6-8.

D. Rhythm.Rhythm is achieved by a regularspacing of single plants or of plantmasses, such as a row of trees orshrubs, or the

Fig. 6-9.

repetition of similar plant groupings(fig. 6-9). Rhythm producesemphasis and unity and isespecially effective in articulatingmain routes of circulation by streettree planting. A more subtle formof rhythm on a large scale may beattained by variations in spacingand by repetition of such variationsRhythm in color, shape or size mayalso be used.

E. Color and Texture.The color and texture of plants canimprove the appearance of an areaas well as serve a functional use.Since light, shade and observerlocation affect both color andtexture, the amount of sunlightfalling on colorful plants should beconsidered in their location. Plantshaving a distinctive texture will lookdifferently depending upon whether

they are seen with back or frontlighting or from a distance or close-up. Plant surfaces may range fromglossy to dull and this also affectstheir appearance.1. Colors are classified in twobasic emotional categories: warmcolors (red, orange, yellow) whichare stimulating, and cool colors(violet, blue, green) which arecalming. Color can producecontrast, such as flowering shrubswith an evergreen background.Sharp contrasts should usually beavoided. Large masses of a singlecolor of foliage or blossom aregenerally more satisfying than aheterogeneous mixture of severalcolors. "One of each kind" is adesign style to avoid. Care shouldbe exercised to pick colors whichare harmonious when seentogether. Many deciduous plantmaterials found in most parts of thecountry provide a variety of fallfoliage coloration.

51

TEXTUREFig. 6-10.

Some evergreens such as hollyproduce good fall and winter colorwith their berries.2. Texture in plant materialscan be coarse or fine (fig. 6-10). Aplant will have a different texturedepending upon the distance fromwhich it is viewed and itsrelationship to surroundingmaterials. A planting screen whichis intended to serve as a securitymeasure can be very effective if itis composed of rough, thornyplants.F. Simplicity.Layout plans should be broad andsimple in form so that excessivemaintenance will not be required.Shrub beds should be simple inshape when they are bordered byturf requiring mowing. Isolatedgeometrically shaped beds ofshrubs or ground covers makemowing of turf costly and detractfrom an orderly appearance. Largepower mowing equipment cannotoperate efficiently in areascluttered with isolated plantings.

Hand trimming or the use of smallmowers can be very costly inmanpower. Lawn areas aresimpler to mow if trees are plantedin shrub beds or ground coverareas. Small hard-to-mow turfareas should be avoided bysubstituting ground covers orshrubs that require lessmaintenance.G. Ultimate Effect.Planting should be as permanentas possible. In the choice of plantsand their arrangement, the ultimateeffect must be kept constantly inmind. The overall plan shouldindicate the plants at approximatelytwo thirds (2/3) of their ultimatesize which will assist in providingthe correct spacing. Short-livedplants which grow quickly shouldbe used only where an immediateeffect is essential or where, in thecourse of time, they may beremoved as the space they occupyis filled by growth of the morepermanent plants. Tall growingplants should usually not beplanted under windows. Forexample, evergreens, which areforest trees in their native habitat,would either cut off light, air, andviews from the windows or theywould have to be sheared atfrequent intervals. Planting in the

vicinity of traffic intersections mustbe of a low-growing or high-branching variety so as not to blockvision from passing vehicles. It isbetter to choose trees and shrubsin smaller sizes and wait somewhatlonger for the desired effects thanit is to compromise by substitutinginappropriate species. However,the use of a few large trees asaccents will help create an earlyeffect of permanence.H. Spatial Articulation.Plants can be used to createenclosed spaces and to separatespaces one from another (fig. 6-11). They can also be used todirect people through outdoorspaces by visually defining andreinforcing patterns of movement(fig. 6-12). The degree ofenclosure, separation, ormovement depends to a large

Fig. 6-11.

Fig. 6-12.

extent upon the density, form andtype of plants used. Deciduousplants vary with the season,whereas evergreens do not.

52

1. Screen planting, implyingthat something is to be concealedfrom view, is achieved by the useof plants with dense, abundantfoliage. Planting requires moreroom than a fence or wall to beeffective for screening purposes,and requires more maintenance.Thus, where area limitationsprohibit use of plants, a fence orwall softened in appearance withvines or a few shrubs may be amore effective and economicalsolution.

Fig. 6-13.

2. Plant materials to be used asbuffers may be comprised of lawnareas; shade trees planted ingroups; and combinations of shadetrees, flowering trees and broad-leafed evergreen shrubs (fig. 6-13).3. The use of street trees isone of the most effective means tovisually soften, complement anddefine the road hierarchy. Treesprovide shade and improve theoverall visual quality of theinstallation. A systematic designapproach should be employed toestablish a coordinated street treeplanting plan for the entireinstallation.6-5.Attributes.A. Aesthetic Values.Plantings made for utilitarianpurposes, such as screeningservice areas or shading hotpavements, will simultaneously

improve the attractiveness andenhance the livability of an area.Variety is introduced, vistas may becreated and bareness relieved. Adesirable effect of planting is tocause apparent reduction in thescale of structures. Theoppressive feeling of monumentalscale is relieved by proper planting.Building groups may be

Fig. 6-14.

separated visually into severalpleasant framed units, andindividual buildings within a groupmay be enhanced. The use ofshrubs and small trees arranged instrategic groups around a buildingoften improves the appearance bysoftening structural lines. This alsohelps in integrating the buildingwith its site and diverting attentionfrom unattractive structuralfeatures. Vines on large, blankmasonry walls can be pleasant butshould not be used where injury tothe structure may result.B. Wildlife Conservation.Plant materials are supportive ofwildlife and encourage the numberand variety of animal species.

C. Environmental Controls.

1. Energy Conservation.Skillful utilization of plants cansignificantly increase the energyefficiency of buildings. Air

conditioning requirements for mostbuildings result from solar energyabsorbed by building surfaces. Bysimply shading those portions ofthe building receiving the most sun,cooling requirements can besignificantly reduced (fig. 6-14).During summer months, trees canprovide shade and thus reducecooling requirements; during winter

months, the bare branches ofdeciduous trees allow sunlight toreach exterior surfaces and thushelp heat the building. (SeeParagraph 3-4: Adapt Buildings toNatural Site Conditions, for athorough discussion of climaticdesign considerations.)

Fig. 6-15.

2. Reduction of Noise.Dense foliage is of some use inabsorbing and deadening noise(fig. 6-15). In such locations asopen spaces between familyhousing areas and main traffic

53

arteries, deep belts of planting mayprove beneficial in reducing trafficnoise. Sounds caused by breezesrustling through the leaves andbranches can also maskundesirable noise.3. Wind Control. Wind is aclimatic factor that can be eitherpleasant or unpleasant dependingupon air temperatures, relativehumidity and air velocities. Plantscan be used as a wind controldevice by breaking, guiding,deflecting or filtering the wind (fig.6-16). To properly design for windcontrol using plant materials abasic

Fig. 6-16.

knowledge of air dynamics isnecessary. Information about thedirections of prevailing winds andtheir average speeds for differentseasons of the year is, alsonecessary.a. When plants are used as awind barrier, wind can generally beaffected for a distance of 2 to 5times the height of the barrier tothe windward side and 10 to 15times the height of the barrier tothe leeward side (fig. 6-17).

Fig. 6-17.

b. Plants tend to be betterscreens than fences or walls forwindbreaks because they permitsome degree of wind penetration.The distance of wind control on theleeward side is increased becauseless turbulence is created. The mosteffective density is a screen of about60% (fig. 6-18).

Fig. 6-18.

c. The depth of a shelter belt, orwind screen, has no real effect onthe amount of wind protectionprovided; the primary factorsproviding effectiveness are theheight and density of the plants (fig.6-19).d. Irregular forms tend to providea more effective windbreak thanevenly spaced plants. A variety ofplant species and sizes alsoprovides a better windbreak thanFig. 6-19.

one made up of one species (fig. 6-20).e. Evergreen plants that branch tothe ground are the most effectivewindbreaks year around. Deciduoustrees and shrubs are effective only inthe summer (fig. 6-21).f. Wind velocities will be increased ifpermitted to penetrate under a highcanopied tree. A gap in a windbreak willalso tend to create stronger winds byfunneling the air through the gap (fig. 6-22).g. Snow drifting may be controlledby a series of plant barriers whichincrease and decrease wind velocities.This can be accomplished by sweepingan area of snow with strong winds anddepositing it where wind velocitydecreases (fig. 6-23).4. Temperature Modification.Vegetation reduces the ambient airtemperature by the cooling effect oftranspiration (evaporation) of waterthrough the leaves and also by shadingthe ground. Natural vegetation coveringthe ground tends to stabilizetemperature, decreasing extremes,whereas paved surfaces usually tend toincrease temperatures. Shade treesare important for comfort practicallyeverywhere in the United States. In allareas except genuinely subtropical andtropical areas,

Fig. 6-21.

Fig 6-20. Fig 6-22.

54

Fig. 6-23.

trees are best for this purposesince they furnish shade onlyduring the summer and permit sunto come through in winter. Shadein parking areas is desirablethrough the use of large growingtrees spaced about 40 to 50 feetapart. However, certain kinds oftrees exude gummy substances orattract insects and should beavoided.5. Glare and ReflectionReduction. Glare and reflectionresulting from man-made materialsfound in the environment causevisual discomfort. Plants caneffectively soften glare andreflection while adding to theaesthetic quality of an area. Thedegree of effectiveness with whichplants can do this depends upontheir height, density and location(fig. 6-24).

Fig. 6-24.6. Erosion and Dust Control.a. Water is the most significanteroding agent of soil. The twobasic types of water erosion are

caused by splash and runoff.Splash erosion is best controlledby ground covers and deciduousplants when in leaf. Runoff orsheet erosion is best controlled bygrasses and plants with veryfibrous root systems (fig. 6-25).b. Plants can help to controldust by creating a barrier or bystabilizing soil which is bare ofvegetation. Twiggy, densebranching plants are effective aswind barriers. Ground covers,grasses and plants with fibrousroot systems are most effective assoil stabilizers (fig 6-26) (See TM5-830-2/AFM 88-17, Chapter 2 andTM5-830-3/AFM88-17, Chapter3,for specific guidance on plantingturf and dust control.)

Fig. 6-25.

Fig. 6-26.

6-6.Design Considerations.A. Preservation.For the general enhancement ofdeveloped areas, as much of theexisting vegetation should besaved as is reasonably possible.1. With high cost of extensiveplanting operations to restorecleared areas, often the total costof complete clearing cannot bejustified. In every case, the cost ofreplacing existing vegetationshould be weighed against the costof any special measures whichmust be taken for preservation, butthe best decision cannot bereached by balancing costs alone.2. Also to be considered is thetime required to re-establish

55

equivalent plant growth. Thisanalysis may justify saving existingvegetation even if it proves to bemore costly initially. Whereimmediate control of dust orerosion is of prime importance,such a conclusion may be easy toreach. The reduction of clearingand grading operations to aminimum contributes much toconservation and environmentalprotection, and lowers constructioncost.3. Fast-growing trees regardedas weed types may comprise thepredominant native vegetation incertain areas. Such trees aresometimes worthy of preservationuntil new ornamental plantingshave matured and the weed treescan be removed.4. During site construction,minor variations in road and walkdesign layout should be made toavoid the destruction of or damageto important vegetation.B. Maintenance.Maintenance and its resultant costsmay be kept to a minimum bycoordinated planning. Designfactors which are basic toeconomical grounds maintenance,and which should be considered inthe early design stages of aproject, are described below.1. Drainage. Good drainage ofsurface and subsoil is necessarynot only for the successful growthof nearly all plants but also as anerosion-control measure.Subsurface drains should beinstalled when necessary to correctconditions of excessive soilsaturation. An alternate tosubsurface drains, in some cases,is to select plant materials tolerantto wet conditions. Good surfacerunoff of planted areas will beassured by proper grading. SeeTM 5830-4; NAVFAC P905; andAFM 88-17, Chapter 4.

2. Grading. Steep slopes, ifplanted in grass or other vegetativecover, are difficult and expensive tomow and maintain and are subjectto erosion Good grading designcan often reduce the need forsteep slopes. Grass slopes shouldnot normally exceed a 3: 1 grade,with top and bottom rounded, toprevent erosion and facilitatemowing. Steeper slopes should berip-rapped or planted with groundcover and/or other plants. Gradingin the vicinity of existing

Fig. 6-27.

trees to be retained should beavoided. Fill on and/or compactionof the soil within the foliage dripline will eventually kill the tree.3. Detail Plating. Flower bedsand sheared hedges require agreat deal of costly maintenanceand should be used sparingly inselected locations. Where flowerbeds and sheared hedges areappropriate, restraint in design isessential to their effectiveness andupkeep. Street trees should belocated between the sidewalk andbuildings, leaving the strip betweenthe sidewalk and curb free forinstalling and servicingunderground utilities.

C. Plant Selection.Trees, shrubs, ground covers,vines and turf comprise the paletteof elements in plantingcompositions (fig. 6-27). Thevarieties selected should be as fewas possible to satisfy therequirements and objectives of thedesign. By limiting the varieties ofplants, rather than cluttering thedesign with a planting mixture,clashing colors and forms are lesslikely to occur, and a unifiedcomposition will be created.

Repetition with occasional contrastcontributes to a successful plantingdesign. In selecting plants for agiven project, it is helpful toremember their growthcharacteristics. Thesecharacteristics are documented inlandscape architecture literatureand are available through librariesand government publications,some of which are listed inAppendix B. Only those plantscapable of thriving with lowmaintenance under actual siteconditions and which are able toproduce the desired effect shouldbe chosen. A guide to theselection of plants that can be usedwith confidence may be gained byan investigation of plants growingat the project site and also at theoldest parks and cemeteries in thesame general vicinity.

56

Species of plants, whether nativeor naturalized, found thriving underadverse conditions are likely to besuccessful with minimummaintenance. The ecologicalassociation of plants is anadditional factor to be consideredwhen selecting plants since, innature, plants grow in groupsrequiring similar soil and climaticconditions. Other important factorsin the selection of plants arehardiness to temperatureextremes, requirements in terms ofsoil fertility, ability to survive in verywet or dry soil conditions, thedegree of tolerance to wind or saltair, ability to be transplanted andresistance to insects and diseases.Recommendations on the choiceof plants which are tolerant ofspecific site conditions can beobtained from the AgriculturalExtension Service; Soil and WaterConservation District; or fromFederal, State, County, and Citypark and forest agencies.1. Trees and Shrubs. Toassure maximum effectivenesswith the lowest maintenance,emphasis should be placed on theuse of trees instead of theextensive use of shrubs. Properlyselected trees will ultimately beless expensive to maintain thanshrubs and they are more effectivefor environmental control. Clean,simple but effective plantingdesigns can be achieved with treesand lawns and the judicious use ofshrubs.2. Evergreen and Deciduous.Deciduous trees offer a widevariety of effects because ofseasonal changes, flowers,berries, fruit, and color and textureof bark. Evergreen trees andshrubs are advantageous, ifadaptable to the area, because

they provide green color andcontrasting background whendeciduous plants are leafless. Insouthern states a wide variety ofevergreen shrubs is readilyavailable for use, but in morenortherly areas the selection maybe limited or costly. Where thelatter is true, deciduous shrubsmay be used for the greater part ofthe planting, introducing evergreenplants only at focal points inconjunction with important featuresand structures. In many areas ofthe country deciduous trees arevery desirable since during coolmonths they permit a maximumamount of sunlight to penetrate.3. Vines. The use andselection of vines must be verycarefully done Many vines climb bymeans of tendrils and disks or root-like hold-fasts which can damagewood or masonry wallsMaintenance and repair work canbe difficult and costly if vines mustfirst be removed Generally, vinesshould be restricted to arbors,trellises and structures other thanbuildings

57

Chapter 7. Plazas and Courtyards.

Outdoor pedestrian-orientedspaces are often desirable in highemployment and dense residentialareas. When these spaces areenclosed or partially enclosed bybuildings and are enhanced withappropriate landscaped featureswhile being separated from traffic,parking and other distractions, they

can provide an attractive andrelaxing contrast to activities andfacilities around them. A plaza canserve as an entrance space to animportant group of buildings. Acourtyard in an office complex canprovide pleasant views from theinteriors of the surroundingbuildings as well as a place for

lunchtime relaxation. In aresidential area, courtyards canprovide a space for informalgatherings and active recreation.For convenience, the term "plaza"will be used throughout this sectionto include both plazas andcourtyards.

59

Section I:

Observations and Objectives.

7-1.Typical Problems.A. Location and Function.In the past there has been ageneral lack of plaza facilitieswithin installations, a fact that mayexpress an oversight in consideringuser needs. In many cases, eitheran existing plaza or the opportunityto create a plaza has been usurpedby the insatiable demands ofparking, destroying the originaldesign intent and attractiveness ofthe facility. Many existing plazasare uninviting to active usebecause of their scale, use of plantmaterials or lack of considerationfor climatic conditions (fig. 7-1).

Fig. 7-1.

Fig. 7-2.

B. Materials and Details.The materials and detailing ofplazas often reflect improperconsideration for maintenance,wear and climate factors.7-2.Objectives.A. Locate Plazas in Responseto user Requirements.Exterior spaces provide desirablespatial experiences relating interiorbuilding spaces to the exteriorcirculation and open spacesystems of an installation.A range of functions from passivevisual enjoyment to activerecreation can be appropriatelyprovided by plazas.B. Design Plazas Appropriateto their SettingThe design of plazas andcourtyards should vary inaccordance with their architectural

setting and climatic conditions as wellas intended use. The medieval Italianpiazzas, so fondly imitated by urbandesigners, can be extremelyinhospitable and inappropriate in coldnorthern climates. Properly designedplazas and courtyards should relateharmoniously with the architecturaland natural site character of theirsurroundings, and moderate climaticextremes.C. Reduce Maintenance.The materials, details and sitefurnishings utilized should minimizerequired maintenance whilereinforcing the architectural characterand site design concept of adjacentbuildings. Grass and trees areappropriate in passive areas with lightusage, and can be used to provideshade and reduce sun glare andtemperature extremes. In high useareas with heavy pedestrian traffic,paving, tree grates and ground coversare appropriate to reducemaintenance and wear (fig. 7-2).

60

Section II:

DesignGuidelines.

7-3.Potential Uses of Plazas.Establish plazas in response touser requirements. Possiblefunctions include:A. Entranceway.A plaza may function as a formalentrance space to a building orgroup of buildings. As an entrancespace, the plaza shouldaccommodate and directpedestrian traffic to the building(fig.7-3).

fig. 7-3.

fig. 7-4.B. Social Setting.A plaza may provide anatmosphere for relaxation andprovide opportunities for people tomingle, gather for lunch, or simplyenjoy conversation (fig. 7-4).

fig. 7-5.C. Recreational Area.Plazas may provide and encourageopportunities for both passive andactive recreation(fig. 7-5).D. Visual Delight.Plazas can offer pleasant viewsand visual relief for visitors andoccupants of a building (fig. 7-6).

fig. 7-6.E. Multifunctional Facility.Most often plazas serve severalfunctions but have one primaryuse.

7-4.Site Design Consideration.A. Site Feasibility.Consider user needs and potentialvolume of pedestrian activity as themajor factors affecting projectfeasibility. The amount of potentialpedestrian activity will determine toa large extent the design andmaintenance requirements of aplaza.B. Site Setting.Plazas should be designedappropriately to their setting. A

thorough site analysis should beconducted prior to design andinclude the following:

fig. 7-7.1. Spatial Analysis. In manyinstances on military installations,locations for plaza developmentare already spatially defined byexisting structures. In otherinstances, there is little or noexisting definition. The desireddegree of spatial definition as wellas the character of the spaceshould be determined initially (fig.7-7).2. Topography. Plaza designshould incorporate existingtopographic relief into its formwhere possible to add visualinterest, preserve existingvegetation, and minimize cut andfill costs.3. Micro-climate. Microclimateevaluation is an important factor indetermining human comfort withinproposed plazas. Wind intensityand direction, sun angle, durationof direct sun, average monthlytemperatures, and seasonalprecipitation for a proposed siteshould be evaluated during the siteanalysis stage of the designprocess.4. Circulation. Existing andproposed circulation patterns,including pedestrian, vehicular

61

fig. 7-8.and service traffic should bedetermined initially. Circulationpatterns should be a major factorin the plaza design (fig. 7-8).5. Views. Views, both to theproposed plaza from surroundingstrategic viewing positions andlooking from the proposed site,should be considered in

fig. 7-9.

fig. 7-10.terms of the potential role in thefinal plaza design (fig. 7-9).C. Spatial Organization.The manipulation of space is amajor design tool in the formulationof a plaza. To successfullyorganize and alter a space relativeto its surrounding environment,several elements of spatialorganization must be considered,including:

1. Building/SpaceRelationship. Plaza developmentshould occur in conjunction withexisting and/or proposed buildingswhich contain or partially define aplaza space. The buildings andthe space should relate in afunctional and visually compatiblemanner. The design of the plazaspace must be integrated withadjacent buildings through the useof compatible scale and form (fig.7-10).2. Scale. The spatialrelationship between plaza andbuildings is the primarydeterminant of its scale, which canvary from a small intimate space toa large monumental space. Thefollowing ratios of building height toplaza width serve as guidelines forestablishing a spatial definition at ascale and character that isappropriate for its intended use(fig. 7-11).

fig. 7-11.a. To establish a visual senseof enclosure, the ratio of length ofplaza to height of building shouldnot exceed 1: 1.b. To maintain a visual senseof space, the ratio should notexceed 2: 1.c. To maintain a visual senseof place, the ratio should notexceed 3:1.

fig. 7-12.

3. Orientation. The orientationof the plaza should be determinedinitially. A plaza may focusprimarily inward or outward. Aninwardly focused plaza creates asense of visual containment, whilean outwardly focused plaza directsor frames views beyond the plaza(fig. 7-12). The functionalrequirements of the space willoften determine its orientation.

fig. 7-13.4. Spatial Articulation.The volumetric definition of a plazaspace to reinforce its intendedfunction is termed spatialarticulation. This may beaccomplished through carefuldesign of the ground plane (paving,ground cover), middle plane (walls,trees, shrubs), and overhead plane(tree canopy, trellis) as well as inchanges of level across the plazaspace (fig. 7-13).7-5.Materials and Details.Use appropriate materials, detailsand furnishings to create anappropriate plaza character, toreinforce its spatial and functionaldesign concepts, to relate itcompatibly with adjacent buildingsand to minimize maintenancerequirements.A. Paving.1. Refer to Chapter 8:Walkways, for a discussion ofpaving surfaces.

62

fig. 7-14.2. Use a change in pavingmaterials to indicate a distinctseparation between pedestrian andvehicular traffic areas (fig. 7-14).3. Choose surface materials fordurability, visual accent,compatibility, scale and form.4. Paving in high-use publicplaces should provide hard, dry,non-slippery surfaces that cancarry pedestrian traffic andoccasional maintenance andemergency vehicular traffic.5. Use paving materials toprovide a sense of direction - forexample, marking a path through aplaza. In this case, either thesame material could be varied inpattern to delineate the pathway, ora change of material might beused. If another material ischosen, it should be compatiblewith the

fig. 7-15.

background and not provide toosharp a contrast (fig. 7-15).6. Use paving materials toprovide a warning - for example, toindicate a change in level or apedestrian path crossing avehicular path. Demarcations thatare integrated into the plazapaving, rather than a sign, aremost effective (fig. 7-16).7. Use paving to provide ascale reference. Usually smaller-scale paving indicates a morepersonable domain, and larger-scale a more public domain.8. Use paving materials todefine and reinforce the characterof distinct areas within a plaza - forexample, to set off small informalseating areas from large publicgathering areas in terms of thepaving pattern and delineation.

Fig. 7-16.9. In a hot climate, minimize

paving to reduce reflectedsolar radiation and airtemperatures; planting areasshould predominate overpaved areas to facilitate shadeand air cooling.

10. Carefully detail the edges of

paved areas:a. For paving against buildingsconsider drainage slope away fromthe building and compatibility ofmaterials.b. For paving against grassareas consider mowingrequirements.c. For paving against curbs andother hard surfaces consider snowremoval and drainage.E. Plant Materials.Use plant materials in plazas todefine spaces, modify climate, andprovide scale and aestheticelements. A variety of plantmaterials can be used. Deciduoustrees are ideal in some regionsbecause they provide shade duringhot summer weather and permitwarm sunlight to penetrate thespace during cooler months (fig. 7-17). (See Chapter 6: Planting.)C. Water Features.Pools and fountains can provide adesirable aesthetic and functionalelement to a plaza design (fig. 7-18).

Fig. 7-17.

fig 7-17.

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fig. 7-18.1. Use basins, pools, andfountains to provide visual relief inareas set aside for socialization orrecreation, or to provide a visualfocal point in more formal plazadesigns.2. Use water features to temperthe micro-climate of plazas. Watergenerally has a cooling effect andcan be used to relieve excessiveheat and dryness, especially in hotarid climates.3. Fountains and cascadingwater features can provide not onlyan element of visual delight butalso auditory relief in plazas. Thesounds of these water features arevery attractive and restful in theireffect on people.4. Although fountains areappropriate in diverse climates,their maintenance considerationsvary. For example, in northernclimates, fountains and poolsshould be designed to facilitatedrainage during cold wintermonths, so that ice will not crackmasonry, conduit pipes or sprayfountain apparatus.

fig. 7-19.D. Drainage.In the development of plazas,water runoff is usually increasedbecause the amount of paved areais increased. This runoff must behandled by an adequate stormdrainage system.1. Drainage systems should beincorporated into paving patternsand details (fig. 7-19).2. Drainage can provide waterto plant materials through the useof tree grates or porous pavementtreatments (fig. 7-20).

fig. 7-20.

E. Steps and Ramps.Steps and ramps are importantdesign elements used in makingtransitions between different plazalevels. Design guidelines on stepsand ramps are covered in Chapter8: Walkways. It should bestressed that steps and rampsshould be designed for maximumconvenience and comfort relativeto plaza function and visualconsiderations (fig. 7-21).Furthermore, adequate provisionsfor the handicapped must beprovided.F. Lighting.Lighting is an important element inthe design of plazas. It canprovide general illumination,accent, or mood, depending on thedesired intensity and color renditioncharacteristics of the light source.Lighting standards themselves arealso important elements inproviding scale, defining space andadding visual interest to the designof plazas (fig. 7-22). The elementsof lighting design are covered inChapter 11: Lighting.G. Benches and Beating.Benches are important functionalcomponents of plaza design. Theycan also act as sculpturalelements. They may be individualelements or incorporated into thedesign of planters and walls.Those with backs are generallymore comfortable. Fountain orplanter walls can also

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fig. 7-21.

serve as plaza seating surfaces (fig. 7-23). Designguidelines for benches and seating are found in Chapter12: Site Furnishings.

H. Provisions for the Handicapped.Refer to Chapter 8: Walkways, and Chapter 12: SiteFurnishings.

fig. 7-22.

fig. 7-23.

65

Chapter 8: Walkways.

Pedestrian-oriented site planningand design can contribute much tothe convenience, comfort andenjoyment of daily activities. Inaddition, energy conservationnecessitates reduced dependenceon the automobile andencouragement of pedestrian andother energy-efficient alternatives.

67

Section I:

Observations and Objectives.

8-1.Typical Problems.A. Network.Visitors, employees and residentsof military installations are heavilydependent upon the automobile, inpart due to dispersed locations ofrelated facilities and the lack ofalternative circulation systems atmany military installations.Pedestrian facilities are generallylimited to sidewalks which oftenshow little consideration ofpedestrian generators, volumesand desire lines of travel, or thespecial needs of handicappedpersons (fig. 8-1).B. Pedestrial/VehicularSeparation.Separation of pedestrian andvehicular circulation networks isoften neglected. In many cases,

fig. 8-2.the pedestrian network isdiscontinuous, forcing pedestriansto use roadways or to createfootworn paths, a situationespecially hazardous to children

C. Amenities.Pedestrian facilities are oftenlacking in amenities and elementsof visual interest. Instead they aregenerally located within anautomobile-dominatedenvironment which is neitherpleasant, safe and delightful norconducive to encouragingpedestrian travel (fig. 8-3).

fig. 8-3.

8-2.Objectives.A. Provide Safe and SecurePedestrian Circulation Facilities.The primary hazard to pedestriansis the moving vehicle. With noprotection, the pedestrian isextremely vulnerable to injury.

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Other safety hazards are the threatof assault in dark, unobservedlocations and unseen obstaclesalong or in the path of travel. Thedesign of the pedestrian systemshould minimize all of thesehazards.B. Provide PedestrianFacilities in Response toPotential Demand.Attractions and generators ofpedestrian movement should belinked by a logical network. Newpedestrian facilities can result inincreased pedestrian activity ifthere is a valid potential demand.C. Create a PleasantPedestrian-Scaled Environmentwith Elements of Visual Delight.Pedestrian facilities should takemaximum advantage of areas ofvisual enjoyment and be separatedfrom the inhospitable influencescreated by automobiles and trucks.D. Facilitate Movement andAccess to Facilities by theHandicapped.With proper sensitivity andconsideration early in the designprocess, pedestrian circulationfacilities may be designed toaccommodate all persons. Themodification of existing facilities foruse by the handicapped is oftenmore difficult but can beaccomplished (See DOD 4270 1Mfor specific guidance Navypersonnel are to follow the specificguidance in DM-1 Series)

Section II:

Design Guidelines.

8-3.Principles of PedestrianWalkway Design.A. pedestrian walkway systemshould have five essentialcharacteristics: A Continuity. Thebasic walkway system shouldprovide a continuous, unbrokencirculation network. The networkshould be complete, clear andlegible for pedestrians to reachtheir destination, whether thepathway is curved or straight (fig.8-4).

fig. 8-4.B. Safety.Walkways should provide safe,short crossings of roadways.Walkways should also be free ofobstructions that would pose safetyhazards. Walkways in locationsaway from streets should belighted and integrated into the areadevelopment plan to enable

visual surveillance of the path (fig.8-5). The horizontal alignment ofwalkways should usually follow thenatural topography. Steps alongthe pathway should be avoided ifpossible.

fig. 8-5.

fig. 8-6.C. Comfort.Comfortable walking surfaces mustbe smooth, dry and level. Theymust have adequate width tohandle the expected type andvolume of traffic. Steep inclinesshould be avoided unless steps orramps are used. Protection fromhot sun, cold winds and rain isdesirable and can be provided byeither plant materials or structures.Separation from vehicular traffic,areas of toxic or noxious fumesand loud or abrasive noise isessential for pedestrian comfort aswell as health and safety.Intermittent comfort features suchas benches and drinking fountainsfurther promote pedestrian comfort(fig. 8-6).

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fig. 8-7.D. Convenience Walking is apreferred means of transportationwhen destinations are close, whenrelaxation and exercise aredesired, and when energyconservation is being promoted.Generators of pedestrian trafficshould be conveniently linkedtogether by an overall pedestriannetwork, designed within theparameters of maximum walkingdistances. By accommodatinguser needs, pedestrian travel canbecome a convenient alternative tothe automobile. Walkways toshopping and work locationsshould be as short and direct aspossible while recreation-orientedpaths should be more indirect butscenic (fig. 8-7).E. Delight.Pathways can provide unexpectedvistas, new discoveries and visualexperiences that are more variedand exciting than those provided byautomobile travel. The pedestriancirculation system should bedesigned to provide visual delightto encourage pedestrian use andenjoyment of the network.

fig. 8-8.

8-4.Designing Walkways.A. Site Design Surveys.There are two basic studiesnecessary to establish theframework within which an overallpedestrian walkway system can bedesigned:

fig. 8-9.

fig. 8-10.

1. Origin-Destination Survey.The origin-destination surveyidentifies the location of primaryand secondary generators ofpedestrian traffic. Primarygenerators generally are residentialareas, parking facilities, transitterminals and similar facilities.Secondary generators aregenerally areas or facilities whichare destination points primarilyaccessible by walking, such asathletic fields.Other information identified by thissurvey includes pedestrianvolumes between differentfacilities, walking distancesbetween all major pedestriandestinations, and identification ofroutes which carry the largestamount of daily travel (fig. 8-8).

2. Safety study. The safetystudy identifies actual and potentialpedestrian-vehicle conflicts. Thesestudies provide the basis fordetermining necessary pedestrian-vehicular network separations andpedestrian-vehicular coordinationthrough various signalization andsigning techniques.fig. 8-11

fig. 8-11.

fig. 8-12.

B. Walkway NetworkHierarchy.The pedestrian walkway systemshould be designed as ahierarchical network that providesdifferent levels of use andconvenience based upon thevolume of pedestrian traffic and trippurpose. The origin-destinationsurvey provides the basic data todesign the network hierarchy. Thedesign of each segment of thewalkway should reflect its rolewithin the overall network plan.1. Primary Walkway. Thiswalkway classification is for thosesegments of the network that carrythe highest volumes of pedestriantraffic between major activitycenters or traffic generators.Primary walkways are generallycharacterized by: hard surfacepaving; high lighting levels,

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depending upon location; a highlevel of pedestrian amenities,including benches and waterfountains; and refinement oflandscape features along thewalkway (fig. 8-9).2. Secondary Walkway.This walkway classification is formoderate volume segments of thenetwork that provide a directinterconnection between activitycenters. Secondary walkways aregenerally characterized by: hardsurface paving; lower lightinglevels; fewer amenities, such asseating and drinking fountains; andquality landscape features alongthe walkway. The majority ofwalkways within installations wouldfall into this category (fig. 8-10).3. Tertiary or RecreationalPaths. This walkway classificationis for infrequently used walkwaysegments such as recreationalpaths. These walkways generallytend to be less direct but morescenic in character. Tertiarywalkways are generallycharacterized by: hard surface orsoft surface paving, such as woodchips; low illumination levels, if any;and a natural landscape characteralong the pathway (fig. 8-11).4. Troop Movement Paths.Installations with training facilitiesrequire special walkways for troopsmarching in formation betweenclassrooms, barracks/dining hallfacilities and parade grounds.These walkways should be hardsurface and of adequate width toaccommodate personnel walkingfour abreast (fig. 8-12).C. Walkway Locations.Often the combination ofpedestrian and vehicle traffic onone right-of-way is detrimental toboth users. The tempo andphysical environment of these twoforms of movement are generallyincompatible and require somedegree of separation.

1. Parallel to Street. Walkwaylocations parallel to the street canbe acceptable, depending upon thevolume of vehicular and pedestriantraffic and the adequacy of thestreet right-of-way width to providesome degree of separation (fig. 8-13).

fig. 8-13.

fig. 8-14.a. Planted buffer strips shouldseparate walkways from majorroadways (fig. 8-14).b. Improved walkways andpedestrian-vehicular separationcan sometimes be accomplishedby transforming unsafe parallelparking lanes into planted bufferstrips that can accommodate widersidewalks and the provision ofpedestrian amenities such asbenches or bus stops.c. Walkways on both sides ofthe street may not be necessary ifpedestrian and vehicular traffic islow, especially in lower densityresidential areas. The test of needis its anticipated use and its rolewithin the overall pedestriannetwork.

fig. 8-15.2. Interior to the Site.Pedestrian walkways are oftenbest provided within the interior ofa development site (fig. 8-15).This creates a pedestriancirculation system that is separatedfrom vehicular traffic and thatpromotes increased utilization of asingle walkway by serving existingbuildings on both sides

fig. 8-16.without the disadvantages ofunsafe street crossings, trafficnoise, fumes or splashing. Safetyfrom assault must be consideredwhen the pedestrian is removed toa less active area. Lighting levelsmust be appropriately provided.3. Arcades. Pedestrianarcades along buildings encouragewalkway use and comfort,especially in certain climates (fig.8-16). Arcades provide protective

71

cover from hot summer sun andinclement weather conditionswhich otherwise would tend to be astrong deterrent to walking.Wherever possible pedestrianwalkway arcades should beincorporated into building designsin major activity centers as part ofthe overall pedestrian walkwaysystem.4. Grade SeparatedWalkways. Wherever possibleand practical, high-use pedestrianwalkways that cross major roadsshould be grade separated fromthe vehicular circulation system toprovide safety and convenience toboth pedestrians and motorists.Grade separation can beaccomplished by either overpassesor underpasses.

fig. 8-17.a. Overpasses. Pedestrianoverpasses are generally the bestmeans of grade separation and arebest accomplished when thepedestrian network can bemaintained relatively level withoutthe need to climb stairs to crossthe road. Their suitability dependslargely on topographic conditionsand the ability to depress theelevation of roads where they areto be crossed by the walkwaystructure (fig. 8-17).Another form of pedestrianoverpass is the second levelwalkway; this may have someapplication in densely developedareas where buildings across thestreet from each other can beconnected by a second level bridge

if the pedestrian traffic demandsbetween the two justify such aneed (fig. 8-18).

fig. 8-18.b. Underpasses. Pedestrianunderpasses are the second basicmeans of pedestrian-vehiculargrade separation. To be effectivelyused, such facilities should berelatively short, wide, wellventilated and lighted and not entailextensive stair climbing (fig. 8-19).8-6.Elements of the PedestrianNetwork.A. Sidewalks.1. Width. Provide adequatesidewalk widths to handle theanticipated type and volume ofpedestrian traffic. In general, a

fig. 8-19.

minimum width of 4’ - 0" is requiredfor sidewalks (See DOD 4270 IMNAVFAC DM-5 Series, and AFM88-7, Chapter 5 )2. Paving. Surfaces which aresafe for all pedestrians, including

the handicapped, are stable, firm,and even, but have a non-skidsurface and a minimum number ofexpansion and contraction joints.Surfaces can be categorized intothree basic types.a. Hard Surfaces. Asphalt,concrete, tile and brick laid inconcrete are firm and regularsurfaces well suited for walking,wheelchairs and baby carriages.Joints are filled and less than one-half inch wide. Ice and snowremoval from these surfaces iseasiest and may be performedwithout damage to the surface.Installation costs are high butmaintenance costs are low.Concrete is especially well-suitedfor sidewalks because of its longeconomic life.b. Variable Surfaces.Cobblestones, flagstone, exposedaggregate, brick laid in sand, wooddecking and wood pavers laid insand are irregular surfaces withwide joints which make wheelchairand baby carriage movementdifficult (fig. 8-20). Ice and snowremoval is difficult and maydamage the surface. Thesesurfaces are characterized bymoderate to high installation costsand moderate maintenancerequirements.c. Soft Surfaces. Theseinclude earth, grass, and bark;their irregular and soft surfacesmake walking difficult, especiallyfor handicapped people, are moresusceptible to erosion, requiremore maintenance, but are lesscostly to install. Gravel, pebbled,and soil cement surfaces are otherirregular but harder surfaces thatare less susceptible to erosion andeasier to maintain.

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fig. 8-20.3. Gradients. Walkways with aslope gradient equal to or less than3% are preferred. Any walkwaywith a slope greater than 4.2% (1:24) should be designated as aramp. Sustained walkway gradesgreater than 3.3% (1: 30) shouldhave a level landing at least 6x6feet at 60foot intervals for rest andsafety. Walkways should have aslightly sloped or crowned crosssection to minimize icing and theyshould have positive grades toprevent ponding.B. Intersections.1. Walkway-StreetIntersections.a. Channelize pedestrian

traffic to designated crosswalksthat provide safe and convenientstreet crossings. Pedestriancrosswalks can be of two types:street intersections or midblock.Crosswalks at street intersectionswith traffic signal controls are thebest locations. Midblock crossingsbetween intersections shouldgenerally be avoided because oftheir inherent safety problems; theyshould be limited to conditionswhere street crossings atsignalized intersections areinfrequent and inconvenient.

Fig. 8-21.

b. Crosswalks should bedesigned with clear and generouscrosswalk patterns of brightcolored, broad stripes, eitherapplied or set into the pavement;sidewalk corner panels shouldprovide curb-cut ramps for thehandicapped that are contoured tothe sidewalk; sidewalk cornerpanels that are colored or texturedto provide a visual and tactilewarning surface of the impendingtraffic conflict are preferred; chatterstrips that warn approachingvehicular traffic are desirable atmajor

pedestrian crosswalk areas; streetfurniture such as mail boxes,newspaper racks or traffic controlboxes should be clusteredadjacent to the sidewalk cornerpanel so as not to impedepedestrian traffic (figs. 8-21 and 8-22).

2. Walkway-BikewayIntersection. Design intersectionswith warning stripes to alert bothbicyclists and pedestrians ofpotential conflict (fig. 8-23).

fig. 8-22.

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3. Walkway-Building ExitIntersections. Doorway landingareas between exits and thewalkway should provide anadequate queuing area for exitingpedestrians that will not impede orconflict with pedestrian traffic flowalong the walkway (fig. 8-24).These landing areas should belevel with or ramped to thewalkway for the handicapped.

fig. 8-23.4. Walkway-WalkwayIntersections. Special designtreatment should be consideredwhere two walkways intersect;these areas are ideal locations forinformational directories as well asother pedestrian amenities such asseating, a drinking fountain or afocal point feature. Theintersection should be adequatelysized to handle pedestrian cross-traffic; pedestrian amenities shouldbe located to flank the intersectionand not impede pedestrian trafficflow (fig. 8-25). (See Chapter 12:Site Furnishings.)

fig. 8-24.

fig. 8-25.

Fig. 8-25

C. Steps.1. Overall Dimensions.The minimum clear width for anyexterior steps should be 4’ - 0".The maximum rise betweenlandings for unprotected stepsexposed to the elements is 4’ - 0";where overhead weather protectionis provided, a rise of 6’ - 0"between landings is acceptable(fig. 8-26). Steps with less thanthree risers should generally beavoided because their lack ofvisual prominence may result inaccidents.2. Risers and Treads. Allsteps in a series should have auniform tread width and riserheight. A general formula forproportioning riser height to treadwidth is twice the riser height plusthe tread width equals 26 inches.Riser heights for exterior stairsshould be

fig. 8-26.

between 5 and 7 inches while treadwidths should be between 11 and17 inches. A 5-3/4" riser with 14-1/2" tread is preferred. Stepsshould have solid risers and arounded or chamferred nosing witha contrasting, nonslip surface atleast one-inch wide on both riser

fig. 8-27.

fig. 8-28.and tread edge (figs. 8-27 and 8-28). Pitch stair treads forward at1/8" per foot for surface drainage.

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3. Lighting. Exterior stepsshould have an average level ofillumination which ensures safenighttime use. (See Chapter 11:Lighting.)

fig. 8-29.4. Handrails. Handrails forexterior steps should be providedon both sides. Handrails shouldextend past the tread, both at topand bottom of the steps, andshould be continuous acrosslandings where there is a drop-off.They should also be round or ovalin cross section and the endsshould be either rounded or turnedinto the wall (figs. 8-29 and 8-30

fig. 8-30.D. Ramps.Any walkway surface with a slopegradient in excess of 4.2% (5% forNavy) is considered a ramp Withthe recognition of the necessity ofproviding access to facilities forhandicapped persons, the use oframps has become moreprevalent. Ramps require asignificant horizontal dimension inrelation to the change in elevationthat is achieved; therefore, theirvisual impact is greater than that of

steps serving the same function

for non-handicapped persons.Because of the increased visualimpact of ramps, changes in gradeshould be carefully considered asearly as possible in the designprocess. It is generally desirable tominimize the need for gradechanges, if possible, and tocompatibly integrate necessaryramps into the site and buildingdesign (fig. 8-31).

Fig. 8-31.

E. Street Furniture.Walkway design should becoordinated with street furnituresuch as seating, trash receptacles,drinking fountains, lighting, etc. toaccommodate pedestrian needs.These site furnishings shouldgenerally be located in distinct restareas adjacent to the walkway forpedestrian enjoyment and relax on(fig. 8-32). (See Chapter 12: SiteFurnishings.)

fig. 8-32.

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Chapter 9. Bikeways.

Since the late 1960’s, thepopularity of the bicycle as ameans of recreational anddestination oriented travel hasincreased dramatically. Theenergy crisis, concern for physicalfitness and increased recreationaltime are primary factors influencingthis surge in bike ridership.Increased use of bikes on military

installations can easily beobserved. The resulting pressurefor better and safer facilities forbike travel and storage willincreasingly be felt by installationplanners and engineers. Biketravel should be encouraged notonly to conserve energy but also toreduce automobile parkingrequirements.

77

Section I:

Observations and Objectives.

9-1.Typical Problems.A. Bikeway Networks.The current state of bikewayfacilities on most installationsleaves room for muchimprovement. Typically, fewprovisions have been made forbike traffic. Bicyclists commonlyare forced to share either the streetwith cars or the sidewalk withpedestrians, creating unsafeconditions for motorist, bicyclistand pedestrian alike (fig. 9-1).When bikeway provisions havebeen made, they are oftenincomplete networks that do notlink employment centers andhousing areas.

fig. 9-1.

fig. 9-2.

B. Bicycle Parking Facilities.In many instances, the size of thebicycle parking area does not meetthe demand (fig. 9-2). Conesequentially, sidewalks andbuilding entrances are blocked withthe overflow. In other cases, bikeracks are sometimes underutilizedbecause they have been poorlylocated. Proper consideration forlocation and demand is necessaryto provide attractive andconvenient bike parking facilities.

9-2.Objective.A. Develop Bicycle Facilitiesas a Component of theInstallation’s CirculationSystem.The development of bike facilitiesmay be justifiable in response toexisting demand. In addition, theencouragement of bicycle usewithin military installations cancontribute to lessening thenegative impact of the automobileand to meeting energyconservation objectives To achievethese goals and to meet the

established demand requiresdevelopment of safe

and properly located bikeways as apart of a balanced, multimodaltransportation system.B. Establish a Direct,Continuous and Safe BikewayNetwork.A bikeway system should providedirect routes between primarytraffic origins and destinationswithin an installation. This networkshould be continuous to facilitateand encourage bike usage. Safetyconsiderations in bikeway designinclude minimizing potentialconflicts between bikes,pedestrians and vehicularcirculation and eliminating potentialstationary hazards along thebikeway network.C. Develop Attractive andConvenient Bicycle ParkingAreas in Response to Demand.Bicycle parking areas should bedesigned and located to be bothconvenient and adequately sized.Care must be taken to avoidimpeding pedestrian flow alongwalkways and at buildingentrances.

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Section II:

Design Guidelines.

9-3.Bikeway Classification.Bikeways are to be designedaccording to the followingclassification system which definesthe types of bikeways and theirdegree of exclusiveness for bicycleuse.

A. Class I Bikeway.This is a completely separatedright-of-way designated for theexclusive use of bicycles (fig. 9-3).Pedestrians and motorists crossingthe bikeway should be discouragedfrom doing so.B. Class II Bikeway.This is a right-of-way restricted forthe semi-exclusive use of bicycles(fig. 9-4). Through travel bymotorists or pedestrians isdiscouraged. However, crossingover by pedestrians and motoristsis allowed.C. Class III Bikeways.This is a right-of-way shared witheither moving motor vehicles orpedestrians (fig. 9-5). The right-of-way is identified by signs orgraphics stenciled on thepavement.

fig. 9-6.

9-4.Bikeway Design Standards.A. Width of Pavement.Establish bikeway pavementwidths depending on theclassification of the bikeway.1. Class I Bikeways.a. The minimum recommendedwidth of an isolated Class Ibikeway is 8’-0" (fig. 9-6). Thisallows two-way bicycle traffic aswell as maintenance trucks.b. The minimum recommendedwidth of a one-way Class I bikewayadjacent to a sidewalk or roadwayis 6’-6" (fig. 9-7). The adjacentroadway provides access bymaintenance trucks. Two-waybikeways along roadways are notrecommended because of theresultant intersection difficulties.The 6’-6" width allows one bicyclistto pass another.2. Class II Bikeways. Acontinuous or intermittent curb isoften utilized to provide the partialseparation that is required for aClass II bikeway.When positive separation such asthis is utilized, the minimumrecommended pavement width

fig. 9-7.

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fig. 9-4.

fig. 9-3.

fig. 9-5.

for a one-way Class II bikeway is6’-6", the same as for a one-wayClass I facility.3. Class III Bikeways.Because the right-of-way is sharedwith either pedestrians or motorvehicles, these alternatives shouldonly be used where traffic volumesare moderate to light.a. Where one-way bicycletraffic will share the right-of-waywith pedestrians, 4’-0" of pavementwidth should be added toaccommodate bicycles (fig. 9-8).Since 6’-0" is the minimumrecommended width for moderatetwo-way pedestrian traffic, thiswould result in a 10’-0" totalpavement width. The bikewayshould be identified with a paintedstripe and signing. With thisminimum width, one bicyclepassing another would have toencroach on the pedestrian area.If heavy bicycle or pedestrianvolumes make this encroachmentunacceptable, a 6’-6" addition tothe walkway pavement width wouldbe required, resulting in a totalpavement width of 12’-6".

fig. 9-8.

fig. 9-9.b. Where one-way bicycle

traffic will share the right-of-waywith motor vehicles, a 4’-0"pavement width should bereserved for bicycle travel (fig. 9-9).With an eight-foot lane for parkedvehicles and a ten-foot lane formoving vehicles, this would resultin a 22’-0" pavement width from thecurb to the centerline of a tertiarystreet. With this minimum width,one bicycle passing another wouldhave to encroach on the movingvehicle lane. If heavy bicycle orvehicular volumes make thisencroachment unacceptable, areserved 6’-6" pavement widthwould be required. In many cases,the only way to reserve this muchpavement width along both sides ofexisting streets for bikeways wouldbe to eliminate parallel parking. Inaddition to painted stripes, thisalternative requires stenciledgraphics on the pavement toidentify the bikeway lanes.B. Clearances.Provide space for the cyclist basedupon the following dimensions:1. A 1’-6" minimum (2’-0"desirable) horizontal clearance isrequired from the edges of thebikeway surface to any stationaryobstacle, change in grade, or softshoulder (fig. 9-10).2. An 8’-6" minimum (10’-0"desirable) vertical clearance shouldbe provided from the surface of thebikeway to any overhead stationaryobstacle.

fig. 9-10.C. Grades.Relate bikeway gradients to thelength of grade. While a maximumof +4.5% grade is desirable, a+10% grade is acceptable fordistances less than 50 feet. Theserecommendations are primarilyapplicable to isolated Class Ibikeways (fig. 9-11). For Class IIand III bikeways, the gradients ofexisting street rights-of-way may insome cases exceed thesedesirable grades, and this shouldinfluence route selection. For one-way segments of bikeways,descent grades may exceed theserecommendations.

fig. 9-11.

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D. Design Speed, Radius ofCurvature and Superelevation.Utilize the following design speedsfor isolated Class I bikeways:Grade Design Speed+3% or more 15 mph+3% to -7% 20 mph-7% and steeper 30 mph

Based upon these design speeds,the radius of curvature andsuperelevation may be obtainedfrom the accompanying chart (fig.9-12). If pedestrians will constitutea significant portion of the traffic,the superelevation should notexceed 0.06 feet per foot.

fig. 9-12.

fig. 9-13.

fig. 9-14.E. Curve Widening.Increase the width of the bikewayat a short radius curve (less than100 feet) up to a maximum of fourfeet in order to provide additionallane width for cyclists leaning to theinside of a curve (fig. 9-13).F. Sight Distance.Utilizes the accompanying chart torelate bicycle speed and bikewaygradient to bicycle stoppingdistances (fig. 9-14). Use thesedistances as guides in providingadequate sight and warningdistances at all locations ofpossible conflict, such as atintersections.

G. Paving Surfaces.1. Class I Bikeways.a. Design the pavement sectionof Class I bikeways inconsideration of loading, local soilconditions and drainage. Class Ibikeways should be designed tosupport an 8000-poundmaintenance vehicle makinginfrequent trips. It isrecommended that either asphalticconcrete or Portland cementconcrete be utilized as the surfacematerial. Although installationcosts are higher for these materialsthan for loose aggregate andnatural surfaces, wearing life islonger, they may be used in allweather conditions, andmaintenance requirements areless.

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b. Recommended Class Ibikeway pavement sections areillustrated (fig. 9-15). The areaadjacent to the bikeway surfaceshould be back-filled to thebikeway surface grade, usingtopsoil, to reduce the hazard ofrunning off the edge and to preventedge chipping of the bikewaysurface.2. Class II and III Bikeways.a. Normal pavement sectionsprovided for sidewalks androadways are generally acceptablefor Class II and III bikeways.However, since bicycles do nothave shock-absorbing suspensionand tire pressures are high,pavement surfaces and expansionjoints should be constructed andmaintained as smooth as possible.

fig. 9-15.b. Eliminate the danger ofdrainage grates with openings

parallel to bike travel along existingstreet rights-of-way. Parallelgrates to the bikeway should notbe permitted in marked bikeways.Improved grates have beendeveloped and modifications arepossible to make existing gratessafe (fig. 9-16). However, theeffect of these alternatives on thenecessary drainage capabilities ofthe grate must be evaluated.

fig. 9-16.9-5.Street Intersections andCrossings.A. Class I Bikeways.When possible, shift the bikewaycrossing away from the intersection(fig. 9-17). A high percentage ofbicycle/motor vehicle accidentsoccur at intersections. There is nosingle measure, with the exceptionof grade separation, that willeliminate the danger of accidentsto cyclists at intersections. Shiftingthe crossing, however, can allow aqueue area for a turning motorvehicle to wait without obstructingeither the bikeway or throughmotor vehicle movement. Shiftingthe crossing applies normally onlyto Class I bikeways.

fig. 9-17.B. Class II and III Bikeways.When Class II and III bikewaysutilize a portion of the roadwaypavement, a different intersectiondesign is required. A number ofdesigns may be appropriate,depending on the classification ofthe intersecting streets and thevolume of turning movements.1. A typical design is illustratedshowing the use of a broken whitestripe at the intersection

fig. 9-18.

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fig. 9-19.approach, indicating that lanechanging is permitted with care(fig. 9-18).2. If the intersecting street is a

minor one and vehicle turnsare few, a continuation ofeither solid or broken whitestripes through the intersectionmay be appropriate.

9-6.Bicycle Parking.A. Location.1. Locate parking areas out ofpedestrian pathways but in areaswhich are visually supervised, ifpossible.

2. Locate parking areasconveniently near the cyclist’sdestination, preferably within 50feet of main entrances.B. Design.1. Provide secure racks orstanchions for bicycle parking. It isdesirable to allow a wheel and theframe to be anchored to preventdetachment and theft of a portionof the bicycle (fig. 9-19).2. A 2’-0" spacing betweenracks or stanchions is desirable tofacilitate their use (fig. 9-20).3. Carefully consider the designof bicycle racks or stanchions toprevent visual clutter orinharmonious appearance.4. Avoid the indiscriminate useof portable pipe bicycle racks thatdo not provide a way of locking theentire bicycle.

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Fig. 9-20.

Chapter 10. Signing.

A sign’s fundamental purpose is tocommunicate information.However, putting the messageacross emphatically is not enough;it must be attractive andharmonious with its surroundings.Consideration must be given notonly to what a sign says but alsohow it says it, its visual appearanceand organization, its

location, its structural supportsystem and its relation to othersigns within an installation.Establishing and implementing acoordinated signing system is arelatively simple, inexpensive buteffective means of improving thevisual appearance and functioningof an installation.

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Section I:

Observations and Objectives.

10-1.Typical Problems.A. Coordination.Outdoor signing and graphics onmilitary installations are too oftenconfusing, unattractive or obsolete.The motorist is not always providedwith sufficient information at criticaldecision points, and is sometimesconfused by a clutter of signmessages. A coordinated signingsystem seldom exists, and basicrules of visual communication areoften overlooked. This oftendetracts from the overall image ofan installation, frustrating the visitorand sometimes creating unsafeconditions

fig. 10-1.

fig 10-2

fig. 10-3.B. safety.Excessive information is oftenprovided at decision points,allowing insufficient time for adriver to interpret and react. Thisresults in traffic congestion andsafety hazards (fig. 10-1).

C. Clutter.Confusion and clutter result whensigns of varying size, shape andfunction are added to existing signswith no consideration for theirrelationship to

each other. Without the disciplineof an overall system, signs becomeboth unattractive and ineffective(fig. 10-2).

D. Other Factors.Other typical problems includeredundancy of sign messages,inconsistency of signs of similarfunction, and inflexible signsystems that make changes ofmessages difficult and costly (fig.10-3).

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10-2.Objectives.A. Communicate NecessaryInformation Effectively.The information conveyed must becorrect, clear, useful and visuallycomprehensible. The sequenceand hierarchy of information that iscommunicated must correspond touser needs.B. Contribute Positively tothe Overall Visual Image of anInstallation.Signing should be consciouslydesigned as an attractive,consistent, simple and unclutteredinformation system. The signingsystem should be coordinated withthe design of other site furnishingsto minimize the number ofstreetscape elements and reduceclutter.C. Establish an OverallSigning System that isCoordinated, Consistent,Flexible and Economical.A signing system should provideconsistency and continuity to theoverall visual image of aninstallation. The system should beadaptable to incremental changesand additions over time; a modularsystem can facilitate thisrequirement while maintaining thedesired visual consistency. Initialand life-cycle cost implications ofmaterials, mounting and fabricationalternatives must be considered inthe design of the signing system.

Section II:

Design Guidelines.

10-3.Planning and Implementing aSigning System.A. Process.Employ the following generaldesign process to establish acoordinated overall signing system.1. Data Collection andAnalysis. Initially observe andanalyze exterior pedestrian andvehicular traffic flow to identifysignificant decision makinglocations.2. Site Plan and Schedule.Locate all proposed signs on a siteplan of the installation inaccordance with distance andplacement guidelines. Illustrate onthe site plan the sequence ofinformation to be conveyed.Precisely define, locate and key toa

schedule all identification al,directional and regulatory sign $(fig. 10-4).

3. Component Design andSpecifications. Design anddevelop procurement drawings andspecifications of all elements thatcomprise the signing systemincluding text, typography, color,illumination, support system andother standardized components.Full-size, mock-up samples in thecolor and type style combinationsshould be tested in position on thesite before finalizing procurementdrawings and specifications andembarking on a major signingprogram (fig. 10-5).

fig. 10-5.4. Signing Manual.Prepare a signing manual as aguide for continuing use of thesystem. The manual shouldinclude a site plan and schedule,component specifications,mandatory operating proceduresand standards for administrativeand shop personnel to ensure

fig. 10-4.

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fig. 10-6.consistent application of thesystem (fig. 10-6).B. Purposes.Orient the signing system study tofulfill the following purposes.1. Provide signs only where aneed exists.2. Eliminate unnecessary orconflicting signs.3. Ensure that the placement ofsigns relates to their function.4. Provide signs that are visibleand designed to attract viewers’attention.5. Provide signs that areharmonious with their architecturaland natural setting and contributeto the installations’ overall imageand identity.6. Ensure that signs of similarfunction are consistent.7. Ensure that all signs arelegible.8. Ensure that the wording of allsigns is understandable andconcise and that the messageconveyed is correct, clear andunderstandable.9. Provide a hierarchy ofinformation that conveysinformation in the sequence mostbeneficial to the viewer.10. Facilitate changes orincremental additions and deletionsto the signing system as the needarises.11. Provide an economicalsystem in terms of implementationand maintenance.

12. Meet any specialrequirements for the handicapped.

10-4.Elements of a Signing System.A. Types of Signs.Signs should be organized intothree general categories, eachtreated distinctly within the signingsystem.

fig. 10-7.1. Identification Signs.These are naming signs whichidentify the installation, areas withinthe installation, major tenants,buildings and organizational orfunctional components. They tellthe viewer where he is and sincethey always appear at entrancesthey greet the motorist orpedestrian and visually set themood for other graphics on thesite. They must be compatible inscale and character with thearchitecture surrounding them, oron which they are placed (fig. 10-7).

2. Directional Signs.These signs serve to guide the

motorist or pedestrian in, around,and out of the installation. Signsintended for pedestrian guidanceshould be of a smaller scale andlocated so as not to conflict withsigns intended for motorists. Thelegibility and positioning ofdirectional signs as well as theordering of information on them iscritical to their effectiveness. Eachinstallation requires carefulanalysis of pedestrian andvehicular traffic patterns todetermine decision points andappropriate information anddirections to be provided (fig. 10-8).3. Regulatory Signs.These signs set the rules for traveland parking on the installation.Included in this category are speedlimit signs, signs controlling turningand lane usage, warning signs,signs controlling parking, etc.Related to these signs arepavement markings and trafficsignals. All signs of this typeshould conform to the standardscontained in the latest edition ofthe Manual on Uniform TrafficControl Devices (MUTCD) by theFederal Highway Administration.The MUTCD provides federalstandards for design, shapes,colors, dimensions, symbols, wordmes-

fig. 10-8.

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fig. 10-9.sages, lettering, illumination,reflecting surfaces, locations anderection of all regulatory signs,signals and pavement markings(fig. 10-9).B. Sign SystemCharacteristics.An installation’s sign system shouldposses the following attributes:1. Consistency. The signsystem should be governed bystandards, appropriate to theinstallation’s needs, that areapplied consistently throughout theinstallation. These standardsinclude sign size, location, shape,typeface, symbols, colors,materials and mounting details.

fig. 10-10.2. Simplicity. Sign systemsshould be efficient and notoverload the intended user withunnecessary information. Anefficient system eliminatesredundant signing and over-signingto reduce clutter, confusion, orhazardous conditions, especially atintersections. Sign messagesshould be simple because theamount of information a pedestrianor driver can receive, process andremember is limited. The act of

reading a sign should neverdistract his attention unduly fromthe act of driving. In general, theamount of information that is to beconveyed by a sign should belimited to ten items (an item ofinformation being defined as asyllable, symbol, abbreviation orshape) (fig. 10-10). At a decisionpoint, the driver should bepresented with no more than twochoices. Advance warning signsshould be provided wherenecessary to reinforce informationand allow additional time for thedriver to process the informationand act.

fig. 10-11.3. Visibility. Signs should belocated at significant decisionpoints and positioned to provide aclear line-of-sight from the point ofdesired reading, free ofobstructions and within a ten (10)degree angle of the decisionmaker’s normal line of vision. Thedesign of the sign should becapable of attracting the intendeduser’s attention (fig. 10-11).4. Legibility. A sign’s typestyle, size of letters, letter/word/line spacing, copy positioning andcolor should be carefully selectedfor legibility, which is most crucialon all signs.5. Hierarchy and Sequence.Signs, in terms of their wording andsize of message, should provide ahierarchy of information whosesequence is most beneficial to theintended audience.6. Coordination. The designof a sign system may becoordinated and integrated with the

design of lighting and sitefurnishings to minimize the numberof individual streetscape elementsand reduce clutter. Manymanufactured systems exist thatcombine such elements as streetlighting,

fig. 10-12.traffic signals, graphics,telephones, litter containers andother site furnishings into anintegrated system. Thiscoordination not only improves thevisual appearance of installationsbut also provides a unified locationthat promotes ease of pathfindingfor both motorist and pedestrian(fig. 10-12).7. Compatibility. Entrancesigns, building identification signsand all free-standing signs shouldbe well designed and constructedof quality materials in keeping withthe architectural and natural sitecharacter of the installation.8. Flexibility and Economy.A signing system should be able tobe expanded, contracted ormodified as required over time inresponse to mission changes, newbuildings, demolition of buildings orrelocation of building occupants.Modular signing systems withinterchangeable components cangreatly facilitate these changes.Signing hardware and basicmessage units should be designedto allow change of individualmessages without affecting theremainder

89

of accompanying messages (fig.10-13).

fig. 10-13.10-5.Guidelines for EffectiveCommunication.A. Lettering.Type style, letter size, letter/word/line spacing, and copypositioning should be carefullyselected for legibility of the signmessage.1. Type Style. A sans-seriftype style such as HelveticaMedium has been found to be oneof the most easily read andhandsome type styles for sign use.Other sans-serif or serif type facesthat meet the followingrequirements are also acceptable.As a rule, a type style whose ratioof stroke width to capital letterheight is 1: 5 for black letters on awhite background, and 1: 6 or 1: 7for white on black is recommended(fig. 10-14). Upper case lettersshould be approximately 1/3 largerthan

fig. 10-14.

the "x" height of lower case letters.Condensed or extended letterstyles should be avoided. Upperand lower case lettering tends toenable quicker word recognitionthan all capital letters because ofthe varied word shapes theyproduce. The use of upper caselettering should be limited to a fewessential situations such asdirectional information as found ona route number and direction sign(1-95 EAST) or the direction of anexit or turn (NEXT RIGHT).

fig. 10-15.

2. Type Size. The standardguide in determining appropriateletter size of a highly legible typestyle is to provide 1" (one inch) ofthe letter height of an upper case"X" for each 50’ (fifty feet) ofviewing distance (fig. 10-15).Therefore, for a message to belegible from a distance of 250 feet,a 5" (five inch) letter height shouldbe used.3. Letter and Word Spacing.At longer viewing distances, letterstend to run together visually unlessthe letter’ spacing is increased.Light lettering on a darkbackground tends to look biggerthan dark letters on a lightbackground and requires greaterletter spacing and smaller strokewidth. Likewise, internally lit signsmay require greater spacing,depending on the intensity of lightand the relationship of colors.Word spacing should beproportionate to the letter spacingused. All spacing should appeareven.

fig. 10-6.

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Fig. 10-16.

Letters and words spaced by atrained human eye are preferableto mechanical spacing. However,spacing guides are available (fig.10-16).

fig. 10-17.4. Copy Positioning. On mostsigns of more than a word or two, itis recommended that all copy (typeand symbols) be flush left (withoutindentation) for ease of reading.However, on signs containing bothleft and right directionalinformation, it often helps clarifythe message if left turn information(including arrows) is flush left onthe left of the sign and right turninformation is flush right on theright side of the sign (fig. 10-17).B. Symbols, Arrows andDiagrammatics.Use symbols, arrows anddiagrammatics where necessaryand appropriate to convey neededinformation.1. Symbols. The word"symbol" is used to refer to truesymbols such as the Red Crosssymbol and U.S. and interstateroute shields, as well aspictograms (graphic expressions ofactual objects) such as a

fig. 10-18.

fig. 10-19.telephone receiver (fig. 10-18).Symbols are useful for rapidcommunication, especially wherethey have become universallyaccepted and understood.However, symbols for complexobjects or activities can beambiguous and hinder, fig. 10-19rather than aid, communication.Symbols should be used only whenthey permit a message to be morestrongly stated or quicklyunderstood. Symbols that havebeen adopted for national use suchas the transportation relatedsymbols established by the U.S.Department of Transportationshould be the basis for those usedon military installations. Normally,lettering should be used withsymbols to avoid possibleconfusion (fig. 10-19).2. Arrows. Arrows must belegible from a distance to clearlyconvey the intended direction.Recommended arrow forms are asillustrated (fig. 10-20).3. Diagrammatics. Adiagrammatic is a means ofgraphically depicting an upcomingroad condition when words andarrows alone may be inadequate.When an intersection or laneconfiguration is complex, use of adiagrammatic can help the drivervisualize the situation and actaccordingly (fig. 10-21).

fig. 10-20.

fig . 10-21.

C. Color.Color coding should be usedconsistently to differentiate signtypes, to convey their type andfunction and, where appropriate, tovary the apparent size or "targetvalue" of a sign.1. Target Value. The apparentsize, or "target value" of a signvaries with its color. Yellow andwhite signs appear largest; red,blue and green signs appear mid-sized; and black signs appear thesmallest. These apparent sizesare also affected by the contrastbetween the sign and itsbackground. Theoretically, for bestvisibility, a sign should be darkeragainst a bright day background,but brighter against a dark day ornight background. Two techniquesto improve sign visibility againstdiverse backgrounds are reflectingsurfaces and substantial borders ofa contrasting color value: dark forlight signs and light for dark signs.In general, the width of the bordershould not exceed the stroke widthof the major lettering on the sign.2. Color Coding. The use of

color on signing should berelated to the color codeconventions recommended bythe Special

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Committee on Color of the NationalJoint Committee on Uniform TrafficControl Devices.This committee selected twelvecolors for the color code ofAmerican Traffic Control signs, andthe meanings of eight of thesewere specified, when used asbackground colors.Red Stop or prohibitionGreen Guide signs, permitted

movement andparking

Blue General publicservices

Yellow WarningBlack Part-time regulationWhite Full-time regulationOrange High danger

(construction andmaintenance)

Brown Public recreationBright yellowgreen, light blue,purple and coral have beenidentified as suitable for trafficcontrol, but their meanings arereserved for future needs. For aspecific description of the use ofthese twelve colors, refer to theManual on Uniform Traffic ControlDevices for Streets and Highways.D. Sign Size.Signs must be sized so that theyare visible and legible.1. Figure/GroundRelationship. The background ofa sign helps to isolate the messagefrom the visual complexity of thesign’s surroundings. The morevisually complex the surroundings,the more background is needed tofacilitate communication. Inresidential areas and in other areasof relatively low-intensitydevelopment, it is recommendedthat the graphics and letteringconstitute approximately 60percent of the total sign area andthe background 40 percent. Inareas of high-intensitydevelopment, such as the coreareas of the installation, thegraphics and lettering shouldoccupy 40 percent and thebackground 60 percent.

fig. 10-22.2. Reading Distance. Thedistance that signs are locatedfrom the point of desired readingvaries with the speed of theapproaching driver (fig. 10-22).

20 mph: 100 feet25 mph: 175 feet30 mph: 250 feet

a. Depending on the area ofgraphics and lettering and followingthe above guidelines on letter sizeand figure/ground relationship, thenecessary sign size may bedetermined.b. For example, if it is desiredthat a sign be legible from 250 feet,a letter height of 5 inches isrequired (see 10-5 A2: Type Size).Using this size lettering, the overallmessage size may be determined -use 5 square feet for this example.If the sign were planned for aresidential area, applying thefigure/ground relationshipguidelines would result in anoverall sign size of 8.33 squarefeet. Depending on copy layoutand the modular dimensions of thesystem, the length and width of thesign may be determined.

fig. 10-23.E. Sign Placement.Signs should be positioned forvisibility and installed consistentlyin relationship to the roadway,

walkway or building they serve.1. General Guidelines.a. A sign must be positioned sothat there is a clear line-of-sightfrom the point of desired reading.A reasonable guideline for theplacement of vehicular-orientedsigning is to establish the height ofthe sign so that the center line ofthe main panel is at the optimumviewing height for a person seatedin an automobile (approximately52" above the pavement surface)(fig. 10-23). If visual obstructionsprevent sign placement at thisheight, the sign should be raised;however, avoid exceeding a 10degree angle from the natural lineof vision.

fig. 10-24.b. Vehicular-oriented signsmust be placed perpendicular toapproaching traffic and not nearerto the pavement than 2 feet indensely developed areas

92

(6 feet is preferable andrecommended for less denseareas) (fig. 10-24). If a vehicular-oriented sign is located within anarea of pedestrian activity, a 7’-0"clearance should be maintainedfrom the bottom of the sign panelto the pavement (fig. 10-25).Consult the Manual on UniformTraffic Control Devices for otherplacement criteria, such asdistance between signs.

fig. 10-25.10-6.Special Signing.

fig. 10-26.A. Signing for theHandicapped.Signs should be provided toidentify facilities dedicated to oraccessible to the handicapped,such as parking spaces, buildingentrances and rest room facilities(fig. 10-26).B. Installation EntranceSigns.Main installation entrance signs are

the initial element in theidentification signing hierarchy ofan installation. While their designcan be a special feature, it shouldbe consistent with the installation’soverall signing system and incharacter with thearchitectural/natural site setting ofthe installation. The size of themain entrance sign should beappropriate to its role

fig. 10-27.in the hierarchy, the items ofidentification information neededand the approach speed ofvehicles (fig. 10-27).C. Building IdentificationNumbers.Building identification numbersshould be designed as part of theoverall signing system of aninstallation. They should belocated, sized and placed forvisibility from their intendedvantage point, consistent in designand mounting details with otherbuilding identification numbersigns, and compatible with thearchitectural character of thebuilding (fig. 10-28).1. They generally should belocated at building entrancesand/or other parts of the buildingvisible from the main access street.2. At many installations,building numbers are positioned atstandard locations to provide easy

fire service identification.

fig. 10-28.Building identification numbersshould be coordinated with fireservice requirements, avoidingunnecessary redundancy andinconsistent design.D. Memorial Plaques.Memorial plaques represent aspecial type of sign. An installationshould establish its own designpolicy for memorial plaques inresponse to their particular needs.The policy should establish a set ofstandards that covers all plaques,including standard sizes, materials,finish, copy type, mounting detailsand locations. (See Paragraph 12-11: Monuments and Memorials.)E. Temporary Signs.Temporary signs are frequentlyneeded on installations and can beidentificational, directional orregulatory in type. All temporarysigns should conform to thegeneral design guidelinesestablished for the installationsigning system, except for theirmaterials which can be practicalbut capable of maintaining anattractive appearance throughoutthe expected life of the sign.

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Chapter 11. Lighting.

Lighting is a flexible medium withgreat potential to improve thevisual character of an installation.Exterior lighting performs a numberof functional uses, primarily relatedto nighttime safety, security andpathfinding. This is accomplishedthrough a variety of applications toroads, walkways, plazas, parkinglots, and buildings. Illumination

levels, color rendition, lightingpatterns and other aspects ofoutdoor lighting design can bevaried with lamp type, illuminatetype, as well as fixture location,spacing, mounting height anddetails. Generally, emphasis in thepast has been placed on achievinga higher level of illumination ratherthan improving other qualitative

aspects of outdoor lighting.Increased energy consciousnesshas forced a reappraisal of thisemphasis on greater illuminationlevels. The design of outdoorlighting should be reorientedtoward achieving a coordinatedsystem that is attractive, functionaland efficient.

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Section I:

Observations and Objectives.

11-1.Typical Problems.A. Roadway Lighting.1. Roadway lighting on militaryinstallations has often beenprovided on overhead utility polesat a constant spacing along oneside of the road (fig. 11-1). Thispredetermined spacing may beinappropriate for the desiredlighting design, and allows for littledifferentiation between streets ofvarying functions or land use

Figure 11-1.

Figure 11-2.districts. However, whereunderground utilities are noteconomically justifiable, attachingthe luminaire to the utility poleminimizes the number of poles andthereby reduces visual clutter-along the streetscape.2. Often the street lightingsystem does not serve to definethe circulation hierarchy of aninstallation. Street lighting shouldvisually reinforce the importanceand function of the roadway bymeans of its fixture design andlevel of illumination to provide avisual sense of nighttimeorientation to the motorist. Onresidential streets, the scale oflighting standards and high level ofillumination is often inappropriate;in some cases unshieldedluminaires have been used,resulting in discomforting glare.B. Pedestrian Lighting.Pedestrian facilities that are

heavily traveled at night requirelighting to illuminate the path andprovide safety and security. Mostof the pedestrian lighting observedon military installations has beenassociated with recentconstruction. Sometimes it is

Figure 11-3.either overdone, stylisticallyincompatible with the adjacentsurroundings, or highly susceptibleto vandalism (fig. 11-2).C. Parking Lot Lighting.General illumination of parkingareas is often needed for traffic aswell as pedestrian safety andsecurity, especially in highnighttime use areas. The recenttrend in lighting large parking

9696

areas using a relatively few, highmast standards is efficient from anengineering standpoint, but thescale of these standards is often inconflict with pedestrian activity andadjacent land uses (fig. 11-3).D. Outdoor ArchitecturalLighting.In some cases, outdoor lighting ofbuildings is used to highlight oraccent a building at night. Ingeneral, this type of lighting shouldbe avoided, except where buildingsecurity is essential, or specialeffects are needed. Selectivelighting of a few landmark buildingsdoes, however, help provide asense of orientation for nighttimemotorists.B. Overall Coordination.Perhaps the most common visualproblem that has existed withexterior lighting on militaryinstallations has been the lack ofoverall coordination. The style,scale, level of illumination andlamp type have often been appliedinconsistently and have beenuncoordinated in design.11-2.Objectives.A. Express the AppropriateImage, Character and Scale ofan Area.Lighting should be related to thefunctions and scale of activities itserves. Lighting design shouldvary with the volume and type oftraffic and with the visual characterof development.. Street andpedestrian lighting should becoordinated with other elements of

the streetscape, such as signing,landscape planting, pavingmaterials, trash containers and busshelters. A coordinated approachcan greatly reduce visual clutterand confusion.B. Convey a Sense of theInstallation Organization.At night, street lighting is theprimary means of defining thehierarchy of the circulation system.By reinforcing this hierarchy and byilluminating signing and landmarkfeatures, exterior lighting cangreatly contribute to a sense oforientation that enables people toeasily find their way about theinstallation at night.C. Promote safety andSecurity for Nighttime Use of theInstallation.For the nighttime driver, the lightingof roadways must illuminateobstructions and provide anunderstanding of oncomingconditions. This can reduceaccidents and promote a betterutilization of roadways byincreasing safe speeds.Pedestrian lighting must alsoilluminate obstructions as well asprovide a reassuring psychologicalfeeling of security by minimizingdark shadows.D. Minimize OperationalMaintenance and Repair Costs.Exterior lighting should be efficientand vandal-proof and shouldfacilitate maintenance and repair.

Section II:

Design Guidelines.

11-3.Basic Types of Exterior Lighting.A. Low Level Lighting.This type of lighting is provided byfixtures mounted at heights beloweye-level and is typically

Figure 11-4.

Figure 11-5.used for special pedestrianwalkway areas such as atstairways or along secondarypathways (fig. 11-4). It ischaracterized by very finite lightpatterns with low wattagecapabilities. Light sources areeither incandescent or fluorescent.They have simple maintenancerequirements but are susceptible tovandalism.

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B. Walkway and PlazaLighting.This type of lighting is provided byfixtures mounted at averageheights between 12 to 15 feet andis used to light primary pedestrianwalkways and plazas (fig. 11-5).They have potential multiple usesbecause of a large variety offixtures and light patterns. Theirlight source is typicallyincandescent or mercury vapor.They are susceptible to vandalism.

Figure 11-6.

Figure 11-7.C. Special Purpose Lighting.This type of lighting is provided byfixtures mounted at an averageheight of between 20 to 30 feet andis used in recreational,commercial, residential andindustrial applications (fig. 11-6).The light source is typically metalhalide or mercury vapor. Fixturesare maintained by gantry.D. Parking and RoadwayLighting.This type of lighting is provided byfixtures mounted at averageheights of between 30 to 50 feetand is typically used in large

Figure 11-8.recreational areas, parking lots androadway applications (fig. 11-7).Light source is typically mercuryvapor or high pressure sodium.Fixtures are maintained by gantry.E. High Mast Lighting.This type of lighting is provided byfixtures mounted at an averageheight of between 60 to 100 feetand is typically used- for large arealighting of parking lots, recreationalareas and highway interchanges(fig. 11-8). Light source is typicallymercury vapor or high pressuresodium. Fixtures must be loweredon the pole for maintenance.11-4.Visual Elements of LightingDesign.There are a number of variables tobe considered in the technicaldesign of exterior lighting includingthe level of illumination, luminairelocation and type of luminaire. It isnot the intent of this section toprovide a comprehensivemethodology or set of standardsfor the design of exterior lighting,most of which exists in currentmilitary manuals on the subject(see TM 5-811-1). The intent ofthis section is to deal with thoseelements of lighting design thataffect the visual quality of theenvironment. Therefore,discussion here is limited to visualconsiderations in selecting alighting source and standard orpole.

A. Selection of Light Source.A variety of light sources areavailable for exterior lighting, eachwith characteristic advantages anddisadvantages which influence itsappropriate use. A qualifiedilluminating engineer, incoordination with installationmaster planners, architects,landscape architects and civilengineers, should design theexterior lighting system and selectlight sources which areappropriate. The following generalguidelines are offered here forappropriate use of various lightsources on military installations.1. High Pressure Sodium.Because of its high efficacy, thislamp should be used for roadwaysand protective lighting systems,where relatively high lighting levelsare required. The current trend instreet lighting design incorporatesthis lamp in major street lightingdesign system s.2. Metal Halide. This lamptype is recommended for use in"people-gathering" areas such aschurches, theaters, auditoriumsand shopping centers. This lamphas a good color rendition and isnot psychologically offensive topeople.3. Color-Corrected MercuryVapor. This lamp type is the leastefficient source of the high intensitydischarge family of lamps and isrecommended for use in residentialstreets where lower lighting levelsare desirable.4. Incandescent. This lamptype should only be used inpedestrian areas or when its warmcolor-strengthening characteristicis necessary. This limitation onuse is primarily because of its lowefficiency and short life span.B. Selection of LightStandards (or Poles).Luminaries can be mounted onexisting utility poles to limit

98

additional clutter. However,wherever feasible, exterior lightingsystems should be provided withstandards, or poles, that yield theproper spacing and mountingheight ratios for a given lightproblem.

Figure 11-9.

Figure 11-10.1. Types of Standards orPoles. Lighting poles that aregenerally available include thefollowing, listed in ascending orderof expense: (figs. 11-9, 11-10 and11-11).

Figure 11-11.a. Creosoted Wood. This poletype is purely utilitarian and shouldgenerally be avoided whenestablishing an overall lightingsystem for an installation. Itsapplication should generally belimited only to where it already

exists (replacement) or temporarypoles.b. Painted Steel. This poletype provides a trim profile butrequires regular maintenance.Baked-on powdered paint coatingsthat minimize maintenance areavailable in some localities but addconsiderably to costs. Paintedsteel poles are best used incommunity areas, residentialstreets and pedestrian lightingapplications. Generally, theyshould be avoided because ofmaintenance requirements.c. Concrete. The quality ofappearance of concrete polesvaries considerably from utilitarianto exposed-aggregate finishes.These types of poles have heightlimitations (approximately 50 feet)and their profile becomes largeand visually cumbersome or heavyas their height increases. Theyrequire minimum maintenance andcan be used in a variety ofapplications, except high mastuses. They generally blend wellwith the natural and architecturalsetting, especially when weatheredor containing earth-toneaggregates.d. Aluminum. These types ofpoles provide a thin profile andrequire little maintenance. Theyare available in a variety offinishes, but when left naturalshould have a brushed finish tominimize reflection and glare.They are best used in a variety ofapplications including communityareas, residential streets andpedestrian lighting. Their majordrawback is initial cost, which canbe offset in life cycle cost by theirlow maintenance requirements.e. Weathered and DecorativeWood. These types of poles aregenerally considered for specialarea applications where a highquality finish is desired that blendswith the aesthetics of a particularsetting, especially in pedestrian orresidential areas. They arerelatively expensive andsusceptible to defacement by

vandals.f. Weathered Steel. This typeof pole is best used where highmast poles or minimummaintenance is required. This typeof pole should be avoided in anyareas where pedestrians mightcome into physical contact with thepole because of its stainingcharacteristic. Initial costs are highbut its practicality for high mastapplications is more than justifiedbecause it is relativelymaintenance-free.2. General SelectionGuidelines. Standards or polesshould be selected based upontheir functional and aestheticappropriateness.a. Generally, concrete andaluminum poles are the mostattractive and practical systems forpoles up to 50 feet in height.b. Weathered steel polesshould only be used for high-masttype lighting in areas where nopedestrian contact occurs.c. The pole system selectedshould be used consistentlythroughout the installation.d. Different pole types can beused for different systems, i.e.,vehicular and pedestrian, but theyshould relate harmoniously,especially in areas where they mayinterface.11-8.Information and Orientation.A well-designed street lightingsystem should define thecirculation hierarchy of theinstallation (see Chapter 4),expose traffic conditions, andprovide visual orientation to helpboth pedestrians and drivers findtheir way at night. During thedaytime, the repetitive lightingstandards should also contribute tothis hierarchy and sense of order.

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A. Reinforcing the StreetHierarchy.Lighting should reinforce the streethierarchy by visually differentiatingprimary, secondary and tertiarystreets. These differences in streetimportance should be expressedby varying the levels of illuminationand the type, height and spacing oflighting standards. An example ofhierarchical street lighting design isillustrated here. While specificelements of the lighting system willvary with the unique requirementsof each installation, thefunctional/visual concept illustratedhere should be consistently appliedat all installations.

Figure 11-12.

Figure 11-13.1. Primary Boulevard or WidePrimary Street.Regularly spaced, pairedluminaires mounted on 40-footstandards in an oppositearrangement (both sides of thestreet) define a primary boulevardor a wide primary street (figs. 11-12 and 11-13). In character, this isdefinitely an automobile-dominantroad. When the basicallycontinuous traffic flow isinterrupted at a full intersection, thedistinct pattern of an outdoor"room’ clearly indicates a junction.

Major corners throughout thesystem are defined as outdoor"rooms" by the relationship ofpaired luminaires, arrangement ofsignal lights, illuminated streetnames, striped crosswalks andperhaps even a change inpavement color for the enclosedrectangular area at theintersection.2. Primary Street.Primary streets of narrower widthare identified by regularly spaced,paired luminaires mounted on 40-foot standards along one side ofthe road (figs. 11-14 and 11-15).Preferably this side would beopposite the trees

Figure 11-14.

Figure 11-15.or view. The illumination level ismade higher at intersections sothat drivers and pedestrians will bealerted to cross traffic.3. Secondary Street.Single luminaries placed oppositeeach other on 25-foot standardsdefine a secondary street (figs. 11-16 and 11-17). Staggered spacingshould be avoided because of theconfusing, disorderly patternswhich result, particularly on curves.The lighting is in obtrusive due tothe straight-line design of the polesand the minimum luminaire

overhang.4. Boulevard (Secondary orTertiary). Paired lumlnaires on 25-foot standards in the median areutilized for these boulevards (figs.11-18 and 11-19). A variation inlamp type (color corrected mercuryfor residential, high pressuresodium for other areas) coulddistinguish an area’s land use.Intersections on a more heavilyused street are marked by pairedluminaires on 40-foot poles.5. Tertiary Street. A typicaltertiary residential street isidentified by a single color-corrected mercury fixture at oneside mounted on 15-foot poles

Figure 11-16.

Figure 11-17.(figs. 11-20 and 11-21).Intersections with similarresidential streets are defined bypairing the fixtures. Intersectionswith a secondary or primary streetare defined by lighting fixtures on40-foot poles.B. Landmarks.Lighted buildings, monuments,fountains and other structures canserve as orientation landmarks forthe nighttime driver. Care must betaken not to over-

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Figure 11-18.

Figure 11-19.do such lighting which would bothdetract from overall effectivenessand be wasteful of energy.C. Site Furnishings.Certain street furniture, such as firealarms, but shelters and signingshould be properly lighted fornighttime use.11-6.Image, Character and Scale.A. Finish.In order that street lighting notdominate the streetscape but serveas background, the materialsshould have a matte finish to avoiddistracting reflections andhighlights

Figure 11-22.

Figure 11-20.

Figure 11-21.B. Power Supply.To reduce streetscape clutter, it ishighly preferable to supply powerby underground rather thanoverhead lines to fixtures whereverpossible and practical (fig. 11-22).

Figure 11-23.

C. Integration with Other SiteFurnishings.In order to reduce clutter, lightingstandards should be integrated indesign with street signs, trafficsigns and signals (fig. 11-23).D. Built-up/Non-ResidentialAreas.In built-up areas, lines and planesof the fixtures should relate tobuildings (poles vertical and armshorizontal) and overhanging armsand large directional fixturesshould not dominate the view (fig.11-24).E. Residential Areas.Commercial-sized standards, high-wattage lamps and unshieldedluminaires should not be used inresidential streets.

Figure 11-24.F. Pedestrian Areas.In areas of high pedestrian activity,warm color light sources of lowintensity should be used. Lowlighting standards or poles shouldbe used to maintain the properscale.G. Historic Areas.In historic areas, lighting should becompatibly designed with thearchitectural setting. However, itshould not be imitative of lightingthat is no longer available, such aselectrified "gas" lamps.

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11-7.Safety and Security.The primary purpose of exteriorlighting is to provide a safe andsecure nighttime environment.The illumination requirementsshould vary with the activities beingperformed and user needs.A. Vehicular.1. The driver must be able tosee distinctly and locate accuratelyand quickly all significant details,such as the alignment of the road,any potential obstacles, signingand traffic control devices.2. Intersections and othercomplex or irregular roadconfigurations, such as curves,hills, converging traffic lanes,diverging traffic lanes or pedestriancrossings, require higherillumination levels. The illuminationlevel for an intersection should bethe summation of the levels of theintersecting roads (fig. 11-25).3. In addition to higherillumination levels, the placementof lighting standards along curvesis important to reveal to the driver,both by day and by night, theoncoming alignment of theroadway. Fixtures only on one sideprovide a clear and attractivepattern, as opposed to staggeredfixtures on both sides, which aredistracting by day and confusing bynight (figs. 11-26 and 11-27).4. Lighting standards should beplaced so that they are nothazardous to pedestrians orvehicles. If a poor placementcannot be avoided, breakaway polemounting details should beemployed.5. Disability glare, or glare thatreduces the viewer’s ability to seean object, should be controlled bycareful attention to luminairelocation and the use of cutoff orsemi-cutoff luminaires.

Figure 11-25B. Pedestrian.1. The pedestrian must also beable to see distinctly such featuresas the edges of the walkway,vehicles and obstacles.

Figure 11-26.

Figure 11-27.

2. In addition, the pedestrianhas significant psychologicalnighttime needs requiring that darkshadows should be minimized toprovide a sense of security.3. Hazardous locations alongpedestrian paths, such as changesin grade, require higher illuminationlevels or supplemental lower levellighting.4. Light standards should belocated so as not to impedepedestrian flow along walkways.11-8.Economy, W4fntenance andRepair.A. The location, height anddetails of lighting standards shouldallow easy maintenance andreplacement of luminaires andlamps.B. High-efficiency, long-lifelamps should normally be utilized.Incandescent and color correctedlamps should be used as accentsand in pedestrian areas.C. Vandal and accident-pronemountings and luminaires shouldbe avoided.

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Chapter 12. Site Furnishings.

A wide variety of site furnishings iscommonly found on militaryinstallations. These sitefurnishings include both utilitarianitems such as benches, busshelters, trash containers, orfences, as well as more symbolicelements such as flagpoles,

memorials and historic militaryequipment displays. With properplanning and design, sitefurnishings can not only fulfill theirintended function but alsocontribute positively to the overallvisual quality, image and identity ofthe military installation.

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Section I:

Observations and Objectives.

12-1.Typical Problems.A. Site Variations.Field conditions vary considerablyfrom installation to installation interms of the type and appearanceof site furnishings. Some of thisvariation properly reflects the sitesetting, architectural character andclimatic conditions of the particularinstallation (fig. 12-1). Othervariations are qualitative in nature.While all installations provide thesenecessary site furnishings, somehave done so in a more successfulmanner, both functionally andaesthetically, than others.B. Compatibility.The specific needs and appropriatelocations for seating, shelters,trash containers, fencing and so onchange considerably over time.Each type of site furnishing istypically selected individually andon an incremental basis.Therefore, it is not surprising tofind a collection of unrelatedseating and trash containersresting uncomfortably together onthe same street corner (fig. 12-2).This lack of coordination as well asconcern for detail, are the primaryproblems related to sitefurnishings.

Figure 12-1.C. Coordination.More successful examples offunctional and attractive sitefurnishings are found atinstallations that have establishedan overall plan and coordinateddesign system of site furnishings.Less successful examples haveresulted at installations which havefollowed a piecemeal approach ofselecting site furnishings withoutproper regard for either userneeds, site setting, architecturalcharacter or climatic conditions ofthe installation (fig. 12-3).

fig. 12-2.

Figure 12-3.12-2.Objectives.A. Provide Site FurnishingsAppropriate to their IntendedFunction.The design of bus shelters shouldvary with climatic conditions. Thedesign of fencing should vary withthe function it is to perform. Careshould be exercised in theselection of standardized sitefurnishings to make certain theyare appropriate for a specificapplication at the installation.

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B. Establish a CoordinatedSystem of site Furnishings.Site furnishings should be part of acoordinated system, based uponan overall design scheme thatharmoniously relates furnishings tothe architectural character of theinstallation and other sitefurnishings in terms of their scale,materials and details.C. Consolidate and Simplifythe Design of Site Furnishings.The number of different sitefurnishings should be minimizedand their design should besimplified. Site furnishings shouldneither clutter nor dominate thevisual character of the installation.Wherever possible, they should begrouped together and be multi-functional.D. Provide Consistency andContinuity in the Use of SiteFurnishings. Site furnishingdesigns should be utilized to unifythe image and identity of theinstallation. Once a coordinatedsystem of site furnishings has beenestablished, it should be employedconsistently throughout theinstallation and continuouslyfollowed over time.E. Incorporate AdequateProvisions for the Handicapped.Provisions for the handicappedshould be incorporated into thedesign of site furnishings,especially in areas of theinstallation where handicappedpersons might live, work, shop orvisit.

Section II:

Design Guidelines.

12-3.Benches, Seating and Tables.1. Locate seating oriented touser needs of waiting and restingadjacent to paved walkways, entry-ways, and plazas, near the topsand bottoms of major stairs andramps, at bus stops and otherlocations deemed appropriate byanticipated need and use.2. Locate seating oriented touser needs of socializing, relaxingand eating in less formal spaceswith a pleasant setting and viewthat are conducive to their intendedpurpose.

3. Seats should be set back 2’-0" from adjacent sidewalks toprovide ample leg room and not toimpede or obstruct pedestriantraffic.4. A space of 4’-0" should beprovided at the end of benches toenable strollers and wheelchairs tobe parked (Figure 12-4).5. A space of 5’-0" should beprovided between the front edge ofthe seat and any stationaryobstacle such as a water fountain,trash receptacle or sign post.

Figure 12-5.6. Especially where longer-termsitting occurs, seats should bedesigned with back supports,contoured seats and arm rests forcomfort in sitting and support ingetting up and down from the seat(fig. 12-5).

Figure 12-4.

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Figure 12-6.7. Seat height should be 18"-20" from the ground and beuniform and level (fig. 12-6).8. Seat depth should be 12"minimum to 18" maximum (16"ideal) and be pitched back at anangle of 0-5 degrees to the horizon(fig. 12-7).

Figure 12-7.9. Seat width should be 24" perperson.10. Back rests should be 15"-18"high (16" ideal) and at an angle of90-110 degrees to the seat (105degrees ideal).11. Arm rests should be 6" highfrom the seat and be a minimumwidth of 1½".12. The seat should overhangthe support legs by a minimum of4" to provide heel space and tofacilitate rising from a seatingposition.13. Seat surfaces should bepitched or slotted to shed water.14. Seats should be constructedto support a minimum of 250pounds for each person they aredesigned to accommodate.

fig. 12-8.15. Seat surfaces should besmooth and constructed ofmaterials that do not tend to eitherretain heat or cold, or splinter.Redwood, alerce, and verticalgrained tank stock douglas fir arerecommended wood seatingsurfaces.16. Seats should have no sharpedges or protruding hardware.17. All wood should benonsplintering and have roundededges.a. All metal should haverounded edges and be rustproof.b. All mounting hardwareshould be concealed, recessedand/or plugged.c. Seating in areas subject tovandalism should be selected withcare for firm anchoring to theground and durable materials.

Figure 12-9.

B. Seating Walls.1. Seat height should be 18"-22" (fig. 12-8).2. Seat depth should be 12"minimum and 18" maximum.3. Seating surface should bepitched 1/8" per 12" to allowsurface water to drain back into theplanting bed (fig. 12-9).4. Seating surface shouldideally have a 4" overhang from theplanter wall for heel space andfacilitate rising from a seatingposition.5. Provide 2'-0" for leg space infront of the seat edge in order notto impede pedestrian traffic.6. Use dull and light coloredmaterials for seating surfaces thatwill be in direct sunlight to keepthem cooler. Use dark and shinysurfaces only in shaded locationsso they do not becomeuncomfortably hot in the directsunlight.7. Vegetation near seatingwalls should not conflict withpedestrians or people sitting; avoidspecies that are invasive, injuriousor that shed excessive or stainingdebris.

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C. Tables.1. Table height should be30"33" (fig. 12-10).2. Table depth should be 18"minimum if utilized from one sideonly (36" if utilized from bothsides).

Figure 12-10.3. Table length should be 24"per person.4. Leg space under tables(from the inside edge of seat top tothe nearest table support) shouldbe 18".5. A minimum verticalclearance of 9" should be providedbetween the seat top and thebottom edge of the table top.

Figure 12-11.

Figure 12-12.

6. Stationary picnic tablebenches should not have backrests (figs. 12-11 and 12-12).7. Table tops should be smoothsurfaced with no recesses thatmight hold water or food particles.8. All edges and corners shouldhave rounded, eased or chamferededges; all hardware should beconcealed, recessed or plugged.9. Provisions for thehandicapped.

Figure 12-13.a. A clear space of 29" from theground to the underside of thetable should be provided forwheelchair-dependent persons topull up beneath the table top at theend of the table; a minimum of 18"should be provided from the end ofthe table top to the nearest supportleg (figs. 12-13 and 12-14).

Figure 12-14.

b. A clear width of 34" isnecessary to accommodate awheelchair-dependent person.c. Provisions should be madefor hard-surfaced paved access forpersons handicapped in theirmovement (crutches or canes),wheelchair-dependent persons andpersons with strollers or carriages.12-4.Outdoor Drinking Fountains, .A. Location.1. Drinking fountains shouldgenerally be located alongwalkways and hard-surfaced pavedareas that are easily accessible(fig. 12-15).2. Drinking fountains should belocated conveniently to a potablewater supply line or well.

Figure 12-15.

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3. More frequent locations arerequired where outdoor eatingoccurs and on installations thathave warm climates.

Figure 12-16.B. equipment.1. Nozzle height should be36"39" from the ground for adults;the height for children should be24"-30", provided by either aseparate fountain or steppingblocks to an adult fountain (fig. 12-16). (See also "Provisions for theHandicapped" below.)2. Drinking fountain controlsshould preferably be hand-operated levers rather than knobsor foot pedals.3. Both nozzle and controlsshould be located at the front of thefountain.4. A minimum 18" wide pavedarea should be provided aroundthe fountain to avoid both mud andpuddles.5. Fountain bowls should beeither bronze or stainless steel andequipped with strainers.

Figure 12-17.

6. Stepping blocks for childrenshould be located so as not tointerfere with access to thefountain by either normal ambulentadults or wheelchair-dependentpeople.C. Provisions for theHandicapped.1. Avoid locating fountains innarrow wall recesses withinsufficient space for access bywheelchair-dependent persons.2. Specific provisions forwheelchair-dependent personsinclude a 12’-18" cantileveredfountain bowl with a nozzle heightof 34" above the ground and aminimum 27" vertical clearancebelow the fountain bowl to theground (fig. 12-17).3. Provide a hard-surfacedpaved fountain pad with aminimum width of 36" and length of4'-0” from the adjacent sidewalk.12-5.Outdoor Telephone Booths.A. Location and Service.1. Telephone booths should belocated relative to potential use,convenience and installation costs.2. Highly visible locations arebest for better utilization andconvenience as well as greatersecurity from vandalism.3. All service line wiring shouldbe underground or concealed.4. Telephone booths should beaccessible by hard-surfaced pavedsidewalks.5. Locate booths so as not toimpede or obstruct pedestriantraffic on adjacent sidewalks.6. Telephone booths should beintegrated with other streetfurnishings or conveniencecenters, such as bus or vendingmachine shelters, whereverpossible.

B. Equipment.1. Provide overhead weatherprotection at a minimum height of6'-6" from the ground; semi-enclosed housing systems withoverhead weather protection andacoustical panels are preferable tototally enclosed telephone boothhousing systems (fig. 12-18).2. Telephone booth materialsshould be easily maintained andresistant to vandalism smoothsurfaced and resistant to defacing).3. Telephone booths should beequipped with lighting for nighttimeuse.

Figure 12-18.4. Normal telephone mountingheight is 5'-0" from the coin slot tothe ground. (See also "Provisionsfor the Handicapped" below.)5. Telephone booths should bemounted with a setback of 3'-0'"from the sidewalk and with aminimum lateral spacing of 30" pertelephone.6. Other provisions includetelephone book storage, a packagerest/writing ledge at a height of 30"from the ground with a pullout orfold-down seat.7. Attractive, modulartelephone booth systems, availablethrough the telephone company,are appropriate at locationsrequiring future flexibility to expandthe number of available booths.

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Figure 12-19.C. Provisions for theHandicapped.1. All groups of telephonesshould have at least one lowerheight telephone for use by thehandicapped and children.2. Telephone mounting heightfor the handicapped is 4’-0"maximum from the highestoperating mechanism to theground (fig. 12-19).3. Other helpful provisions forthe handicapped include volumecontrols on headsets and pushbutton dials.12-6.Bus Shelters.A. Location.1. Bus shelters should belocated where warranted by thedegree of use and need forweather protection.2. Bus shelters should beadjacent to paved sidewalks andnot impede pedestrian traffic.B. Design.1. Bus shelters should provideprotection from inclement weatherconditions typical at the installation(fig. 12-20).a. Installations in warmerclimates generally require onlyoverhead rain and sun protection.b. Installations in colderclimates require not only overheadprotection but also enclosures ontwo or three sides for windprotection during colder periods ofthe year.

Figure 12-20.2. Bus shelter designs shouldbe simple, unobtrusive, consistentthroughout the installation andharmonious with the architecturalcharacter of the installation interms of their form, scale,materials and details.3. Design bus shelters withsight lines to approaching buses; ifthe shelter has side enclosures,transparent openings should beprovided for visibility and safety.4. Bus shelter size depends onthe anticipated use; the shelter canbe generally sized by applying anarea standard of 8 squarefeet/person to the typical maximumnumber of waiting persons at anyone time during a day withinclement weather conditions. Theseating capacity under covershould be equal to the averagenumber of persons waiting at thebus stop.5. Bus shelters should have aminimum size of 5’ x8’ (40 squarefeet.)

6. Outdoor seating can beprovided near the bus shelter forwaiting during pleasant weatherconditions.7. Structural supports for busshelters should be located out ofthe path of persons circulatingwithin the shelter or passing theshelter.8. All waiting areas at busshelters should have hard-surfacedpaving that adequately drains toprevent puddles.9. The minimum setback fromthe curb should be 3’-6".10. Provide a minimum height of6’-6" from the ground to theunderside of the protective roof orcanopy.11. Provide light at bus sheltersthat will be used at night.12. Provide amenities such asbus route identification, schedulingand route maps, and an installationmap directory. (See Chapter 10:Signing.)13. Bus shelters should serve asa multi-functional facility; other sitefurnishings that could beincorporated into bus shelterdesign include a bulletin board,telephone booth, drinking fountain,mailbox, and newspaper vendingmachine.

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C. Provisions for theHandicapped.These include hard-surfacedpaving and curb-free access.Sufficient space should beallocated for wheelchair circulationand parking within the bus shelter.12-7.Vending Machine Shelters.A. Location.1. Vending machine sheltersshould be provided to organize andconsolidate vending machines intoattractive convenience centerswhen these machines cannot belocated in recessed building alcovespaces (fig. 12-21).2. Vending shelters shouldgenerally be located convenientlyto work and residential centers andpicnic areas.3. Locate shelters in highlyvisible places to attract users andprovide security from vandalism.4. Avoid locations nearentrance areas to the installation.5. Vending shelters should beaccessible by hard-surfacedsidewalks, but not obstruct orimpede pedestrian traffic.6. Electrical feeder service tovending shelters should beunderground or concealed.B. Equipment and Design.1. The design of the vendingshelter enclosure should beharmonious with the architecturalcharacter of the surroundings interms of its form, scale, materials.and details.

Figure 12-21.2. Vending machines should bea coordinated system; typicalvending machine modules are 36"wide, 30" deep, and 6’-6" high.3. Vending shelters shouldpreferably provide overheadweather protection for users aswell as machines.4. Provide adequate trashreceptacles that are integrated withthe design of the shelter.5. Provide seating area,preferably both under protectivecover as well as outdoor, adjacentto the shelter.6. Provide light in front of themachines for nighttime use andsecurity7. Other accessory sitefurnishings that could be integratedwith the design of the shelterinclude a telephone booth,mailbox, bulletin board, installationdirectory map, drinking fountainand newspaper vending machine.C. Provisions for theHandicapped.Hard-surfaced, barrier-free accessshould be provided. Vendingmachine systems should beprovided with coin slots, selectionbuttons and dispensers at amaximum height of 4’-0" from theground

12-8.Kiosks.A. Use and Location.Kiosks can be used as informationand notice centers, especiallyalong high use pedestrian andvisitor traffic areas (fig. 12-22).1. Provide kiosks only in areaswhere they are needed; have highvisibility as well as exposure topedestrian traffic.

Figure 12-22.2. Locate kiosks with sufficienthard-surfaced paved area foraccommodating users withoutimpeding passing pedestriantraffic.

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B. Design.Kiosks should be designed to fulfilltheir intended function whileblending compatibly with theirsetting.1. The form, scale, andmaterials of kiosks should relateharmoniously to the architecturalcharacter of their setting.2. Try to establish a commondesign vocabulary for kiosks, busshelters and vending shelterswithin the installation.12-9.Walls and Fencing.A. Functions andApplicability.1. Walls and fencing should beused appropriately for the followingfunctions:a. Securityb. Boundary definitionc. Visual screeningd. Wind screeninge. Pedestrian and vehiculartraffic controlf. Retaining soil (gradechange)g. Recreational ball screens(tennis, etc.)2. Walls and fencing should beof appropriate design andmaterials to fulfill their functionwhile in harmony with the characterand appearance of their setting.a. Chain link type fencingshould generally be limited to usessuch as security fencing, generalboundary fencing or tennis courtfencing.b. Wood or masonry walls andfencing are generally the mostcompatible and harmoniousmaterials for use in residentialenvironments.

Figure 12-23.c. Trash containers should bescreened effectively with opaquefences or walls of appropriatedesign and materials compatiblewith the architectural character andsetting (fig. 12-23).d. Earth berms and plantmaterials are preferable to eitherwalls or fencing when screeningparking lots, loading and storage

Figure 12-24.areas, or similar functions fromview along main roads of theinstallation (fig. 12-24).3. The visual character of mainentrances to installations shouldnot be dominated by chain link typefencing; either more attractive typefencing should be used or thevisual obtrusiveness of the chainlink fencing should be minimizedby the use of plant materials anddull black chain link fencing (vinylclad).B. Fencing.1. Unless specifically designedfor security purposes, fencingshould not present anyunnecessary dangers for peoplewho might be tempted to climbover.

fig. 12-262. Support posts should beadequately strong and properlyanchored to the ground so that thefence will not collapse under eitherhigh winds or the weight of aclimber (fig. 12-25).3. The fence material should bewell-secured to all posts.4. Fencing should be free of alldangerous appendages orprojections that would be injuriousto persons on an adjacent walkwayor playfield; all exposed fasteningdevices and material edges shouldbe rounded off, knuckled orcapped to prevent cuts andabrasions.5. All slatted fences and railingsshould avoid horizontal or verticalspacings between 5"-7" wherechildren’s heads might easily becaught between members (fig. 12-26).C. Walls.1. All necessary low walldesigns should consider thepossibility of incorporating seatingsurfaces, if appropriate.2. Weep holes and wall drainsshould not drain onto and acrosswalkways where they could createslippery ice spots during wintermonths in colder climates.

fig. 12-25

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Figure 12-27.3. Walls adjacent to pedestrianwalkways should be free ofappendages or projections such asdrain pipes or signs that couldinjure passing pedestrians (fig. 12-27).4. Handrails for thehandicapped should be consideredalong higher walls adjacent towalkways.D. Baffle Walls.1. Baffle walls should be usedto block direct views into an areawithout hindering access orproviding doors, such as at entriesto outdoor rest rooms (fig. 12-28).2. There should be a minimumclearance of 4’-0" between walls ofa baffle.3. Where semi-ambulentpeople will use the facility,handrails mounted 32"-36" fromthe ground should be provided onthe walls and be able to support200 pounds.

Figure 12-28.E. Chain Barriers.1. Chain barriers shouldgenerally be avoided as a fencingtype because of theirineffectiveness and the safetyhazards they create forpedestrians, bicyclists and

automobiles if inadequatelyidentified as obstacles.2. Chain barriers should only beused as vehicle barriers in areassuch as drop-offs where there islow-speed traffic.3. Vehicle chain barriers shouldbe designed to be suspendedbetween sturdy, well-anchoredsupports with the lowest (mostslack) point of the chain being aminimum of 2’-8" above theground; the chain barrier should bewell-marked with reflector devicesso that it can be easily recognizedat night (fig. 12-29).

Figure 12-29.F. Gates.1. A gate should be compatiblein design and materials to thefence or wall in which it is located.2. The width of the gate shouldbe adequate for wheelchairaccess.3. Gates should be rigidlyconstructed to prevent racking andshould be securely anchored to thewall or fence.12-10.Trash and Garbage Receptacles.A. Trash Receptacles andLitter Baskets.1. Trash receptacles should beattractive sidewalk furnishings of aconsistent design throughout theinstallation (figs. 12-30, 12-31 and12-32).2. Combine trash receptacleswith other site furnishings to createconsolidated, multi-purposefacilities where possible.

Figure 12-30.

Figure 12-32.3. Trash receptacles should behighly visible and immediatelyavailable for effective litter control.Locate receptacles convenientlyand strategically along sidewalks,near major walkway intersections,building entrances, benches,vending machine areas andrecreation and picnic areas.4. Locate trash receptacles tothe side of walkways so as not toimpede pedestrian traffic or createsafety hazards.5. Trash receptacles should beof the proper size and distributionto provide adequate capacity andavoid overspilling; proper capacitydepends on the rate of trashaccumulation and the frequency ofcollection.

Figure 12-31.

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fig. 12-33.

6. Receptacle designs witheither disposable inner-linings orremovable/reusable innercontainers are preferable toselfdumping type designs (hingedbottom, top or sides).7. Consider weather protection,odor containment, and desiredinsect-proofing when selecting atrash receptacle design.8. Receptacles with hingeddeposit door openings should be ofthe type that can be operated by asingle hand movement; avoid foot-operated lid-type receptacles.9. Trash deposit openingsshould be approximately 3’-0"above the ground.10. Trash receptacles should besufficiently strong and stable toresist overturning either by typicaluse, high winds, or animalsseeking food.11. All receptacle edges shouldbe crimped, rounded and smoothto prevent cuts and abrasions andto encourage use.

B. Garbage Cans andDumpster Containers.1. Garbage cans and dumpstercontainers should be convenientlylocated to the facility they serve.2. Avoid garbage can anddumpster locations adjacent tomain roads and sidewalks of theinstallation.

Figure 12-34.

Figure 12-35.

3. All garbage can anddumpster container areas shouldbe screened on at least three sidesby an opaque fence or wall ofsufficient height to block views ofthe containers (fig. 12-33).4. In addition to the enclosurescreening, plant material and earthberms should be used for generalscreening of the trash collectionareas from view of main roads,sidewalks and building entrances.5. Garbage can and dumpstercontainer areas should be directlyaccessible by paved parking lot orservice roads; adequate turningradius, parking length andoverhead clearance (from trees,utilities and structures) should beprovided for the trash collectionvehicle (figs. 12-34 and 12-35).6. All garbage can anddumpster container areas shouldbe on hard-surface paved pads forease of access and maintenance;any curb along the collectionaccess side should be ramped.7. Provide adequate storagecapacity to handle accumulatedrefuse between collection periods(figs. 12-36, 12-37 and 12-38).8. All garbage cans anddumpster containers should haveproperly fitting lids that can besecurely fastened to contain odorand discourage animals andinsects.9. Dumpster lids or slidingdoors should be easily operable byusers; convenience steps shouldbe provided if necessary fordumping into high containers. (fig.12-39).

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Figure 12-36.

Figure 12-37..C. Large Bulk RefuseContainers.1. Large bulk refuse containers,such as might be used at shoppingcenters or industrial areas, shouldbe located at a truck loading dockarea of the facility they serve (fig.12-40).2. Large refuse containersshould be located in a way toscreen them from view of majorroads, building entrances andadjacent residential, office orcommercial areas. Large refusecontainers should be screened byan attractive opaque enclosure,planting and/or earth berm.3. Large refuse containersshould be located on hard-surfacepaved pads or loading docks thatare directly accessible by collectiontrucks; provide adequate turningradius, parking length andoverhead clearance for the refusecollection truck and its containerloading operation.

Figure 12-38.

Figure 12-3912-11.Monuments and Memorials.A. Memorial Plaques.1. Memorial andcommemorative plaques should becompatible in terms of their scale,materials and details with thearchitectural character of theirsettings; they should be designedas an integral part of a buildingdesign or landscape feature (fig.12-41).Fig. 12-40.

2. Where a number ofmemorials or commemorativeplaques are contemplated for aninstallation, consideration shouldbe given to organizing them in acentral area or plaza specificallydesigned for such a purpose.(See Paragraph 10-6; SpecialSigning.)B. Monuments and HistoricMilitary Equipment Displays.1. Monuments and militaryequipment displays should becarefully designed at prominentlocations if they are to serve asvisual focal points within theinstallation.2. Where a number of historicalmilitary equipment is contemplatedfor display, they should not bespread indiscriminately throughoutthe installation, but ratherconsolidated into one

Figure 12-41.

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Figure 12-42.area to create a central museum orexhibition facility within theinstallation (fig. 12-42).12-12.Miscellaneous.A. Flagpoles.1. A standard flagpole designshould be used throughout theinstallation (fig. 12-43).2. Avoid unnecessary flagpolelocations and proliferation; con-

Figure 12-43.sider creating a unique focal pointby grouping flagpoles to createvisual highlight and emphasis.3. Use a hard-surface pavingmaterial on at least one side of aflagpole to facilitate personnelaccess for raising and loweringflags.

B. Mailboxes.1. Locate mailboxes as closeas possible to the buildings theyserve; coordinate location with thePostal Service and type of delivery(fig. 12-44).2. If group mailboxes arenecessary, provide centrallocations that are weatherprotected and highly visible.3. Where possible, combinegroup mailbox shelters with othermulti-purpose shelters such asvending shelters, telephone orbulletin board areas.4. Locate mailboxes adjacentto hard-surface walkways but notso as to impede pedestrianmovement.5. Freestanding mailboxshelters should relateharmoniously to the architecturalcharacter of the setting in terms oftheir form, materials and details.

Figure 12-44.

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Chapter 13. Utilities.

Utility systems provide the basicinfrastructure of power,communication, water and sewerservices necessary for theoperation of an installation. Theyhave played a key role indetermining the visual character 6finstallations. First, their locationand alignment have exerted amajor influence on the historical

development pattern ofinstallations and remain as primaryconsiderations in determining thefeasibility and location of futuredevelopment. Second, streetrights-of-way have traditionallybeen used for the location of mostutility systems. This provides anefficient distribution system thatserves development fronting on

both sides of the street, but resultsin a cluttered and unattractivestreetscape when transmitted onoverhead lines. Various planningand landscape design techniquescan serve to reduce these negativeimpacts on the visual quality ofmilitary installations.

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Section I:

Observations and Objectives.

13-1.Typical Problems.A. General Location.Major reasons for locating utilitieswithin street rights-of-way includeminimizing utility easements, landclearance, capital investments andoperational costs while maximizingthe ease

Figure 13-1.of access for maintenance andrepair. However, there are alsoproblems associated with sitingutilities within the street right-of-way, including disruption of trafficcaused by repairs and the clutter orunsightliness of above gradefacilities along the streetscape(figs. 13-1 and 13-2).B. Overhead Utilities.The alternatives of siting utilitiesunderground, behind facilities orbehind plant screens havegenerally not been considered.Underground distribution may bemore expensive initially, but itreduces breaks, does not interferewith trees, and eliminates theclutter of poles with overheadtransmission lines.

Figure 13-2.

Figure 13-3.Recently developed cable buryingtechniques have reduced costssubstantially. Even if undergrounddistribution cannot be justified, theopportunity usually exists tominimize the detrimental visualimpact by proper location,screening and detailing.

C. Storm Drainage.An inadequate or poorly designedstorm drainage system is anotherproblem observed at manyinstallations. Often open drainageditches or channels are improperlydesigned, resulting in a number ofproblems including: soil erosion,unsafe conditions, and recurrentand costly maintenance problems(fig. 13-3).

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13-2.Objectives.A. Minimize the Visual Impactof Utilities.Utility systems should be designedwith a concern for theirappearance. Past emphasis hasbeen concerned almost solely withcost and efficiency. A purefunctional expression of utilitysystems can be attractive.However, utility poles, aboveground steam lines and openstorm drains are often unsightlyand detract from the appearance ofan installation. These detrimentaleffects can be ameliorated throughappropriate location, screening anddetailing of utility systems.B. Minimize theEnvironmental Impact of UtilitySystems.Utility systems should be designedto minimize adverse environmentalimpacts. Such concerns will alsocontribute to an improved visualenvironment. In particular, carefulstorm water drainage designshould minimize soil erosion whichcan damage natural vegetation aswell as be unsightly.C. Design Utility Systems forEase of Maintenance and Repair.The most cost effective system isnot always the one that costs theleast initially. The location anddetailing of system componentscan greatly affect maintenance andrepair which are a large part of life-cycle costs of any system.

Section II:

DesignGuidelines.

13-3.Appearance.A. Power and Telephone.Unsightly overhead utilities shouldbe relocated undergroundwherever possible; when notpossible, the negative visualimpact of these facilities should beminimized by location, alignment,design and screening.1. Overhead TransmissionLines. These facilities should belocated compatibly with thelandform and land use pattern ofthe installation; they should bescreened from major viewingpoints by plant material andtopographic features to minimizetheir silhouette and long views ofthe system; and they should have asimple and transparent designcharacter.a. Land Use. Overheadtransmission lines should bealigned along edges of land useareas to avoid dividing an area andcreating gaps or unusable areas;alignments should avoid scenicareas (fig. 13-4).

Figure 13-4.

Figure 13-5.b. Landform. Overheadtransmission lines should conformto natural landforms which shouldbe utilized to screen them frompublic view; hills should be crossedobliquely rather than at rightangles; avoid alignments along hillcrests or steep grades that exposefacilities to view (fig. 13-5).c. View Screening. Minimizelong views and silhouette views ofoverhead transmission lines fromalong major roads and other publicviewing areas. Avoid the "tunneleffect" of long, straight,uninterrupted views along thealignment by clearing vegetationonly within the right-of-way thatthreatens the over-

Figure 13-6.

Figure 13-7.head lines. Jog the alignment atroad crossings and periodicallyundulate and feather plantmaterials along the edges of theright-of-way (figs. 13-6 and 13-7).

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2. Distribution Lines.Power distribution lines shouldpreferably be located underground;if overhead, they should be locatedout of view from main publicvisibility areas or screened to be asunobtrusive as possible.

Figure 13-8.a. Underground. Useunderground distribution lineswherever possible, especially alongmajor roads and silhouetteexposure areas such as streetcrossings and building feederservice (fig. 13-8).b. Overhead. Avoidalignments along major publiccirculation ways and, instead, useminor streets, alleyways orplacements

Figure 13-9.

Figure 13-10.

Figure 13-11.related to vegetation andtopography that screen views andminimize their visual impact (fig.13-9). Use trees to provide abackdrop to minimize thesilhouette of facilities against thesky (fig. 13-10). Reduce the lengthof visible segments by interruptingviews with trees or offsetting thelocation behind trees andtopographic features where longviews of the lines along a roadwould otherwise occur. Use polesand line attachments which have asimple design and whose color,materials and general appearanceblend harmoniously with theirsurroundings. Minimize thenumber of poles and pole heightwhile also making poles multi-functional, i.e., power, telephone,street lighting, etc.3. Substations andTransformers. They should belocated and designed to minimizetheir visual impact and becompatible with the character oftheir setting. Substations are bestlocated in industrial use areasrather than in major pubiccirculation areas (fig. 13-11).Substations and transformers

Figure 13-12

should be screened from publicview by means of plant materials,topography and enclosure walls(figs. 13-12 and 13-13). The noisegenerated can be muffled by usingplants, earth berms and enclosurewalls.

Figure 13-13.B. Sewer and Water.All sewer and water lines should beunderground. Sewer and watertreatment facilities should bescreened from views of majorroads and other installationfacilities by the use of earth berms,plant materials, fencing and/orenclosure walls. A water storagetank that has visual strength in itsform can be used as a focal pointor identifying landmark that can aidin providing a sense of orientation

Figure 13-14.

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within an installation (fig. 13-14).Fire hydrants should be highlyvisible and free of any screening;they should be a uniform designthroughout the installation; avoiddecorative painting of fire hydrants.C. Storm Drainage.Installation storm drainagesystems should be appropriate tothe character of developmentwhich they serve (fig. 13-15).Storm drainage systems in denselydeveloped areas require the use ofcurbs, gutters and undergroundlines. Storm drainage systems inrelatively low density areas shouldbe handled

Figure 13-15.by drainage swales and ditcheswhich are compatibly contouredinto the natural landform. Potentialopportunities to create permanentponds as special landscapefeatures or temporary storm waterretention ponds should beconsidered when designing thestorm water control system of aninstallation (fig. 13-16). Temporaryretention ponds, if designed withcare, can be utilized during thenormal, or dry stages, asrecreational areas such as athleticfields or as portions of a golfcourse. Temporary retentionponds should normally be plantedin grass.

Figure 13-16.13-4.Environmental Impact.A. Power and Telephone.Minimize negative environmentalimpacts in the clearance andconstruction of these facilities.Select route alignments that willmaximize preservation of thenatural landscape and conservenatural resources. Avoid steepslope areas with high erosionpotential and areas of water,marshlands or wildlifeconcentration. Also promote joint-use or common utility lineeasements to reduce the numberof individual system rights-of-way.Clear only vegetation thatphysically threatens thetransmission lines and avoid use ofspray defoliants. Employ adequateerosion and sediment controlpractices to minimize soil erosionduring construction.B. Sewer and Water.Minimize negative environmentalimpacts associated with sewer andwater line construction andtreatment facilities.1. Treatment Facilities.Sanitary sewer treatment facilitiesshould provide adequate treatmentof effluent to be released into areceiving stream that is capable ofabsorption; furthermore, treatmentfacilities should be designed withdirect noise baffling, plant materialand/or earth berm screening to

reduce noise. Consider potentialspray irrigation disposal of treatedeffluent, particularly for recreationareas such as golf course andrecreational fields.2. Alignment. Minimizenegative environmental impactsassociated with alignment andconstruction of underground sewerand water lines. Consider lowpressure sewer line pumpingsystems utilizing street rights-of-way in areas where gravity sewerlines would cause excessive siteclearance and regrading toaccommodate an alignment otherthan in the street right-of-way.C. Storm Drainage.Design storm water drainagesystems to protect downstreamwatersheds and waterways fromflooding and silting.1. Each project should bedesigned so that the surface waterleaving the site after the project iscomplete is not significantly greaterthan that leaving prior todevelopment of the site.

Figure 13-17.2. Paved surfaces should bethe minimum required andprevious areas of planting shouldbe maximized to lessen stormwater runoff. Consideration shouldbe given to the use of perviouspaving or paving blocks that permitgrass to grow through them, asmeasures to reduce storm waterrunoff (fig. 13-17). While currentlythe maintenance and durabilitycharacteristics of these materials isnot adequately proven,

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they could be tested and evaluatedin controlled sections on someprojects to determine theirsuitability prior to any widespreadapplication throughout aninstallation. Careful considerationshould, however, be given to thepotential hazards such pavingsystems night pose forhandicapped individuals.3. Artificial drainage courses,particularly outlet waterways, mustbe constructed of materialssuitable to the quantity and velocityof storm water runoff. Wherepossible, they should be vegetativechannels. Plant growth can bepromoted by the addition of jutematting or paper protective linings(fig. 13-18).4. Outlet waterways with slopesor flows greater than that whichcan be safely vegetated should betreated with riprap or gabion

Figure 13-18.mattresses. Concretechannelization should be avoided(fig. 13-19).5. It is normally appropriate toperform a soil survey to predict thebehavioral characteristics of areasyielding, receiving or impoundingrunoff.6. Storm water managementshould be considered for eachwatershed rather than the arealimited to new development. It is

Figure 13-19.usually advantageous to combinestorm water management forseveral small developments in onefacility.7. Proper erosion and sedimentcontrol practices should befollowed for disturbed areas duringconstruction of all facilities withinthe installation. These includeseeding, sediment control basinsand structures.13-5.Maintenance and Repair.Utility systems should be designedto minimize required maintenanceand repair, provide access formaintenance and repair vehiclesand minimize the disruptive effectsof maintenance and repairoperations.

Figure 13-20.

A. Care should be taken tocorrect minor erosion problemsearly, before they develop intoserious ones.B. Storm water managementponds should be designed withside slopes flat enough toaccommodate normal grass cuttingequipment and with bottoms steepenough to allow complete drainage(fig. 13-20).C. Storm water managementponds should be constructed withlow-flow outlet channels suitable tocarry flows without causingerosion.

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This part visually summarizes theinstallation Design Manual,illustrating how the practical andcoordinated use of the designguidelines can improve fiveprototypical facility areascommonly found on militaryinstallations. These prototypeareas include: main installationentrances,administrative/headquarters areas,housing areas, community facilitiesand industrial/warehouse areas.

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Chapter 14.Main Entrances.

Figure 14-1:Main Entrance Problem.Main entrances establish the initialvisual impression of a militaryinstallation. In addition to servingas a gateway and checkpoint foraccess control and security, theyare critical areas for directional andinformational signing to guidemotorists to their destination. Thedesign of main entrances shouldbe attractive as well as functional,conveying an appropriate "sense ofentry" that reflects the desiredimage and identity of theinstallation. The existing mainentrance illustrated here containsmany problems observed atvarious installations, including:

1. An unattractive overallappearance, lacking an appropriatephysical "sense of entry."2. Ineffective identificationalsigning.3. Visually cluttered andcompeting elements along theentrance.4. Unattractive overhead utilitylines.5. Barren landscape character.

6. Unattractive chain linkboundary fencing.7. No traffic channelizatlonprovisions for turning movementsor temporary stopping withoutobstructing traffic.8. Unsafe on-street parking.9. No overhead weatherprotection at gatehousecheckpoint.10. Uncoordinated directionalsigning.

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Figure 14-2:Main Entrance Solution.The primary visual design objectiveis to create an attractive and safe"sense of entry" that reflects anappropriate character, image andidentity for the installation.Essential elements of theimprovement program 1llustratedhere include: 1. A pylon entrancesign serving as an identificationallandmark for approaching traffic.2. A simplified entry mediandesign utilizing flagpoles tohighlight entrance.3. Overhead utility linesrelocated underground.4. Lighting standards relocatedto minimize competing visualelements along entry median.5. Low-maintenance groundcover planting to enhance entrymedian and reduce sun glare andsolar heat reflection whilepreserving sight lines.6. Street trees to spatiallydefine entrance area and visuallyreinforce traffic circulation.7. Plant material and dull blackfinish to minimize the visualprominence of the chain linkboundary fencing.

8. Overhead gatehouse canopyto define checkpoint and provideweather protection.9. Coordinated directionalsigning at the strategic motoristdecision point, designed as part ofan overall signing system for theinstallation.10. Provision of left turn lane andpull-off lane for temporary stoppingto improve traffic channelization.

11. Provision of off-streetparking with planted earth bermscreening to minimize its visualimpact.

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Chapter 15.

Administrative Headquarters.

Figure 15-1Administrative HeadquartersProblem.Administrative Headquarters areasserve as the primary decision-making center of the installationand should provide an attractiveworking environment for militarypersonnel and visitors. Typically,these facilities are centrally-locatedbuildings of substantialarchitectural character whosesetting has been modified toaccommodate increased demandsfor automobile parking.The Administrative Headquartersillustrated here contains a numberof typical problems associated withthe visual quality of these facilitiesat many installations. The exampleconsists of a series of two- tothree-story buildings connected bya covered pedestrian arcade andclustered around a central openspace, originally designed as alandscaped courtyard but laterconverted into a parking lot toserve the complex. Specificproblems include:

1. The main entrance into thefacility is poorly defined.2. Parking is not screened frommain roads.3. An inefficient central parkinglayout with expansive pavingdevoid of planting that creates anunattractive and uninviting settingfor the architecturally noteworthybuilding complex.

4. No provisions forhandicapped parking and access.5. Inefficient and chaoticparking areas around the facility.6. Unattractive and functionallyobsolete temporary buildings thatdetract from the overallappearance of the facility.7. Unnecessary parking locatedwithin a small courtyard originallyintended for pedestrian use.8. Lack of outdoor pedestrianamenities such as lunchtimeseating areas, bus shelters, etc.9. No provisions for bicycleparking.10. Poorly defined buildingentrances which haveidentificational signing ofinconsistent design.11. Unscreened serviceyard/dumpster areas.

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Fig. 15-2:Administrative HeadquartersSolution.The primary design objective hereis to enhance the character,functioning and appearance of thebuilding setting by minimizing thevisual impact of parking andproviding a pleasant plantingdesign. Specific improvementsillustrated here include:1. An entry feature withflagpoles to highlight entrance,coordinated signing system todirect visitors and a planted earthberm to screen parking.2. Redesigned central parkingarea to provide the proper numberof spaces, a clear and convenientcirculation pattern and plantedislands with large deciduous treesfor scale, shade and visual relief.6. Provision for an attractivelyplanted, drop-off/turnaround areawith bus shelter at the main

building entrance.7. Bicycle parking areasconvenient to building entrancesbut not conflicting with pedestrianand vehicular circulation.8. Drop-off areas andcoordinated identificational signingat building entrances.9. Existing low planting retainedand enhanced to provide anattractive transition betweenground plane and building massesand to articulate buildingentrances.10. Service yard/dumpster areasscreened from view of mainbuilding entrances and roads.

3. Provision for handicappedparking and curb ramps convenientto main building entrances.4. Removal of obsoletetemporary structures to createconvenient peripheral parking lots.5. Reconversion of the smallcourtyard into a pedestrian amenityfor use and enjoyment by facilitypersonnel.

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Chapter 16.

Housing.

Military installations typicallycontain three basic types ofhousing: troop housing, attachedand detached family housing.Typical problems and designimprovements to make them moreattractive residential environmentsare illustrated here for each ofthese housing types.Fig. 16-1: Troop HousingProblem.Troop housing is predominantlyprovided by dormitory-typebuildings grouped around a messhall and open space areas. Theexample illustrated here is arelatively new troop housingcomplex composed of three-storydormitory buildings connected to amess hall and clustered around anopen space network. Typicalproblems here include:

1. A sparsity of plantingcombined with the stark buildingmasses that results in a harshenvironment lacking in humanscale.2. Haphazard planting thatdisregards potential visual andfunctional usage.3. No screening of parking lotsfrom adjacent roads and buildings.4. A regimented grid walkwaysystem that is inefficient, does notreflect pedestrian desire lines ofmovement and fragments thecommon open space withoutregard to potential use.5. Overhead utilities withattached lighting fixtures.6. Visually prominent at-gradetransformer with no screening.7. Unscreened trash dumpsterservice area.

8. Lack of pedestrian amenitiessuch as outdoor seating, drinkingfountains and bus shelters.9. No recreational amenitiesprovided in conjunction with theopen space and walkway systems.10. Grounds maintenanceproblem created by grass turfextending to the building line.11. Lack of identificationalbuilding signing.

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Fig. 16-8: Troop Housing Solution.

The primary design objective here isto improve the visual character andfunctioning of the building setting by aplanting program and provision ofamenities that respond to user needs.Specific improvements include:

1. An extensive planting programto visually soften the stark buildingmasses and ground plane defines theopen space system and providesshade and human scale to the setting.2. Evergreens combined withdeciduous plant materials indigenousto the area to provide visual interestand winter greenery.3. Deciduous shade trees usedextensively on the south side ofbuildings to provide cooling summershade and warming winter sunpenetration.4. Evergreen tree massing usedextensively at the north end of theopen space for wind screening of theprevailing cold winter winds.5. Deciduous trees usedextensively on the southeast end ofthe open space to allow coolingsummer breeze penetration.6. Planted earth berms withdeciduous street trees betweenparking areas and the street for visualscreening and shade.7. Occasional planting islandswithin the parking lot relieve themonotony of large paved areas andprovide shade.

8. A meandering, free-flowingwalkway system reflecting the desirelines of pedestrian traffic to provide anefficient, visually interesting andconvenient network that enables theopen space to be varied in sizeaccording to intended use.9. Paved finger islands extendingthe walkway system into the parkingarea at strategic locations to providecollector nodes for pedestrians.10. Unsightly overhead utilitiesrelocated underground.11. Pedestrian-scaled walkwaylighting whose design is compatiblewith the architectural setting.12. At-grade transformers located ininconspicuous areas and screenedwith plant material.13. Trash dumpster enclosurefencing of compatible design andmaterials with the architectural settingto screen them from view of mainstreets and building entrances.14. A conveniently located busshelter of compatible architecturalcharacter with the setting that providesprotection from inclement weatherconditions typical to the installation.

15. Outdoor recreational amenitiesprovided as an integral part of theopen space system.16. Pedestrian amenities along thewalkway such as seating areas withtrash receptacles and drinkingfountains.17. Mowing strips with edging alongthe base of the buildings to facilitateeasier maintenance of the grass lawn.18. Identification signing at strategicdecision points along the walkwaynetwork based upon a coordinatedsigning system.

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Fig. 16-3: Attached HousingProblem.

Attached housing typically providesfamily housing for enlistedpersonnel and some officers. Acluster development pattern ofattached housing can minimizedevelopment costs by reducingroad lengths and utility runs,preserve usable open space andconserve sensitive naturalresource areas; however, clusterdevelopment requires carefuldesign attention to provide privacyfor individual units within theirrelatively dense building groupings.The example illustrated here is anattached housing cluster whosesuccess as a pleasant residentialenvironment has fallen short of itspotential, primarily due toinadequate attention to sitedevelopment details. Typicalproblems here include:

1. A sparsity of planting thatcreates a visually harsh residentialenvironment and makes housingunits more susceptible to extremesin climate conditions.2. A large parking courtyardthat lacks scale and screening forparked vehicles.3. Housing units that lackprivacy, especially end units.4. Overhead utility lines thatclutter.5. Lighting fixtures mounted toutility poles.6. A transformer located in avisually prominent area.7. Individual mailboxes thatclutter the streetscape.

8. A lack of recreationalamenities serving residents of thecluster, as exemplified by thebasketball fixture mounted to thefront of a carport which alsodetracts from the architecturalcharacter.9. An unimaginative straightentrance road that disregardsnatural topographic conditions aswell as the unsafe intersection.10. Lack of walkways linking thehousing cluster to the overallpedestrian circulation network ofthe installation.

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Fig 16-4: Attached HousingSolution.

Sensitive planting design provides theprimary means for improving thevisual appearance of the housingcluster. Specific improvements hereinclude:

1. Shade trees in rear yards,especially along south facing units, aswell as between groupings of housingunits to blend units with their naturalsetting and beneficially modifymicroclimatic conditions.2. Deciduous street trees along theedge of the parking courtyard toprovide continuity to the housingcluster and buffer housing units fromthe parking area.3. Informal planting in the centerparking island to reduce the scale ofthe parking courtyard and provide4. End parking stalls convertedinto planting islands to better definecirculation and reduce the visualimpact of the paved area.5. Rear yard privacy fencing that isconsistent in color, materials andheight throughout the housing cluster.6. Evergreen planting and treemassing to provide privacy screeningfor end housing units facing theentrance road.7. Overhead utilities relocatedunderground.8. Lighting fixtures whose design iscompatible with the residential settingand does not produce glare into thehouses.9. Screening of at-gradetransformer with evergreen shrubs.10. Group mailboxes in the centerisland to reduce clutter and facilitateefficient and convenient malldistribution.11. A convenient recreational areawith facilities appropriate to residentneeds.

12. Realignment of the entranceroad to provide a more interestingapproach that is more compatible withthe natural topography and provides asafe intersection design with theentrance road to the housing clusteracross the street.13. Walkways that link the housingcluster to the recreation area, bus stopand the overall pedestrian circulationand open space systems of theinstallation.14. An entrance feature with signingto identify the housing cluster.15. A convenient bus shelter alongthe main road designed compatiblywith the architectural character of thesetting and providing protection frominclement weather conditions typical tothe area.

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Fig. 16-5: Detached HousingProblem.

Detached single family housing onmilitary installations typicallyprovides family housing for higherranking officers. There are manysingle family subdivision patternsfound on installations, but the gridsystem is quite prevalent. Theexample Illustrated here is a singlefamily detached housing area witha grid street system. It contains anumber of common visualproblems including:

1. A grid street pattern withhouses of identical design andstreet setback that creates amonotonous residentialenvironment.2. A lack of planting thatconsequently amplifies themonotonous development patternand stark appearance of theneighborhood.3. Overhead utilities that clutterthe streetscape.4. Little physical definitionbetween public and private spaces.

5. Unsafe pedestrian circulationwithin the street as a result of lackof sidewalks.6. Pedestrian access to theneighborhood play area limited to arigidly aligned straight walkway withan undefined midblock streetcrossing.7. Obtrusive traffic noise fromthe adjacent arterial road.

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Fig. 16-6: Detached HousingSolution.

The primary design objective hereis to provide a pleasant residentialenvironment that ameliorates theotherwise monotonous andcluttered development pattern.Specific improvements include:

1. Deciduous street trees thatprovide visual continuity to thestreetscape.2. Informal planting thataddresses the visual and functionalrequirements of each housing unitwhile providing overall visualinterest to the regimenteddevelopment pattern.3. Underground utilities thatminimize streetscape clutter.4. Privacy fencing of consistentstyle, materials, color and height todefine the boundary betweenpublic and private areas.5. Varied alignment of privacyfencing to provide relief from themonotonous development patternand avoid the "alley" effect createdby continuous straight line fencing.

6. Sidewalks along the street.7. A pedestrian path systemwith meandering alignment withinthe public open space and stripedwarnings at midblock crossings.8. Increased tree massingwithin the public open space forvisual interest and shade.9. Planted earth berm to screenviews and buffer traffic noise fromthe adjacent arterial road.10. Clustered planting andstepped fencing at the streetintersection into the neighborhoodto create an entry statement.

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Chapter 17.

Community Facilities.

Fig. 17-1: Community FacilityProblem.

Community facilities on militaryinstallations are analogous to the"shopping center" in civiliancommunities. They are typicallycomprised of the exchange,commissary, post office, libraryand commercial/retail type usessuch as a bowling alley, barbershop, beauty shop, bank, drycleaners and theater, clusteredtogether in a central facility.

The example illustrated herecontains typical visual problemsassociated with such facilities onmany installations, including:1. An expansive, barrenparking lot dominating the visualsetting and presenting unattractiveviews from the main road.2. Signing whose location anddesign is ineffective, inconsistentor confusing.

3. Overhead utilities that clutterthe setting.4. Loading dock areas that canbe seen from adjacent land usesand roads.

5. Lack of pedestrian crossingarea definition.6. Building frontage lackingdefinition as a pedestrian spaceand having uncoordinated andcluttered street furniture.

7. Parking lot lighting whichlacks human scale, hasinconsistent fixtures and pole typesand lacks adequate protection fromautomobiles.

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Fig. 17-2: Community FacilitySolution.

The primary design objective hereis oriented toward directing andcirculating traffic safely whilereducing the visual impact of theexpansive barren parking lot thatserves the complex. Specificimprovements include:

1. Informal perimeter earthberm mounding and planting thatscreens the parking lot from mainroads.2. Redesigned parking lotlayout that provides plantingislands to break up the largeexpanse of paving, as well as toprovide scale, shade and an areato deposit ploughed snow duringwinter months.

3. Effective entrance sign andcoordinated directional signingsystem.4. Deciduous street trees alongthe entrance drive and end islandsof the parking lot that visuallydefine vehicular circulation.5. Overhead utilities relocatedunderground to reduce clutter.6. Screening and fencing ofloading dock service area.7. Crosswalk striping thatwarns motorists of the pedestriancrossing area.

8. Parking lot lighting fixtures ofcoordinated design, pole locationsprotected from automobile damageand pole heights that do not havean overpowering scale.

9. Plants and coordinatedpedestrian furnishings andamenities that define thepedestrianoriented areas andhighlight the building entrances.

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Chapter 18:

Industrial/ Warehousing Areas.

Fig. 18-1: Industrial/Warehousing Problem.

Industrial/warehousing areas withinmilitary installations are utilitarianenvironments that should provide asafe and pleasant workingenvironment while satisfyingfunctional and securityrequirements. These areas aretypically very stark environmentscharacterized by problems suchas:

1. Stark, plain building facadesof variable upkeep and designvintage.2. Continuous hard surfacepaving between buildings with noclear definition between vehicularand pedestrian circulation parkingand service areas.

3. On-street parking.4. Little or no planting.5. Undefined or unused spacebetween buildings.6. Lack of outdoor amenities forarea personnel.7. Cluttered open storage yardsthat can be viewed from mainroads and adjacent land use areas.8. Unattractive and inconsistentstreet lighting fixtures and polesthat do not provide adequatelighting for nighttime security andsurveillance.

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Fig. 18-2: Industrial/Warehousing Solution.

While it is appropriate that lesseffort be expended on visualconcerns in these operationalareas, there are still practicalopportunities for improvement.Improvements in these areasshould be oriented towardproviding a safe utilitarianenvironment with some form ofsmall or "vest pocket" amenitiesthat provide visual relief andrecreational facilities for areapersonnel. Proposedimprovements illustrated hereinclude:

1. Upgrade buildingappearance with a uniform level ofmaintenance throughout the area.2. Provide visual interest andbuilding identity to the stark settingby varying building colors within anestablished color palette ofcomplementary colors.3. Create a small focal pointamenity such as a "vest pocket"park on unused space betweenbuildings that introduces plantinginto the area and provides areapersonnel with an outdoor place forrelaxation, lunch time eating andrecreation.4. Reorganize the street right-of-way to provide a cleardelineation of vehicular circulationwith curbing and striping.5. Provide clearly definedbuilding service bays with curbingand planting islands.6. Relocate parking intooffstreet parking bays within theexisting space between buildings.

7. Provide sidewalks for safepedestrian movement betweenbuildings and parking.8. Screen open storage areasfrom adjacent roads and land useareas with planted earth berms infront of security fencing.

9. Provide a coordinated streetlighting system of attractive fixturesthat provide necessary nighttimeillumination for security andsurveillance.

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Appendix A.

RelatedMilitaryReference.

1. Department of Defense References.a. Manuals:DOD 4270.1M, Construction Criteria Manualb. Pamphlets:Military Traffic Management Command (MTMC), No 55-9, Do’s andDon’ts for Transportation Master PlanningMilitary Traffic Management Command (MTMC), No 55-10, TrafficEngineering for Better Roads2. Department of the Army References.a. Regulations:AR 200-1, Environmental Protection and EnhancementAR 210-20, Master Planning for Permanent Army InstallationsAR 415-15, Military Construction, Army (MCA) Program DevelopmentAR 415-20, Project Development and Design ApprovalAR 415-28, Department of the Army Facility Classes and ConstructionCategoriesb. Technical Manuals:TM 5-800-1, Construction Criteria for Army FacultiesTM 5-801-1, Historic Preservation Administrative ProceduresTM 5-801-2, Historic Preservation Maintenance ProceduresTM 5-803-1, Master Planning Principals and ProceduresTM 5-803-2, Planning In the Noise EnvironmentTM 5-803-3, Site Planning - GeneralTM 5-803-6, Site Planning of Community CentersTM 5-803-11, Children’s Play Areas and EquipmentTM 5-807-7, Color for BuildingsTM 5-811-1, Electrical DesignTM 5-812-1, Fire PreventionTM 5-813-5, Water Distribution SystemsTM 5-813-6, Water Supply for Fire ProtectionTM 5-820-4, Drainage and Erosion ControlTM 5-822-2, General Provisions and Geometric Designtor Roads, Streets, Walks and Open Storage AreasTM 5-830-2, Planting TurfTM 5-830-4, Planting and Establishment of Trees, Shrubs,Ground Covers and Vines3. Department of the Navy References.a. Design Manuals:NAVFAC DM-1 Series, ArchitectureNAVFAC DM-3 Series, Mechanical EngineeringNAVFAC DM-4 Series, Electrical Engineering

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NAVFAC DM-5 Series, Civil EngineeringNAVFAC DM-33, Hospital and Medical FacilitiesNAVFAC DM-34, Administrative FacilitiesNAVFAC DM-35, Family HousingNAVFAC DM-36 Series, Troop HousingNAVFAC DM-37 Series, Community Facilitiesb. Publications:NAVFAC P-72, Department of the Navy Facility Category CodesNAVFAC P-80, Facility Planning Factor Criteria for Navy and MarineCorps Shore InstallationsNAVFAC P-272, Definitive Designs for Naval Shore FacultiesNAVFAC P-309, Color for Naval Shore FacilitiesNAVFAC P-383, Children’s Play Areas and EquipmentNAVFAC P-905, Planting and Establishment of Trees, Shrubs, GroundCovers and VinesNAVFAC P-970, Planning In the Noise EnvironmentC. Instructions:NAVFAC Instruction 11010 57B, Site Approval of Naval ShoreFacilitiesNAVFAC Instruction 11010 63A, Planning Services for Navy andMarine Corps Shore Activities4. Department of the Air Force References.a. Regulations:AFR 86-4, Master PlanningAFR 88-33, Planning and Design of Outdoor Sports Facilitiesb. Manuals:AFM 85-6, Land Management and Grounds MaintenanceAFM 85-25, Index - Guide Specifications for Military Family HousingAFM 88-2, Air Force Design Manual, Definitive Designs of AirForce StructuresAFM 88-7, Chapter 5, General Provisions and Geometric Designtor Roads, Streets, Walks and Open Storage AreasAFM 88-15, Air Force Design Manual - Criteria and Standards ofAir Force ConstructionAFM 88-17, Chapter 2, Planting TurfAFM 88-17, Chapter 3, Dust ControlAFM 88-17, Chapter 4, Planting and Establishment of Trees, Shrubs,Ground Covers and VinesAFM 88-25, Family Housing DesignAFM 88-30, Children’s Play Areas and EquipmentAFM 88-50, Criteria for Design and Construction of Air ForceHealth FacilitiesAFM 19-10, Planning in the Noise EnvironmentAFM 300-4, Volume 4, Data Elements and Codes

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Appendix B.

Annotated Bibliography.

This bibliography provides aselected listing of basicreferences on general siteplanning and design; circulationplanning; energy conservation;site design for the handicapped;historic preservation; plantmaterials; playground design; thedesign of signing, lighting andstreet furniture; and technicalaspects of site design.

The materials included eitherapply directly to the design andplanning of military installationsor provide an overview of presentthinking within the environmentaldesign profession which may beuseful to those making siteplanning decisions for militaryinstallations.

Bibliographic selections havebeen made from over 200publications to illustrate anddefine the current state-of-the-artof site design without dwelling onanalytical, academic orphilosophical/historic materials ingreat detail. Except in specialinstances, materials dealingexclusively with the planning ofurban centers have also beenexcluded.

General.

1. Eckbo, Garrett. Urban Landscape Design, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964.

Discusses the art of space planning using examples ranging in scale from abuilding on a site to an entire neighborhood. Liberally illustrated with drawingsand photographs of selected design solutions. Includes section on outdoorrecreation.

2. Eckbo, Garrett. The Landscape We See, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1969.

Presents a view of the natural, economic and social processes which shape thebuilt environment and the role that planning and site design can have inresponding to and shaping these processes. Discusses the professionalprovince of the architect and landscape architect and the objectives of urbandesign in improving the physical relationships among elements of the builtenvironment.

3. Katz, Robert D. Design of the Housing Site, A Critique of the AmericanPractice, Small Homes Council, Building Research Council, University of Illinois,Urbana, Illinois, 1967.

Identifies technical and procedural factors influencing the quality of residentialdevelopment in the United States. Illustrated with most frequently encounteredresidential development plan types from high density urban to suburban.Common residential site planning problems presented, but this is not a "how-to"book.

4. Laurie, Michael. An Introduction to Landscape Architecture, AmericanElsevier Publishing Co., New York, 1975.

A series of essays on aspects of landscape architecture as currently practiced.Focus is on the synthesis of ecological and social parameters of land use policyand detail design form. The book is a general overview designed as anintroductory text for students or persons in related design fields. Contains somegood illustrated examples of landscape detailing and a section on microclimatecontrol.

5. Lynch, Kevin. Site Planning (Second Edition), The M.I.T. Press, Cambridge,Mass., 1971.

A standard reference and teaching text. Includes a thorough discussion of siteplanning theory, fundamentals of site analysis, organization of site activities andcirculation systems. Technical sections follow discussion of design principles.Specific project types dealt with in greater detail are housing, commercialcenters, industrial parks, institutions and recreational facilities.

6. Marlowe, Olwen C. Outdoor Design, A Handbook For The Architect andPlanner, Watson-Guptill Publications, New York, 1977.

Discusses frequently encountered site design conditions and provides usefulguidelines and techniques for treatment of site components. The book initiallyfocuses on site clearance, ground contour and soil preparation issues and thenproceeds to outline functional and aesthetic uses of landscape structures,lighting, paving materials, trees and shrubs and outdoor furniture.

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7. McHarg, Ian L. Design With Nature, Doubleday/National History Press,Doubleday & Company, Inc., Garden City, New York, 1969.

An important polemic on how the principles of ecology can help solve theenvironmental problems faced in land development. Focus is on regional scaleplanning but the attitudes expressed are basic to planning at all scales. Includescase studies of regional ecological analysis leading to land use and sitedevelopment conclusions.

8. McKeever, J. Ross, ed. Community Builders Handbook, The Urban LandInstitute, 1200 18th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036, 1969.

Designed as a practical reference manual for residential and commercial landdevelopment. Establishes a high standard for private developers. Useful indefining practical design standards and alternative development patterns.Defines and illustrates land planning terms.

9. Newman, Oscar. Design Guidelines for Creating Defensible Space, NationalInstitute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, Law Enforcement AssistanceAdministration, U.S. Department of Justice, 1976.

Concise discussion of security problems encountered in residential site planningand building design. Contains definitive design criteria. Useful guide inorganizing and relating public and private space. Application of criteria does notconflict with what is generally considered good residential site planning practice.Amply illustrated.

10. Rubenstein, Harvey M. A Guide to Site Planning and EnvironmentalPlanning. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1969.

Presents the standard textbook approach to site planning beginning with siteanalysis of natural, cultural and aesthetic features leading to land use planningbased primarily on vehicular and pedestrian circulation as the major organizingelement. Combined with this exposition on design approach is backgroundtechnical information covering engineering aspects of detailed site design.

11. Rutledge, Albert J. Anatomy of A Park, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1971.

Text on design principles and criteria for public open space to the layperson oradministrator. Included are chapters outlining overall design objectives,aesthetics, functional considerations, and plan interpretation and evaluation.Excellent primer on open space and outdoor recreational design.

12. Robinette, Gary O. Plants/People/and Environmental Quality, U.S.Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Washington, D.C., 1972.

Discusses the properties of planting materials and their uses as architecturalelements providing for visual screening, privacy control, space articulation; asengineering tools in erosion, traffic and acoustic control; and in controlling climaticfactors of solar radiation,

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temperature, precipitation and wind. Non-technical presentation makes thismaterial useful to all design professionals concerned with environmental design.

13. Simonds, John Ornsbee. Landscape Architecture, McGraw-Hill, New York,1961.

Generally considered an excellent manual on landscape design. Interestingmaterial on pedestrian movement. Focuses on open space planning and on thesingle building on a natural site.

14. Tandy, Cliff. Handbook Of Urban Landscape, The Architectural Press,London, 1972.

This handbook serves as a useful reference providing a comprehensive view oflandscape design for housing development, parks, recreational areas andchildren’s playgrounds. The design guide sheets included in the handbookprovide checklists of user requirements, design standards and techniques in theuse of planting materials and other landscape elements.

15. Tandy, Cliff. Landscape of Industry, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,1974.

One of a few references on site planning for large industrial development. Topicscovered include an historical review of industrial development and its effect on thelandscape; typical ecological and landscape problems for a wide range ofindustrial types from large urban manufacturing facilities to mining, sewagetreatment and power generational plants. Planning criteria for each industrial typeand for land reclamation is discussed. Specific landscape design andconstruction problems and potential solutions are scattered throughout the text.

16. U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare. How to See, U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, Washington, D.C., May 1973.

This is a training booklet published by the Social Security Administration, Office ofPublic Affairs, the content of which focuses on how much of our environment wereally see. The author suggests that we see only a small part of what there is tosee, both on and off the job. The booklet helps to open our eyes to a world ofvisual information available to us every minute but ignored by us much of thetime. Both man-made and natural environments are illustrated throughout thebooklet to show us what messages we receive or actually turn off.

17. The Urban Land Institute. Industrial Development Handbook, CommunityBuilders Handbook Series, Washington, D.C., 1975.

The handbook outlines builder/developer procedures for the development ofindustrial parks. The objective of the handbook is to describe the planning,engineering and financial aspects of the development process. Practical designstandards are recommended which, in conjunction with the illustrations included,provide an overview of the state-of-the-art in industrial and office park design.

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Circulation Systems.

18. Appleyard, Donald; Lynch, Kevin; and Myler, John R. The View from theRoad, M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1964.

Analyzes sequential visual experience on urban roads. Illustrates a notationalsystem for recording sequential experience. Interesting presentation of thecommon problem of environmental chaos; a perception raiser, but does notaddress generic design solutions.

19. Breiner, Simon and Dean, William J. The Pedestrian Revolution, StreetsWithout Cars, Vintage Books, Random House, New York, 1974.

Presents case for improving the quality of the urban and suburban environmentby modifying existing street systems to make walking easier, more efficient andmore enjoyable. Specific suggestions are made for developing bicycle paths andfor creating pedestrian systems. Contains illustrations of many implementedprojects.

20. Fruin, John J. Pedestrian Planning and Design, Metropolitan Association ofUrban Designers and Environmental Planners, Inc., P.O. Box 722, ChurchStreet Station, New York, N.Y. 10008, 1971.

A primarily quantitative study of pedestrian movement characteristics. Topicsinclude physiological and psychological factors affecting planning of pedestrianspaces, traffic and space characteristics of pedestrian movement and proceduresfor establishing pedestrian traffic demand levels and resulting spacerequirements. Includes discussion of the current developments in improving thepedestrian environment. Primarily relevant to urban or high-density pedestrianplanning.

21. Institute of Transportation and Traffic Engineering. Bikeway Planning Criteriaand Guidelines, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University ofCalifornia, Los Angeles, 1972.

Prepared for the State of California for the purpose of establishing the mostfeasible and least expensive means of adopting existing and future public streetsto safely accommodate bicycle traffic. Included are bikeway designcharacteristics, capacity criteria, safety considerations, alternative designsolutions, and planning considerations.

22. Mayer, Richard W. Bicycle Planning and Design, American Society ofLandscape Architects, Washington, D.C., 1978.

Discusses the implementation process, locational opportunities, networksubsystems and specific design guidelines for bicycle facilities. Provides a usefulcase study demonstrating the development of a bikeway master plan.

23. Oregon State Highway Division. Bikeway Design, Salem, Oregon 97301,1974.

Design standards are presented for bikeways which separate trails for joint use ofbicyclists and pedestrians. Based on experience gained from implementation ofthe 1971 Oregon "Bicycle Bill." Criteria are structured around a classification ofthree bikeway types with criteria on such aspects as speeds, curves, width,clearances, grades, intersections, sight lines, signing and illumination.Considered one of the better design guides for bikeways separated from streets.

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24. Ritter, Paul. Planning for Man and Motor, The MacMillan Company, New York,1964.

Provides technical and aesthetic guidelines for the design of pedestrian andvehicular movement systems. Discussions are presented on historic developmentof these systems, state-of-the-art concepts in new towns, urban and residentialareas and functional requirements for movement systems at all levels from regionalto neighborhood.

25. Robinette, Gary O. Parking Lot Landscape Development, EnvironmentalDesign Press, Reston, Va., 1976.

Outlines visual and environmental problems typically associated with parking lotsand develops design guidelines for better site and landscape treatment of existingand new parking areas. Issues addressed include location of parking lots in relationto buildings, screening and shading, parking dividers, pedestrian and vehicularseparation and storm drainage.

26. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. National Forest LandscapeManagement, Volume 2, Chapter 4 Roads, USDA, Agriculture Handbook, No.483, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1976.

This government published handbook is concerned with-the impact of roadways onthe scenic quality of natural settings. It provides useful insights into evaluatingproposed road alignment and construction. Issues addressed include landformmodifications, vegetation clearing and replanting, and design treatment ofguardrails, culverts, retaining walls and signing.

27. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. Safety &Locational Criteria for Bicycle Facilities, User Manual Vol. I and Vol. II: Design andSafety Criteria (Draft), Report No. FHWA-RD-75-114, 1976.

Volume I addresses identification of need for and location of bikeways. Volume II isdirected toward design and safety criteria for bikeways. Emphasis is on bikewayswhich share right-of-way with motor vehicles.

Energy Conservation.

28. American Institute of Architects. Energy, AIA, 1735 New York Avenue, N.W.,Washington, D.C. 20006, 1975.

An information service on energy and the built environment. Developed as an"Energy Handbook, " it includes a discussion of general approaches, opportunitiesfor achieving energy-efficient design and identifies some tools and techniquesuseful in implementing energy efficient design solutions. Subscription includes amonthly newsletter of current developments concerning energy and the builtenvironment.

29. American Institute of Architects Research Corporation. Energy Conservation inBuilding Design, AIA, 1735 New York Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006,1974.

Discusses design alternatives for reducing energy consumption, primarily in newbuildings. Directed to architects and engineers. Subjects include site analysis,building orientation, configuration, interior space planning, mechanical and electricalsystem design and waste management. Sun and wind are discussed as alternativeenergy sources.

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30. Caudill, William Wayne; Lawyer, Frank D.; and Bullock, Thomas A. A Bucketof Oil, Cahners Books, Boston, 1974.

Simply written overview of energy conservation in buildings. Brief discussion ofsiting, architectural form, interior space planning and mechanical and electricalsystems. An easily read primer which is not burdened by technical information orextensive discussion.

31. Egan, David M. Concepts in Thermal Comfort, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1975.

Chapter 2 of this comprehensive book presents basic reference material onclimatic considerations in the siting and design of buildings. Includes illustrationsof optimal building shapes and orientations for minimizing solar radiation andenhancing natural building ventilation.

32. Givoni, B. Man, Climate and Architecture, Applied Sciences Publishers Ltd.,London, 1976.

A detailed engineering analysis of the relationship between climate and the builtenvironment. Little information on general site planning but does include atechnically oriented discussion of exterior building color and building orientationrelated to interior comfort.

33. Olgyay, Victor. Design with Climate, Bioclimatic Approach to ArchitecturalRegionalism, Princeton University Press, 1963.

Classic and possibly best work emphasizing the need for a regional architecturebased on climatic conditions. Covers concepts and principles of climatic analysisand effects of climate on people. Architectural principles are developed whichinclude site selection, solar control. wind effects and use of materials. Includesprototype site plans and architectural form for four specific climatic regions.

34. National Academy of Sciences. Solar Radiation Considerations in Building,Planning and Design, Proceedings of a Working Conference, Printing andPublishing Office, National Academy of Sciences, 2101 Constitution Avenue,N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418, 1976.

Collection of papers which deal with various aspects of planning and design thatuse the natural and built environment to advantage in conserving energy. Ofparticular interest is Chapter V, "Architectural Design for Optimum Solar Effects, "which includes a discussion on orientation, use of planting, design of windowsand solar shading devices.

35. Robinette, Gary O. Landscape Planning for Energy Conservation,Environment Design Press, Reston, Va., 1977.

Provides site selection, building orientation and site design guidelines for each ofthe four major climatic regions of the United States. Graphic illustrationsdemonstrate the use of natural and man-made site elements for exploitingexisting natural site energy resources and the promoting of energy conservation.

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Barrier Free Site Design.

36. American Society of Landscape Architects Foundation. Barrier Free Site Design,U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Developmentand Research, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (Stock No. 0-51-923), 1975.

"The purpose of this publication is to provide in one source, for both administratorsand designers, the necessary information that can lead to designs that consider theneed of all persons using the outdoor environment."

37. American Standards Association. Making Buildings and Facilities Accessible to,and Usable by, the Physically Handicapped, (ANSI A117.1), 10 East 40th Street, NewYork, N.Y., 1961.

This standard specification for making buildings and facilities accessible to andusable by the handicapped has been incorporated by reference in most federal, stateand local legislation and codes. It covers building approaches, parking, ramps, doorsand entrances, toilets, drinking fountains, phones and warning signs.

38. Kliment, Stephen A. Into the Mainstream, A Syllabus for A Barrier-FreeEnvironment, The American Institute of Architects, 1735 New York Avenue, N.W.,Washington, D.C. 20036.

A guide to implementing a barrier-free environment written for administrators anddesigners. Provides historic background for barrier-free design, illustrates commonbarrier problems, suggests solutions and provides a listing of supplementaryinformation sources.

Historic Preservation.

39. Bullock, Orin M. The Restoration Manual, The American Institute of Architects,Publication Division, Washington, D.C., 1966.

Introductory text on restoration of historic buildings. The purpose is to define a basicprocedure to be followed in restoring a building in a manner compatible with itsoriginal design and construction. Written for the architect. Topics include historical,architectural and archaeological research specification for restoration work and typicaldesign problems encountered in doing restoration work.

40. Cavaglieri, Giorgio, ed. Preservation and Building Codes, Preservation Press,National Trust for Historic Preservation, Washington, D.C., 1975.

Considers problems of adapting old buildings to new uses while making them safe.Contains 25 pages presented at the conference sponsored by National Trust forHistoric Preservation. Takes the position that code requirements should be met andneed not detract from preservation or restoration.

41. National Trust for Historic Preservation, Economic Benefits of Preserving OldBuildings, Washington, D.C., 1976.

Essays on the adaptive use of old buildings.

42. National Trust for Historic Preservation. How to Evaluate Historic Sites andBuildings, Washington, D.C., 1971.

Presents criteria for the significance of potentially historic structures and the feasibilityof preservation.

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Planting Materials.

43. Wyman, Donald. Trees for American Gardens, Macmillan Co., New York, 1972.

A guide to more than 1000 species and varieties of trees recommended for NorthAmerican soils. Includes descriptions of the natural habitat, hardiness, habits, foliageblossom-producing and fruit-bearing characteristics of each tree. Includes a section ontrees recommended for particular needs and purposes, i.e., trees that withstand drought,trees that withstand city conditions.

44. Wyman, Donald. Shrubs and Vines for American Gardens, Macmillan Co., NewYork, 1973.

A guide for more than 1, 700 species and varieties of shrubs and vines recommended forNorth American soils. Provides for each species discussed detailed information on thelandscaping usefulness of the plant, including time of bloom, foliage colors, type of fruit,height, habitat and most suitable growing conditions.

45. Zion, Robert L. Trees for Architecture and the Landscape, Van Nostrand ReinholdCo., New York, 1968.

A book devoted to trees with excellent winter and summer photographic portraits anddefinitions intended to facilitate communication between landscape architect, the architectand the layperson. Also contains valuable practical considerations from buying todesigning with trees and a state-by-state tree list.

Playgrounds.

46. Dattner, Richard. Design for Play, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1969.

Outlines psychological and social function of children’s play activities and develops designcriteria for play facilities. Includes illustrations and evaluation of recently built playgroundsand presents criteria for playgrounds for handicapped children.

47. Friedberg, M. Paul. Handcrafted Playgrounds, Designs You Can Build Yourself.Vintage Books, New York, 1975.

A sketch book of easily executed playground equipment ideas by a recognized authorityin the field of children’s play areas.

48. Friedberg, M. Paul. Play and Interplay, a Manifesto for New Design in UrbanRecreational Environments, Macmlllan Co., New York, 1970.

Examines traditional concepts of play that have affected the design of children’splaygrounds and recreational areas and facilities for teenagers, adults and the elderly.Deals primarily with the needs of people in urban environments, but the principles areapplicable to other environments. Successful and unsuccessful playgrounds, equipmentand materials are compared. Flexibility and fluidity of site treatment, and continuity of thetotal environment as a recreation tool are advocated.

49. Hogan, Paul. Playgrounds for Free: the Utilization of Used and Surplus Materials inPlayground Construction, The M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1974.1/4A visualdocumentary of recycled materi-

A visual documentary of recycled materials used in diverse recreation areas, primarily forsmall children. Applicable to the self-help projects on military installations.

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Signing, Lighting and Street Furnitures

50. The American Institute of Graphic Arts. Symbol Signs, The Development ofPassenger/Pedestrian Oriented Symbols for Use in Transportation RelatedFacilities, prepared for the U.S. Department of Transportation. Distributed byNational Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, (PB-239352), 1974.

Presents a system of sign symbols and guidelines developed for the U.S.Department of Transportation for use in transportation-related facilities. Symbolsare now being implemented on a national scale. When sign symbols arecontemplated, it is suggested that these be considered as standards whenappropriate.

51. Ashley/Myer/Smith, Architectural Planners. City Signs and Lights, The BostonRedevelopment Authority and the U.S. Department of Housing and UrbanDevelopment, 1971.

Study intended as "a first step in the process of planning and controlling signs andlights for the purpose of improving the flow of information in the city." Amplyillustrates existing confusion and blight in private and public signing and lighting.Graphic informational systems and exterior lighting standards are developed, fieldtesting reported, and model codes and implementation procedures proposed.

52. Fox, Martin and Carpenter, Edward K. The Best in Environmental Graphics,R.C. Publications, Inc., Washington, D.C., 1975.

Presentation of 18 environmental graphics programs selected by a juriedcompetition sponsored by "Print" magazine, a trade journal of the graphic arts.Projects selected include "supergraphics, " corporate graphic systems, graphiccommunication systems for airports, new community and municipal transportation.Illustrates the "state-of-the-art" in signing and graphics in both the private and publicsectors.

53. Malt, Harold Lewis. Furnishing The City, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1970.

Evaluation and historic development of street furniture systems. Outlines a"systems approach" to integrated street furniture solutions.

54. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. Manualon Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways, U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, (Stock No. 5001-0021), 1970.

The traffic signing standard. Provides all graphic and locational standards for trafficsigning and markings.

Technical References.

55. Beazley, Elizabeth. Design and Detail of the Space Between Buildings, TheArchitectural Press, London, 1960.

Discusses alternative technical solutions and material selections for roads,pedestrian paths and other outdoor paved areas. Solutions to common sitedevelopment components such as walls and fences; the planting in paved areasand edge treatments are detailed and illustrated with modern and historic Europeanexamples. Selection of materials and details based on functional requirements andappropriate sense of place are discussed.

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56. Callender, John Hancock. Time-Saver Standards for Architectural DesignData, (Revised Fourth Edition), McGraw-Hill, New York, 1973.

Facilities discussed are residential, educational, cultural, health, religious, public,commercial, transportation, industrial, recreation and miscellaneous such aslandscaping. Sections applicable to site designing include site planning,programming of large group facilities, parking, docks and terminals, warehouses,recreational facilities, and planting.

57. De Chiara, Joseph and Koppelman, Lee. Planning Design Criteria (SecondEdition), Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1969.

An illustrated summary of basic reference material which presents a variety of dataand established standards related to land planning and site design. Topics includemaster planning and land use principles, housing, vehicular circulation, recreationand industrial development.

58. Gage, Michael and Vendenberg, Martz. Hard Landscape in Concrete, JohnWiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1975.

Comprehensive guide to uses of concrete in the landscape for paving material,street furniture, play equipment, walls and screens. Technical details andspecifications are included but standards of practice are British and dimensioningis metric.

59. Parker, Harry. Simplified Site Engineering for Architects and Builders, JohnWiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1954.

Simple, somewhat dated, but useful technical guide to grading, utilities, roaddesign and other site development engineering concerns.

60. Ramsey, C. G. and Sleeper, H.R. Architectural Graphic Standards (SixthEdition), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1970.

A general technical reference on architecture with an introductory chapter onplanning and design principles. Addresses a variety of facilities found on militaryinstallations, such as truck docks, recreational playing fields, sun control, plotsubdivision data, standard swimming pool dimensions, etc. Exterior constructionand finish materials such as concrete, masonry, metal, wood, plaster and tile arealso covered.

61. Robinette, Gary O. Energy and Environment, Kendall Hunt Publishing Co.,Dubuque, Iowa, 1973.

One of the few comprehensive references to address the visual design issuesassociated with power generation plants, transmission lines and transformationfacilities. Provides useful guidelines for site selection and illustrates variousapproaches to minimizing visual impacts.

62. Schultz, Theodore and McMahon, Nancy M. Noise Assessment Guidelines,U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (Stock No. 2300-1194),1974.

Procedures for evaluating noise exposure of potential development sites. Createdfor use by persons without technical training. Sites are ranked from clearlyacceptable to clearly unacceptable and levels of noise which require specialabatement efforts are identified. Does not provide guidelines for designing noiseabatement systems.

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63. Stone, Edward H., II. Visual Resource Management, American Society ofLandscape Architects, Washington, D.C., 1978.

Highlights a landscape inventory and analysis process used by the Forest Serviceand Bureau of Land Management in assessing the visual quality of specific landsareas. Application of the process is most suitable for predominantly naturalundisturbed terrains.

Bibliographies.

The following Council of Planning Librarians, Exchange Bibliographies are available(copy can be obtained for fee from: Editor, Council of Planning Libraries, PostOffice Box 229, Monticello, Illinois 61856) for those interested in a morecomprehensive review of literature in the fields of urban design, planning and sitedesign.

84. Montgomery, Roger. A General Booklist on Urban Design, 1969.

188. Stanley, Brock T. Community Facilities Planning, A SelectedInterdisciplinary Bibliography, 1971.

476. Mills, Madolia Massey. The Potential of Direct Solar Energy in Planning,1973.

906. Shilaber, Caroline. Landscape Architecture/Environmental Planning, AClassified Bibliography, 1975.

954. Unruh, David. Space and Environment: An Annotated Bibliography, 1976.

998. Gentile, Joseph Francis. Landscape Planning and Design, 1976.

1030. Kulp, Kenneth K. Environmental Site Planning, 1976.

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Appendix C.

Model Scope of Work Statementand Design Consultant SelectionCriteria for the Preparation ofInstallation Design Guides.

As stated in Chapter 1, the designguidelines provided in this manualare intended for general applicationon all military installations and,therefore, it is recommended thateach installation develop its owndesign guide, tailored to itsspecific situation. These specificinstallation design guides shouldcontain appropriate guidelines forall the component elementscomprising the visual environment(as covered generically in Chapters3 through 13 of this manual).However, the design guide wouldbe responsive to such locationallyspecific conditions as climate,prevailing architectural character,and any other atypical installationpolicies or conditions.

This appendix is intended to: 1)serve as a guideline for individualinstallations in the development ofa scope of work for the preparationof a design guide, and 2) providecriteria to aid in the selection of awell-qualified design consultant toprepare the design guide.

Section I:

Outline Scope of WorkStatement.

I. Statement of Work.

A. Project Identification.

Description of the installationlocation, environs, boundaries;subareas within the installation thatrequire differential treatment; andother specific informationidentifying the project.

B. Objective.

The objective of this contract is todevelop a design guide for (nameof installation). This design guideis to establish specific designcriteria and an outline program toimprove the visual environment of(name of installation). The designcriteria should be developed inresponse to the general guidelinescontained within the InstallationDesign Manual but should betailored specifically to the uniquecharacteristics of the installation.The outline program for improvingthe appearance of the installationis intended to be incorporated intothe master plan of the installation.

C. General Requirements.

1. The contractor shall furnish thenecessary professional andtechnical personnel, clericalservices, materials, equipment andfacilities and perform all travel inaccordance with this documentand with criteria and requirementsfurnished by the contracting officer.

2. The contractor shall correct allerrors, inconsistencies oromissions in the design guidebrought to his attention by thecontracting officer, and makeresubmittals, if required by thecontracting officer, even if theperiod of service has expired.

II. Specific Requirements.

A. Task I - OrientationConference.

Within fifteen calendar days afterissue of a notice to proceed andbefore proceeding with the work, aconference will be held at the officeof the contracting officer, at whichtime the contractor’srepresentative(s) who will be inactive charge of the work shall bepresent in order that allrequirements may be thoroughlyreviewed.

B. Task II Data Collection andAnalysis.

1. Perform a visual survey of theinstallation using photographicand/or sketch techniques todocument findings.

2. Identify existing visual assetsand liabilities.

3. Evaluate major influences onthe visual environment. Theinstallation master plan is theprimary source of information formission statements; existingtopography, structures, roads andother physical conditions; andfuture proposed land uses andcirculation. Climatologicalinformation should also beevaluated to determine appropriatearchitectural, site planning andplanting criteria related to thevisual environment.

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4. Prepare a report documentingexisting visual conditions, assets,liabilities and major influences on thevisual environment. Submit copiesfor review and approval by thecontracting officer.

C. Task III Design Criteria.

1. Establish specific goals,objectives and priorities for improvingthe visual environment of theinstallation.

2. Develop design criteriaresponsive to these goals, objectivesand priorities. These criteria shouldbe developed for each of thefollowing elements comprising thevisual environment of the installation:

BuildingsRoadsParkingWalkwaysPlazas and CourtyardsBikewaysPlantingSigningLightingSite FurnishingsUtilities

The design guide should establishoverall guidelines including: a) ageneral architectural designvernacular including desiredarchitectural character, massing,scale, materials and color palette; b)plant materials, prototypicalapplications and details that areappropriate to the installation and itsclimate; c) site planning and designguidelines for site systems includingcirculation (vehicular, pedestrian,bikeway), parking, signing, lightingand utilities; and d) a coordinateddesign system for site furnishings,signing and lighting.

3. Prepare, in outline form, theproposed contents and format of thedesign guide and submit for reviewand approval by the contractingofficer.

D. Task IV Design Guide.

1. Upon completion of all the workunder Tasks I, II and III above,prepare text, illustrations andphotographs for the design guide for(name of installation).

2. Submit ____ copies of a draftmock-up of the design guide forreview and approval by thecontracting officer.

3. Correct all errors, inconsistenciesand omissions in the draft designguide as indicated by the contractingofficer.

4. Submit to the contracting officer_____ copies of the final designguide, an audio-visual presentation ofthe design guide and a narrativekeyed on the slides.

III. Submittals and Schedule.

A. Orientation ConferenceFifteen calendar days after notice toproceed

B. Data Collection and AnalysisReport.

o CopiesoCalendar days after orientationconferenceoCalendar day review period

C. Outline Contents and Format ofDesign Guide.

oCopiesoCalendar days following previousreviewoCalendar day review period

D. Draft Mock-up of Design Guide.

oCopiesoCalendar days following previousreviewoCalendar day review period

E. Final Design Guide.

oCopiesoCalendar days following previousreview

F. Set of Reproducible Originalsfor the Complete Guide.

Unfolded mylar reproducibles of foldout drawings, if any. Negatives for allblack and white photographs andprinted matter.

IV. Contract Period of Service.

All work under this contract will becompleted within ____ calendar daysafter issue of notice to proceed.

V. Material to be Furnished by theContracting Officer.

A. Copies of the Installation DesignManual and other relatedgovernment regulations and technicalmanuals.

B. Installation master plan andtopographic, building, utility and otherappropriate base maps and aerialphotographs as available.

C. Technical guidance andinformation through conferences andreview of submittals.

D. Design guides prepared for otherinstallations that may be helpful asmodels for preparing the designguide for this installation.

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Section II:

Design Consultant SelectionCriteria.

When selecting a consultant toprepare a design guide for a militaryinstallation, the following factorsshould be considered.

I. Firm Type, Design Disciplinesand Organization.

The consultant should be a design-oriented firm or group of firms. Eithera single firm or an affiliated group offirms can successfully prepare adesign guide as long as all thenecessary design disciplines arerepresented on the team. Theseshould include architecture; siteplanning; landscape architecture;graphic design; and illumination, civiland mechanical engineering.

If an affiliated group of firms is toprovide these various disciplines, theorganization of the team is critical.One firm should be the primecontractor, and a lead designer withthat firm should be clearly identifiedas the project director. He must begiven the authority required for sucha position.

II. Personnel, Experience andDesign Excellence.It is critical that the personnelidentified to work on the project beexperienced design professionalsfrom each of the necessarydisciplines. It is the experience of thepersonnel assigned, rather than thefirm’s experience, that is mostimportant.

The type of experience that is mostdesirable includes site planning anddesign. Completed projects willclearly demonstrate the designer’sabilities at compatibly relating groupsof buildings to each other and theirnatural setting and of sensitiveattention to all aspects of site design.This project experience need notnecessarily have been performed forthe military; comparable civilianprojects include institutionalcampuses, new communities,housing and commercial complexesand industrial parks.

In evaluating this experience, thedesign excellence of the completedprojects is of critical importance. Sitevisits to representative projects bythe selection board is desirable tobest evaluate the skill of the designprofessionals. Minimally, site plansand photographs of completedprojects should be carefully reviewed.Project experience in the vicinity ofthe installation or in a similar climateis an advantage but not a necessity.

III. Size and Workload.

Size and workload are interrelated. Asmall firm or group of small firms cansuccessfully perform the requiredtasks as long as they are notoverextended in their currentworkload. The project managershould be assigned between 80percent and full time to the projectand the design professionalsbetween 30-60 percent. More peoplespending lesser percentages of theirtime reduces the efficiency andcontinuity of the consultant effort.

IV. Location.

While not a primary selection criteria,the location of the firm or group offirms should be considered as itrelates to required travel to theinstallation, to the project officer, andbetween firms as necessary. Asignificant amount of time at theinstallation by the designers isnecessary to develop a fullunderstanding of all aspects involvedin the preparation of the design guidefor the installation.

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The proponent agency of this publication is the Office of the Chief of Engineers, UnitedStates Army. Users are invited to send comments and suggested improvements on DAForm 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) direct toHODA(DAEN-MPE-I) WASH DC 20314.

By Order of the Secretaries of the Army, the Air Force, and the Navy.

E. C. MEYERGeneral, United States Army

Official: Chief of StaffJ. C. PENNINGTONMajor General, United States ArmyThe Adjutant General

LEW ALLEN, JR.General, United StatesAir Force

Official: Chief of StaffVAN L. CRAWFORDColonel, United States Air ForceDirector of Administration

D. G. ISELINRear Admiral, CEC, U. S. NavyCommander, Naval FacilitiesEngineering Command

Distribution:

To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-34B, requirements for TM 5-800 Series: Engineering and Design forReal Property Facilities.

* U.S. PRINTING OFFICE : 1993 0 - 342-421 (62204)

PIN : 049304-000