Army General Engineering

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Field Manual

No. 5-104 *FM 5-104

HEADQUARTERS

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

Washington, DC, 12 November 1986

G E N E R A L

E N G I N E E R I N G

F

ield Manual 5-104 provides a doctrinal basis for the planning and

execution of general engineering in the Theater of Operations. General

engineering sustains military forces in the theater through the performance

of facility construction and repair, and through acquisition, maintenance,

and disposal of real property. The Theater of Operations is defined as That

portion of an area of conflict necessary for military operations, either

offensive or defensive. .. , an d for th e administ ra t ion incident t o such

military operations.

This manual will be primarily concerned with support to those noncom-

mitted forces within the corps and communications zone areas. It will

describe responsibil i t ies, relat ionships, procedures, capabil i t ies, con-

straints, and planning considerations in the conduct of general engineering

tasks. The manual was designed to highlight doctrinal procedures and to

give an overview of the general engineering functional area.

Field Manual 5-104 was developed for commanders and planning staffs at

all levels who require engineer assistance, or are required to give engineer

assistance in tasks falling under the general engineering purview.

The proponent agency of this publication is the US Army Engineer School.

Users a re invited to send comment s an d suggest improvements on DA Form

2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) to

Commandant, US Army Engineer School, ATTN: ATZA-TD-P, Ft. Belvoir,

VA, 22060-5291.

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release, distrlbution is unlimlted

*This publication supersedes FM 5-1, 27 July 1971 and FM 5-162, 30 March 1973.

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STANAG IMP LEMENTATION

The p rov i s ions o f t h i s pub l i ca t ion a re the sub jec t o f In t e rna t iona l

Standardization Agreement (STANAG) 2885, Procedure for the Provision

of Potable Water in the Field.

Unless otherwise stated, whenever the masculine gender is used, both men

and women are included.

This publication contains copyrighted material.

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C h a p t e r 1G E N E R A L E N G I N E E R I N G

General engineering encompasses those engineer tasks whichincrease the mobility, survivability, and sustainability of

tactical and logistical units to the rear of the forward line oftroops (FLOT). Such tasks include construction and repair oflines of communication (LOC), main supply routes (MSR), air-fields, and logistica] facilities. While these tasks may be per-formed as far forward as the brigade rear area of the combat zone,most general engineer tasks are performed behind the divisionrea r bounda r i e s . Repa i r t a sks domina t e i n we l l -deve lopedtheaters. Construction tasks prevail in less-developed theaters.

General engineer missions are usually performed by EngineerCombat Heavy Battalions, Port Construction Companies, Con-

struction Support Companies, Combat Suppor t EquipmentCompanies, Dump Truck Companies, and Pipeline ConstructionSupport Companies. Divisional and corps combat battalions mayalso be required to perform l imited general engineer tasks.General engineer tasks in a mid-to high-intensity conflict focusprimarily on direct support of military forces. In such circum-stances, l i t t le considerat ion can be given to nation-buildingmissions. In a low-intensity conflict, nation-building tasks maydominate.

T H E G E N E R AL E N G I N E E R I N G P L A N N I N G P R O C E S S 2

PL ANNI NG CONSI DE RAT I ONS 2

P R I N C I P L E S O F T H E AT E R O F O P E R A T IO N S C O N S TR U C T I O N 3

GENERAL ENGINEERING 1


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TH E G EN ER A L EN G IN EER I N G P LAN N I NG P R O C ES S

General engineer requirements in a Theaterof Operations are based on an ana lysis of theterrain, the availabil i ty of support infra-structure, the logist ical and combat forcestructure to be supported, and the extent ofdamage to existing facilities: The senior staffengineer makes the de ta i led analys is andestablishes a prioritized list of requirements.Prioritization is coordinated with the senioroperations and logistics staff officers (G3 andG4 at division and corps and Deputy Chief ofStaff, Operations and Deputy Chief of Staff,Logistics at Echelons Above Corps).

A detailed terrain analysis is conducted to

determine the availability of suitable localconstruction materials and to estimate theengineer effort required to accomplish thegeneral engineer missions. Preliminary ClassIV construction material requirements mustbe forecast for the logisticians as early aspossible in the planning process. This ensuresthat material is available when it is needed.

The availability of host n ation assets must bedetermined. Those missions that can be per-formed by host nation units should be pro-

cessed through the staff officer responsiblefor host nation coordination.

General engineer missions may be allocatedto available engineer units on an area basisor a task basis. That is, engineer un its maybegiven an area of responsibility or may betasked with a specific mission, such as repairor upgrade of a specific LOC. Tasks areperformed in accordance with the priority listthat has been developed in conjunction withthe supported comma nds. Pr iorities ma y shifta s damage occu r s due t o enemy comba ta c t i o n . L o g i s t i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s m a y a l s ogovern the sequence in which general engi-

neer tasks are performed.

General engineer missions may be performedin support of joint or combined operations.Liaison must be established with supportedallied forces or oth er US services to ma ke su retheir requirements are included in the plan-ning process. Construction missions in therear combat zone and communications zone(COMMZ) will be coordinated by the desig-n a t e d r e g i o n a l w a r t i m e c o n s t r u c t i o nmanager .

PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

H O S T N A T I O N S U P P O R T planning process, so tha t en gineers can learnW h e r e p os s i bl e, h o s t n a t i on ca p a b i li t i es loca l exp ed ie nt con st r u ct ion m et h od s.should be iden tified in peacetime. Civil affairspersonnel play a key role in host nat ion CONTRACT LABORi n t e r face . They a l so a s s is t i n e s t abl ish ing Con t r act labor may be ava ilab le for u se i n t heprocedures for obta in ing hos t na t ion suppor t . COMMZ. I f so, cont ract ing officers must beIn many parts of the world, host nat ion a p p o i n t e d , a n d a c o n t r a c t m a n a g e m e n tcapabil i t ies may be l imited to providing structure established. Use of contract laborconstruction materials. It is important to tap frees engineer troop units to move forwardhost nation regional expertise early in the and reduces engineer force structure require-

ments in the theater .

2 GENERAL ENGINEERING


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C O N S T R U C T I O N C R I T E R I A

Wartime construction requirements will begoverned by the following criteria:

Make maximum use of existing facilities(US or host nation controlled).

Modify existing facilities rather thanundertake new construction.

Use austere design and constructiontechniques.

Minimize US engineer troop constructioneffort .

Reduce protective construction. Employpassive protection through dispersion offacilities and equipment (to include in-corporation of nuclear, biological, andchemical (NBC) protective measures andequipment) to reduce the need for protective

construction.

Use s e l f -he lp cons t ruc t ion . A l l non -engineer units must use self-help construc-

t i on p rocedures t o t he l imi t o f t he i r

capabil i t ies , short of interfering withprimary missions, but without wastingscarce construction materials.

L O G I S T I C S

An extensive logist ical and transportat ionsystem is required to support the acquisitionand distribution of engineer materials. Indeveloped th eaters, en gineers depend h eavilyupon locally procured construction materialsand existing distribution networks for sup-plies. In undeveloped or heavily damagedareas, construction materials and distribu-tion networks are not available. Indeed, theengineer effort may be more focused on pro-curing the necessary material and moving itto project sites than on the project itself.Therefore, the logistics effort must be con-sidered in the planning stage so that projectscan be successfully accomplished.

P R I N C IP L E S O F T H E AT E R O F O P E R AT I O NS C O N S TR U C T I ON

Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) Publicat ion 3 T E M P O R A R Y S T A N D A R Ddefines two construction standards for plan- The temporary standard is characterized byning, designing, and constructing facilities minimal facilities, intended to increase thein support of contingency operations. efficiency of operations. Design life of tem-

porary structures is targeted at 24 months.I N I T I A L S T A N D A R D

The in i t ia l s tandard i s charac ter ized by C O N S T R U C T I O N P R I N C I P L E Saustere facilities. These minimize engineer The principles of construction in the Theatercons t r uc t ion effor t and provide fac il it ies of Opera t ions are speed, economy, flex ib il ity ,which offer immediate operation support to decentral izat ion of authori ty, and estab-un it s upon a r riva l in -thea t er . I n it ia l s t anda rd lishmen t of p r ior it ie s.facilities are intended to be used for a limitedtime, ranging from one to six months.



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S p e e d

Speed is fundamental to all activities in aTheater of Operations. Practices that support

speedy construction include:

U s e e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s . E n g in e e r u n i t smust rapidly provide facilities that enableUS forces to deliver maximum combat powerforward. The use of existing facilities con-tributes greatly to the essential element ofspeed by eliminating unnecessary construc-tion effort.

S t a n d a r d i z e . Standardized materials andplans save time and construction effort. Theypermit production-line methods, including

prefabrication of structural members. Stand-ardized assembly and erection proceduresincrease the efficiency of work crews byreducing the number of methods and tech-niques they must learn.

Simplify . Simplicity of design and construc-tion is vital in wartime because manpower,materia ls, and t ime are in short supply.Simple methods and materials allow scarcelabor to complete installations in a minimumof time.

U s e b a r e - b o n e s c o n s t r u c t i o n . Mili ta ryengineering in the Theater of Operations ischaracterized by concern for only the mini-mum necessities and by the temporar y natur eof const ruc ted fac i l i t ie s . Adequa te , bu tminimal, provisions are made for safety. Forexample, local green t imbers a re often used t oconstruct wharves or pile-bent bridges eventhough marine borers will rapidly destroy thetimbers. The rat ionale in this case is th at thefocus of military effort shifts rapidly, justi-fying a short useful life for the structure.

Sanitary facilities may consist of nothingmore than pit la trines, because i t is notappropriate to provide more permanent orluxurious facilities. In short, quality is sacri-ficed for speed and economy.

C o n s t r u c t i n p h a s e s . Phased constructionprovides for the rapid completion of critical

parts of buildings or installations and the useof these parts for their intended purposebefore the en t i re p ro jec t i s comple ted .Although phased construction is somewhatinefficient, it allows maximum use of facilitiesat the earliest possible time.

E c o n o m y

Economy in Theater of Operations construc-tion demands efficient use of personnel,equipment, and materials.

C o n s e r v e m a n p o w e r . The soldier is the

vita l e lement. For this reason manpowerpriorit ies go to units in contact with theenemy. Despite the mechanization of modernwarfare, battles are still won and territoryoccupied by ground forces. Construction tasksa re t ime c o n su min g , a n d e n g in e e r s a n dconstruc t ion workers a re o f ten in shor tsupply. Conservation of labor is thereforeimportant. Every engineer must function atthe peak of efficiency for long hours toaccomplish the engineer mission. Carefulp lann ing and coord ina t ion o f pe rsonne lassignments are necessary. Projects must bewell organized and supervised. Engineerpersonnel must be carefully allocated andwell provided for. The source of support toengineers will depend upon the nature ofestablished command and control relation-ships.

C o n s e r v e e q u i p m e n t . In the Theater ofOpera t ions , mi l i ta ry heavy const ruc t ionequipment will be in short supply. Somecivilian equipmen t may be a vailable. Becaus eof low densities, operational capability of

available equipment may be further jeop-ardized due to shortages of repair parts. Wiseuse of construction equipment is essential.



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Conse rve ma te r i a l s . An overseas wartimeconstruction program must be organized toexecut e the r equired work in t he time a llott ed

and with a minimum of shipped-in tonnage.Local resources must be used and naturalresources exploited to the maximum extentpossible.

Flex ib i l i t y

The ever -chang ing s i tua t ion in mi l i t a ryconstruction requires that construction in allstages be adaptable to new conditions. Tomeet this requirement, use standard planswhich allow for adjustment and expansion.S t a n d a r d p l a n s a r e a p a r t o f t h e A r m yFacilities Components System (AFCS) and

the Navy Advanced Base Functional Com-ponent System. The use of alternate materialsis permitted, and design is such that a givenconstruction item may have the maximumnumber o f uses . Thea te r o f Opera t ionss t a n d a r d c o m p o n e n t s a r e f l e x i b l e . F o rexample, a standard building plan may beeas i ly adap ted to be used as an o f f ice ,barracks, hospital ward, or mess hall. For-ward air f ie lds are usual ly designed andlocated so that they can be expanded intomore elaborate ins ta l la t ions as t ime andresources permit.

The AFCS provides the construction unitswith standard plans, bills of material (BOM),specifications for construction standards,labor and equipment estimates, and materialshipping estimates. This information signifi-cantly improves the planning effort at alllevels of the chain of command, and providesa common base of information for all units.The AFCS is developed in four technicalmanuals (TM): TM 5-301, TM 5-302 (a five-volume set of drawings), TM 5-303, andTM 5-304.

Decen t r a l i z a t i on o f au tho r i t y

The wide dispersion of forces in a Theater ofOperations requires that engineer authority

be decentralized as much as possible. Theengineers in charge of operations at partic-ular localities must have authority consistentwith their responsibilities.

Es tab l i shmen t o f p r i o r i t i e s

It is essential to establish priorities to deter-mine how much engineer effor t must bedevoted to a single task. While detailedpriority systems are normally the concern oflower echelon commands, all levels of com-mand beginning with the theater commandermust frequently issue directives establishing

broad priority systems to serve as a guide fordetailed systems. Resources must initially beassigned only to the highest priority tasks.Low priority tasks must be left undone atfirst . Some unavoidable risks will result .Tasks must be analyzed and the r isk of bypassing them evaluated in order to assignpriorities.

By category of work for war-essential mis-sions, theater engineer efforts will generallygive first priority to damage repair of airbases and other critical facilit ies, second

priority to LOC repair, and third priority torestoration or renovation of other necessaryfacilities. Engineer capability will be appliedto th e prioritized list of war-essential s upportmissions in accordance with the four prioritygroups shown in Table 1 (see page 6).

Table 2 (page 6) shows a priority scale appliedto each category of general engineer workexpected to confront Army engineers in thecorps rear and COMMZ. Note that prioritieschange rapidly and are dependent on thetactical situation.



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Table 1. Engineer Support Priorities in the Theater of Operations

Group Priori t y Impl icat ions of Nonsupport

A Vital High strategic importance.

Early defeat of friendly forces.

B Critical Serious degradation of combat eff ecti veness.Increased vulnerability on the battl efield.Increased probabili ty of tacti cal defeats.

C Essential Long-term degradation in sustainability.Significant equipment and materiel losses.

D Necessary Reduced quality of combat service support (CSS).Short term degradation in sustainability.Moderate equipment or materiel losses.Temporary inconvenience. Minor impact on tactical operations.

Table 2. Sample Integrated Priority List for General Engineering Tasks

Priori ty Priori ty Ranking Task Descript ion

Vital 1 Assistanc e in emergency runway repairs.2 Essential field site preparations for air defense

arti ll ery (ADA) unit s.

3 Recovery of prepositioned materiel configured to

unit sets (POMCUS) equipment.

Critical 4 Restorati on of aircraf t operating surf aces (AOS)beyond emergency repairs (at main operati ng basesonly).

5 Essential support to hospitals.

6 Assistance in emergency repairs (less AOS) at USAFbases.

7 Minimum emergency repairs to facilities at Armybases.

Essential 8 Assistance in repair of LOC/MSR damage.

9 Mini mum recovery work at depots.

10 Construction of POL distribution systems.11 Constructi on of minimum essential logistic facil it i es.12 Mini mum restorat ion beyond emergency repairs.

13 Force beddown construction.

Necessary 14 Mini mum restorat ion beyond emergency repairs.15 New construct ion at AFCS ini ti al st andard.



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Ch a p t e r 2P R O C U R E M E N T A N D P R O D U C T I O NO F CO N S TRU CTIO N MA TERIA LS

A supply of suitable construction material is the basis forestablishing, maintaining, and repairing facilities in theTheater of Operations. Nearly all general engineering consumes

raw and/or prefabricated construction materials. The most com-

monly needed materials are soil, sand, crushed rock, asphalt.

concrete, and lumber. The burden of locating and manufacturing

many of these materials fails mainly on Combat Heavy Engineer

Battalions. However, all engineer units must be prepared to

exploit available construction materials. Engineer units tasked

to procure construction materials must make full use of their

imagination, initiative, and resources. Where standard materials

are not available, engineers must improvise.

Required construction materials may he supplied through mili-

tary logistical systems, obtained from local manufacturers,

extracted from local natural resources, or produced by engineer

units. Planners must use the source or combination of sources

that will fulfill the mission with maximum speed, efficiency, and

economy.

SUPPLY THROUGH MILITARY LOGISTICAL SYSTEMS 8

P R O C U R E M E N T F R O M L O C AL M AN U F A C TU R E R S 8

E N G I N E E R - P R O D U C E D N AT U R A L R E S O U R C E S 8

E N G I N E E R -P R O C E S S E D M AT E R I A L S 10

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S U P P L Y T H R O U G H M I L I T AR Y L O G I S T I C AL S YS T E M S

The military logistical system is generally The disadvantages of the mili tary supply

very responsive to the needs of the construc- system begin to appear further away from

tion engineer units . This system has the the source of supply. Long lead times must beadvan tage o f be ing o rgan ized under no- considered by project planners if the normal

mencla ture and uni ts of measure famil iar to supply sys tem is used. The r i sk of damage to

supply personnel. This familiarity eases the materials and the cost of materials to the

movement of material through the supply government increase because of

chain. When ma terial is in th e militar y supply shipping and handling required.

system, its quality can be more easily moni-

tored, and supply status can be easily veri-

fied.

increased

P R O C U R E M E N T F R O M L O C AL M AN U F AC T U R E R S

Procurement of construction material fromlocal manufacturers or producers alleviates

many of the problems associated with mili-

t a ry supp ly channe l s , bu t c r ea t e s o the r

concerns. Local procurement can greatly

reduce the lead time before materials arrive

at the construction site. In many cases the

theater command ar ranges supply agree-

ments with host nat ions before engineer un its

arrive. The agreements specify the type and

quality of certain materials and specify the

locations of material yards. Transportation

arrangements, made with the host nation for

moving materials closer to the constructingunits, reduce the motor tra nsport requirement

of these units,

Local procurement of construction materialscan cause problems because of variances in

quality and dimensions. For example, some

plywoods produced in European countries

are of such high quality that the circular saw

blades normally used in engineer units quick-

ly dull, creating a slowdown in construction

productivity. Some material may not meet

dimensional standards required by the pro-

ject . This may cause delays and require

design modifications. Some materials, such

as cement, may have slightly different chemi-

cal properties, which can alter the behavior

of the material during construction. I t istherefore important that using units become

familiar with the locally procured material as

soon as practical in order that any needed

adaptations can be made.

ENGINEER-PRODUCED NATURAL RESOURCES

Natural resources can be tapped by engineer

units as a source for soil, sand, gravel, and

timber. Civil ian and mili tary intel l igence

sources, such as th e Terrain Analysts an d the

Military Geographic Information (MGI) database of the supporting topographic unit, can

locate resources quickly. Since this informa-

tion can significantly influence the location

of some facilities and installations, it is

important to identify resources quickly.

BORROW PITS

B or row p i t s a r e t he p re fe r r ed source o f

construction aggregate and fill material when

resources are scarce and material quality is

not critical. Borrow pit materialgravel,sand, and finesseldom needs to be blasted,

crushed, or screened. Though its quality may

not be as good as crushed stone, it is often

acceptable. The equipment needed to work a

borrow pit includes dozers for clearing and

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grubbing, dump trucks for hauling, and either

scoop loaders, scrapers, or cranes with shovel

or dragline attachments for loading.

Borrow pits are best located at the tops of

hills close to or on the construction site for

ease of material handling. If borrow pits are

located away from the construction site, co-

ordination with the local landowner must be

effected, and additional care must be taken

when closing down the pit to prevent undue

damage to the surrounding terrain.

Q U A R R I E S

A quarry is an open excavation from which

rock m ay be rem oved, eith er by blasting or by

ripping with bulldozers. Quarries are typi-cally used when borrow pits cannot support

the mission, either because the material is

insufficient, the quality is poor, or because

borrow pits are too far from the work site.

Existing quarries should be used whenever

possible, since developing and operating a

q u a r r y r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e , m a n -

power, and equipment. When planners con-

sider opening a new quarry site, they mustweigh the tactical situation, the security of

the quar ry unit, and th e lead time required to

develop the site. Engineer units with quar-

rying equipment are scarce resources in the

active Army. The use of such units must be

carefully planned.

The decision to develop a quarry site must

also take into account the quality and quan-

tity of material offered, the availability of

trained personnel and equipment, the pro-

posed quar rys rock str uctur e and dr aina ge,

an d th e sites locat ion with r espect to civilianpopulace, access roads, facilities, utilities, and

the construct ion s i te . The environmental

impact of the quarrying operation should be

considered because of possible air, ground

water, and noise pollution. The equipment

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needed to operate a quarry includes bull-

dozers, air compressors, crawler dri l ls or

han d dr ills, and eith er scooploaders or cran eswith shovel attachments.

L O G G I N G O P E R A T I O N S

When host nation support is not adequate to

supply timber products for construction, plan-

ners may decide to conduct independent log-

ging and/or sawmill operations. Logging is

the process of convert ing standing t imber

into sawn logs or timber products and de-

livering them to the sawmill for the manu-

facture of lumber or heavy timber. Logs can

be processed and used for such purposes as

timber piles, bridge or wharf stringers, rail-

road ties, and framing members for protective

structures. Logs can be processed into dimen-

sioned lumber for use in Theater of Opera-

tions construction if drying time is available.

The Arm ys capa bility to cond uct logging

and sawmill operations is located solely in

Engineer Fores t ry Teams in the Reserve

establishment. The Forestry Team General

of the Army (GA) is organized under Tables

o f O r g a n i z a t i o n a n d E q u i p m e n t ( T O E )

5-520G. The team is divided into a teamheadquarters, a logging section, and a saw-

mill section. Such tea ms m ay be at tached to a

supply and service battalion of the general

support group or to an engineer construction

group, or it may be used to support indepen-

dent operations. The Forestry Team is 75

percent mobile. Forestry Teams are scarce

resources, and their use must be carefully

planned.

When the decis ion has been made to use

military resources to produce timber products,

the first st ep in plann ing is to select a timberstand and sawmill site. Again, the support-

ing engineer topographic unit can provide

useful information. The timber stand may be

some distance away from the si te of the

sawmill. The planner must therefore plan for

roads and br idges that can handle heavy

loads. Supporting engineer units will need to

provide for road maintenance. The sawmill

site should be convenient to roads or railroads

for transshipment of the lumber products.

The sawmill must have a large, clear area

around it, be well drained, an d be located at a

distance from inhabited areas. Provisions

must be made for properly disposing of wood

waste products and unused wood preserva-

t ive , w h ich can be haza rdous to hum an

beings. An adequate water supply must be

available for fire protection at the sawmill.

The Forestry Team conducts a reconnais-

sance, called a t imber cruise, to select a

logging site. During the timber cruise, ap-

propriate tree species are identified, and the

timber s ta nds yield is estima ted. After th e

timber cruise is completed, the selected treesare cut, th en logs are cut t o the correct length.

These logs are loaded on trucks and taken to

the sawmill, where bark is removed, the logs

are sawn into the needed dimensions, and

wood preservative is applied. The dimen-

sional stability and sturdiness of the wood is

enha nced if it is dried in a kiln or in th e open

air. The drying process consumes valuable

space and time.

ENGINEER-PROCESSED MATERIALS

C R U S H E D R O C K P R O D U C T I O N screened, and perha ps washed to meet quality

R ock of specifi c s ize and g rada t ion is needed s t andards for cons t ruc t ion m is sions . I t i s

for a spha lt and concre t e p roduct ion . Crushed a lm os t a ce r ta in ty tha t a supp ly of crushed

rock is used as the base course for roads and rock wi ll be needed in any Theater of Opera-

airfields. Rock from quarry operations and tions construction.

some borrow pit material must be crushed,

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Certain Army engineer units in the active

and reserve component have the equipment

and trained personnel to establish and op

erate large-scale rock crushing plants. Rockprocessing units, like quarry units, are low-

density engineer resources which must be

used carefully. Planners must be aware that

moving a rock processing unit and establish-

ing operations at a new site requires con-

siderable lead time.

The plant must be sited within a reasonable

distance of the quarry and the construction

project. It should be located on level ground

with good drainage. Adequate space should

be available for equipment, stockpiles, main-

tenance areas, related facilities and utilities,and for expansion. An adequate supply of

water must be available for the washing

process.

The two most common rock processing units

have either a 75- or a 225-ton per hour rock

process ing plant . Each plant consis ts of

several large pieces of towed equipment, The

major components are crushers, screening

equipment, washing equipment, an d portable

conveyers. Planners must be aware that the

actual output of any given plant differs from

its nominal capaci ty . Actual product ion

reflects th e plant s capacity to han dle thespecific product input, the desired size of the

final product, the size of the crushing equip-

ment, and the proportion of by-product or

waste produced.

Other problems that are inherently part of

rock processing operations must be consider-

ed. Equipment maintenance is inevitably a

major task, because the heavy loads and

abrasive action of crushing and moving tons

of rock rapidly wears and damages equip-

ment. Repairs are sometimes difficult, be-

cause spare parts are often scarce.

A S P H A L T P R O D U C T I O N

Engineer units with organic asphalt plants

ar e low density engineer resources in both th e

active and reserve components, and should

be used carefully. Moving and establishing

an asphalt plant requires considerable lead

time. An adequate source of raw materials,

such as rock, sand, and bitumen, must be

available.

ASPHALT PLANT WITH TRAILER-MOUNTED ELEMENTS

Barber-Greene Co., Bituminous Construction Handbook

(Aurora, IL, Barber-Greene, 1963), Figure 67.

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The 100- to 150-ton per h our aspha lt plant is

th e Armys curren t plan t . This plant can

produce all types of bituminous mixes, in-cluding high-type concrete, cold mixes, and

stabilized base mixtures. The plant consists

of a mixer, hot elevator, gradation control

unit, dryer, and feeder, all of which are trailer

mounted. The upper half of the gradation

control unit, the cold elevator, and numerous

ancil lary parts must be moved on extra

trailers. Equipment needed to support plant

operations includes dump trucks, portable

conveyors, scoop loaders, bulldozers, and

cranes with clamshell attachments. An air

compressor with drum cutting tools is needed

to open drums of asphalt cement, and fuel

tru cks ar e needed to supply the h ot oil heaters

and power plants.

When it is determined that a military asphalt

p lant i s needed, p lanners must se lec t an

optimal site. A large, well-drained area with a

gravel or hard top surface is to be preferred.

The plant must be close to both the source of

aggregate and the construction site, because

most bituminous mixes ei ther become too

cool or begin to cure if they are not placed

quickly. A good road net is needed to avoid

traffic jams and resultant cooling of mixes.

The planner must also consider the potential

environmental problems, including dust gen-

erated by the plant and potential soil pol-lution from bitumen and fuel spills.

STANDARD ASPHALT TRAVEL PLANT

Barber-Greene, Bituminous Construction Handbook, Figure 75.

12 PR OCUREMENT AND PRODUCTION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERI ALS


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P O R T L A N D C E M E N T C O N C R E T E

P R O D U C T I O N

Portland cement concrete can be produced,

on a small to medium scale, by any Army

engineer battalion and by most of the specialengineer support companies in the act ive

component . Certain engineer uni ts in the

Army Reserve and National Guard establish-

ment have the organic equipment and train-

ed personnel to install and operate central

mix concrete plants if the project calls for

large amounts of portland cement concrete.

The produc t ion of any por t land cement

requires that the proper raw materials be

available. The concrete requires gravel or

crushed rock as the coarse aggregate, and

sand as the fine aggregate. These materialsmust be available in sufficient quantities.

The coarse aggregate must be of the proper

gradation and of a specific size, depending on

the structure that is to be built. The fine

aggregate should be well graded and free of

deleterious material. There must be source of

fresh and preferably potable water available

at the mixing site. Water is also required at

the construction site for use in curing the

fresh concrete. Finally, portland cement must

be provided to the using unit either through

the military supply chain or through local

procurement in the host nation.

Small and medium scale concrete require-

ments can be satisfied by any Army engineer

unit with either the 16S concrete mixer or the

M919 Concrete Mobile. The 16S mixer can be

easily moved to remote locations; it supplies

small scale concrete requirements. It is man-

power-intensive in operation. Several of the

16S mixers can be grouped together to con-

struct an efficient concrete central mix plant.

The M919 Concrete Mobile is a self con-

ta ined concre te mate r ia l t r anspor te r and

mixing machine. This machine is capable ofproducing high quality, fresh concrete at the

const ru ction s ite. It is a one-person operat ion,

as t he dr iver of the vehicle is also the opera tor

of the mixer. This machine has the capacity

to carry materials for 8 cubic yards of concrete

when it is fully loaded. The ma chines ma -

neuverability is limited to good roads and

firm ground at the construction site. Scoop

loaders are generally required to support the

M919 at the materials yard.

M919 CONCRETE MOBILE

P ROCUREMENT AND PRODUCTION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 13


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Large scale concrete requirements can be

satisfied by those reserve engineer units

which operate central mix plants. Centralmix plants have t he facilities to ha ndle, store,

ba t ch , and m ix concre t e m a te r i a l s . The

individual materials are accurately propor-

tioned, then mixed in a large drum mixer. The

concrete is deposited in dump trucks and

moved to the job site. Central mix plants are

capable of producing 80 cubic yards of fresh

concrete per hour. This type of production

may be desirable on a large project su ch as a n

airfield. Central mix plant operations require

the support of scoop loaders, cranes withclamshel l a t tachments , and dump t rucks .

Central mix plants must be located near the

construction site and near a supply of raw

mater ia ls and water . They must a lso be

situated on firm ground with good drainage,

and have plenty of area for vehicular ma-

neuver.

14 P ROCURE MENT AND PRODUCTION OF CONSTRUCTI ON MATERI ALS


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Ch a p t e r 3

A I R F I E L D S A N D H E L I P O R T S

Airfields and heliports support the thrust of combat powerand the rapid resupply of friendly forces. Theater airfields

and related facilities must be ready to receive early deployingun its. They ar e basic to th e Air F orce missions of coun ter air, closeair su pport, an d interdiction, an d to th e integrated doctrine of theAirLand battle. Engineer support to airfields and heliports istherefore a vital mission in the Theater of Operations.

Forces in and deploying to developed theaters can use existingairf ields. Opening a contingency Theater of Operat ions maydemand that new airfields be built or existing airfields expanded.In a short-warning conflict, emergency war damage repair andpriority expedient facility work exceed deployed Air Forcecapability. Thus, extensive Army support is needed. Plannersmust identify critical existing airfields and indicate the need fornew construction and airfield expansion.

Engineer support to airfields covers a wide array of individualengineer tasks. A majority of these tasks may be classified ashorizontal. However, many vertical and utility tasks have beeniden t i f i ed by the Ai r Fo rce a s r equ i r ing immed ia t e Armyrestoration work. Major horizontal tasks associated with airfieldsand heliports closely parallel those required for roads (Chapter 4).Considerations unique to planning and constructing airfieldsand heliports are discussed in this chapter.

C O N S T R U C T I O N R E S P O N S I B I L I T I E S 1 6

T Y P E S O F A I R F I E L D S A N D H E L I P O R T S 1 8

P L A N N I N G M I L I T A R Y A I R F I E L D S 1 9

N EW A IR FIELD A N D H ELIPO R T C O N STR U C TIO N 21

E X P A N S I O N A N D R E H A B I L I T A T I O N 2 4

M A IN TEN A N C E A N D R EPA IR O F A IR FIELD S A N D H ELIPO R TS 25

AIRFIELDS AND HELIP ORTS 15
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C O N S T R U C T I O N R E S P O N S I B I L I T I E S

Engineer Combat Heavy Battalions, underthe appropriate Army command, performdesignated Air Force and all Army construc-tion. These battalions may be augmented byCombat Engineer Battal ions, an EngineerCombat Suppor t Equipment Company, anEngineer Light Equipment Company, anEngineer Construction Support Company, oran Engineer Pipeline Construction SupportCompany. These units execute large construc-t ion projects on a task or area basis , asdictated by the theater plan or other theaterproject directives.

C O M M A N D R E L A T I O N S H I P S

Units assigned in general support of anArmy or Air Force element may also beassigned in direct support of that element foremergency rehabil i tat ion. When units areexecuting either general or direct supportmissions, they remain under Army commandand operat ional control . Units executingemergency rehabil i tat ion (direct support)plans, receive and accept detai led opera-tional requirements from the supported com-mander, either Army or Air Force.

SU PPO R T TO TH E A IR FO R C E

Current joint-service regulat ions have es-tablished policies, responsibilities, and pro-cedures for Army construction support to theAir Force. The du ties of each ser vice ar e listedbelow.

The Army provides troop construction support to Air Force-controlled airfields as fol-lows:

Develops engineering design criteria,standard plans, and material to meet AirForce requirements.

Performs reconnaissance, survey, design,construction, or improvement of airfields,roads, utilities, and structures.

Repai rs Air Force bases and fac i l i t iesbeyond the immediate emergency recoveryrequir ement s of th e Air Force (perm an entrepair) .

Supp l i e s cons t ruc t ion ma te r i a l s andequipment .

Ass is t s in emergency repai r of war-damaged air bases.

Assist in providing expedient facilities(force beddown).

Manages war damage repai r and basedevelopment; supervises Army personnel.The Ai r Fo rce base commander s e t spriorities.

Performs emergency and perman ent r epairof war damage to forward tactical airliftsupport facilities.

The Air Force provides tr oop engineer supportas follows:

Performs primary emergency repair of wardamage to air bases (rapid runway repair

(RRR) and r epair of oth er critical opera tingfacilities), with Primary Base EmergencyEngineer Force (Prime Beef) Teams.

Constructs expedient facilities for AirForce units and weapon systems. Thisexcludes respons ib i l i ty for Army basedevelopment.

Operates and maintains Air Force facili-ties. Air Force engineer units (Red HorseTeams) perform maintenance tasks.

Provides cra sh r escue and fire suppr ession.

Manages emergency repair of war damageand force beddown construction.

Supplies mat erial and equipment for itsown engineering mission.

16 AIRFIELDS AND HELIP ORTS


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TYP ES OF AIRFIE LDS AND HELIP ORTS

Within the Theater of Operations, airfieldsand heliports are classified by both area and

mission. For each area and mission there areessential, or controlling aircraft, either fixed-wing and/or rotary-wing. The controllingaircraft, or aircraft combination, is identifiedfor each kind of facility in order to establishlimit ing airf ield and/or heliport geometricand surface strength requirements.

A R E A C L A S S I F I C A T I O N

The area classification identifies the theatersector and the military control under whichthe airfield is to operat e. The four area s ar e

1. Battle AreaSector of the AirLand battle-field normally under military control of abrigade;

2. Forward AreaSector of the Theater ofOperations immediately behind the battlearea and normally under military controlof a brigade or division;

3. Support AreaSector of the Theater ofOperations behind the forward area, nor-mally within t he Corps rear or areas un dermilitary control of the fighter air security

command;

4. Rear AreaSector of the Theater of Opera-tions behind the support area, normallyt h e C O M M Z , u n d e r c o m m a n d o f t h eTheater Army commander.

M I S S I O N C L A S S I F I C A T I O N

The miss ion c lass i f ica t ion ident i f ies theaircraft and aircraft combinations that usean airfield according to the kinds of missionsassigned to the field. The missions and theirassociated aircraft combinations are identi-

f ied separately for f ixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft.

F i x e d - w i n g a i r c r a f t

For the purpose of this manual, aircraft areclassified in six mission categories which

include all fixed-wing aircraft in the currentmilitary inventory. A controlling aircraft orcombination of controlling aircraft has beendesignated for each category to establishl imi t ing a i r f ie ld , geometr ic , and sur faces t rength requi rements . The miss ion ca te-gories include liaison, surveillance, light andmedium lif t , tact ical , and heavy l if t . Theaircraft or aircraft combinations that performthe missions and their requirements are shownon Table 3.

R o t a r y - w i n g a i r c r a f t

Four helicopters have been designated ascon t ro l l i ng he l i cop te r s t o e s t ab l i sh t hel imi t i ng geomet r i c and su r f ace s t r eng threquirements given in this manual. Thesehelicopters are

Observation (light) helicopter (OH-58);

Utility helicopter (UH-60);

Cargo helicopter (CH-47);

Attack helicopter (AH-1G).

The a i r f ie ld c lass i f ica t ion sys temAn airfield classification system has beendeveloped in TM 5-330. The syst em covers a llknown air missions for fixed-wing aircraftwithin t he t heat er. Airfield types are derivedby combining the controlling aircraft classi-fication with the appropriate military area.Where airfields are to serve as multimissionfacilities for support of all classes of Army orAir Force aircraft, the first ter m in th e airfieldtype designation becomes Army or Air Forcerather than a controlling aircraft classifica-

t ion, for example: Army Rear Area. Theheliport classification system developed inTM 5-330 derives classifications by combin-ing the selected helicopters with the ap-propriate military area.



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FM 5-104

Table 3. Mission Classification Data for Fixed-Wing Aircraft

Category

Liaison

Surveillance

Light andMedium lift

Tactical

Heavy lift

Aircrafttype

U-21FC-12CC-12DU-21A

C-12CC-12DOV-1D

C-130

F-15C/DF-SF

F-16A/BF-4CF-15A/B

B-747C-141B

Surfacestrength

(per squareinch of main

gear)100956560

956560

105

355318

275265260

215180

Geometric (ground run in feet)*aircraft take off Minimum

clearance50 feet

C-12D 2,150 2,850

C-12D

C-130

F-111AA-10

F-4CF-16A/BF-15A/BF-5F

C-141B

2,150

3,690

4,6004,000

3,5603,2252,5002,110

3,400

2,850

5,410

5,6304,850

4,8505,003,5003,270

4,050C-5A 7,200 8,600B-747 10,500KC-135A 13,500 18,400

*Other geometric considerations include taxiway, parking apron, overrun; and lateral safety arearequirements. Generally, the larger the aircraft, the greater these other geometric dimensions must be. See TM5-330 for details.

PLANNING MILITARY AIRFIELDS

T H E A T E R W I D E A I R F I E L D

P L A N N I N G

Most planning factors described Chapter 4for road design are applicable in airfields.The most important factors are discussedbelow.

Mil i tary miss ion

To achieve a proper design, it is essential th atthe engineer planner have a complete under-standing of the purpose, scope, and estimatedduration of the particular air missions. Mis-

sions that may be conducted include recon-naissance, cargo transport, or attack.

Si te se lec t ion

The engineer planners at tention must bedirected f irst toward select ing si tes . Theoperational plan establishes tactical and/or

logist ical requirements that influence thetype o f a i r c r a f t and number o f a i r c r a f tmissions required. With this data in hand,the planner can determine the number, type,service life, and construction time limitationsfor airfields needed in each military area.Within si te requirements dictated by thetact ical s i tuat ion, the planner establishesreasonable site requirements for each type ofairfield. The planner chooses geographiclocations on the basis of topographic features(grading , dra inage , and hydrology) , so i l ,

vegetation, utilities, climatic conditions, andaccessibility of materials. Other site charac-teristics to be studied include weather pat-terns (such as temperature, barometric pres-sure, and wind directions), and flight pathobstacles.

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C o n s t r u c t i o n p l a n n i n g

The planner evaluates all existing transportfacilities to determine the best methods and

routes. These include ports, rail lines, roadnets, and other n earby airfields that might beused for assembling and moving constructionequipment and materials to the constructionsite.

The planner evaluates the availability andtype of engineer construction forces to deter-mine if construction capability is sufficient tocarry out the required airfield construction.The planner must weigh the type and avail-a b i l i t y o f l o c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l sagains t overa l l needs for proposed con-

struction. Both naturally occurring materialsand other possible sources for materials forsubgrade strengthening should be examined.Requirements for importing special materialsfor surfacing, drainage, and dust controlmust be feasible for available constructiontime and resources.

Secur i ty s i t ua t ion

The p lanner devises an adequate p lan toensure that construction troops can protectthemselves, their equipment, and their ma-ter ia l s aga ins t harassment and sabotage

during airfield or heliport construction. Re-quirements for addit ional securi ty forcesshould be evaluated.

A ir f i e ld dam age r epa i r (A D R )

The planner must have knowledge of forcesdedicated to ADR. Depending upon baselocations, local agreements, and the overallmilitary situation, any combination of Army,Air Force, host nation, or contract engineersupport may be possible.

Logi s t i ca l suppor t

The Air Force or Army furnishes the neces-sary dat a t o help plan a irfields an d heliports.The data should include aircraft character-istics, allowance factors and formulas, broaddesign, layout, and construction criteria, and

policy guidance. Information should includedefinitive drawings, specifications, regula-

tions, manuals, or other appropriate refer-ences. The services should also submit theirspecific requirements in broad engineeringterms t ogether with general site and ultimatedevelopment plans. Army engineer units areusually responsible for site reconnaissanceand r ecommenda t ions , su rvey , pavemen tdesign, layout adaptation, and construction.Logistical support is prescribed by ArmyRegulation (AR) 415-30/Air Force Regulation(AFR) 93-10. Engineering and logistic datafor Air Force base planning can be found inAir Force Manual (AFM) 86-3, Volume I.

I N D I V I D U A L

A I R F I E L D / H E L I P O R T D E S I G N

The engineer commander is responsible forsi te reconnaissance and recommendations,design of the airfield/heliport, and the actualconstruction of the individual airfield. Theengineer is normally given standard designsfor the type and capacity of the airf ield.However, the planner must frequently alterthese des igns to meet t ime and mater ia ll imitat ions or the l imitat ions imposed bylocal topography, area, or obstruction char-

acteristics. The engineer in charge of con-struction may alter designs within the lim-itations prescribed by headquarters but mustobta in approval for major changes f romheadquarters before the work starts.

The engineer commander will need to solvethe following engineering problems in car-rying out most airfield assignments:

Design a drainage system str ucture.

Design runways, taxiways, and hard-

s tands .

Select/dispose of soils encountered in cuts.Determine their usefulness for improvingsubgrade.



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Choose a met hod or met hods for s ta bilizing Select the grade for a minimum of earth-the subgrade. work within specification limits.

Decide upon the type and thickness of the Design related facilities, including accessbase course. and service roads, ammunition and POL

s t o r a g e a r e a s , n a v i g a t i o n a i d s Decide upon the type and thickness of the (NAVAIDS), maintenance aprons, warm-

surface course. up aprons , cor ros ion cont ro l fac i l i t ies ,control towers, airfield lighting, and otherfacilities.

NEW AIRF IELD AND HE LIP ORT CONSTRUCTION

C O N S T R U C T I O N G U I D A N C E

A completed air base is a complex construc-tion project. However, careful planning and astr ict focus on essentials can result in afacility that will support air operations soonafter construction begins. Subsequent im-p rovemen t s can be made du r ing use . I f construction is guided by an ultimate plan,staged completion of each structure can bedesigned to serve both expedient operationand the final design of the facility.

Preplanned layouts for each type of field arebased on the assumption that previously

unoccupied sites will be chosen. However, thelayouts have been so coordinated that, withinter ra in limitat ions, it is pr acticable to developa lar ger field from a sm aller one with minima lconstruction effort. Existing airfields can beused if they meet minimum requirements orcan economically be developed to meet re-quirements.

The construction combination to be followedin any single construction program is gener-ally established by the th eater comma nder. Itis best to complete an air base to its ultimate

design in a s ingle construction program.Often, however, it is necessary to initiallydesign a lower construction combination toget the base into operation within availabletime and construction support. In such cases,every effort must be made to proceed to the

ultimate combination designed for the air-

field. Repeated modification of a facility planis to be avoided.

A I R F I E L D F A C I L I T I E S

A fully completed airfield includes the fol-lowing types of facilities:

Airfield-Runways, taxiways, hardstands,aprons, and other pavements, shoulders,overrun, approach zones, NAVAIDS, air-field marking and lighting.

Sanitary facilitiesKitchens, dining

areas, showers, latrines.

Direct Operational Support FacilitiesAmmunition, storage and distribution ofaviation fuels and lubricants.

Maintenance, Operations, and SupplyAircraft maintenance, base shops, opera-t ions bui ld ings , base communica t ions ,photo labs, fire stations, weather facilities,general storage, medical facilities.

Indirect Operational Support Facilities

Roads and exterior utilities, such as watersupply and electric power.

AdministrationHeadquarters, personne]services, recreation, welfare facilities.

General housing and troop quarters.



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C o n s t r u c t i o n p r i o r i t i e s

The first goal in building a theater airfield isto achieve operat ional s tatus. Therefore,

construction is designed to support air trafficas soon as possible. The order for constructionproceeds according to the priorities describedbelow.

F i r s t p r i o r i t y . Provide the facilities mostessential for air operations as soon as pos-sible. Build airfield operational facilities,such as runways, taxiways, approaches, andaircraft parking areas of minimum dimen-sions. Provide minimum storage for bombs,ammunition, and aviation fuel. Provide es-sential sanitary, electric, and water facilities.

S e c o n d p r i o r i t y . Increase the capacity,safety, and efficiency of all air base opera-tions. Provide indirect support operationalfacilities. Construct access and service roadsand essential operational, maintenance, andsupply buildings.

T h i r d p r i o r i t y . Improve operational facil-ities. Provide facilities for administrationand special housing.

F o u r t h p r i o r i t y . Provide general housing.

S t a g e d c o n s t r u c t i o n

Construction stages establish a sequence forconstructing an airfield. These stages providefor building the airf ield in parts , so thatminimum opera t ional fac i l i t ies may bec o n s t r u c t e d i n m i n i m u m t i m e . F o re x a m p l e , a f i r s t - p r i o r i t y t a s k m a y b ereduced to stages as follows:

In st age I, a loop th at p ermit s landing,takeoff, circulation, and limited apronpa rk ing i s bu i l t . Runway l eng ths and

wid ths a r e t he min imum requ i r ed fo rcritical aircraft.

Stage II provides a new runway. The stageI runway now becomes a taxiway, and

aprons, hardstands, and additional taxi-ways are built.

In stage III, facilities are further expand-ed, and accommodation for more aircraftis added, if necessary. Expedient surfacingis s tandard for al l airf ields. When anexisting surface in the rear area is notadequate for al l-weather - opera t ions insupport of heavy transport aircraft or highperformance fighter aircraft, an appropri-ate pavement structure is designed andconstructed.

S I T E P R E P A R A T I O N

R e c o n n a i s s a n c eAirfield reconnaissance differs from roadlocation reconnaissance (FM 5-36), in thatmore comprehensive information is needed.An airfield project involves more man-hours,machine-hours, and material than most roadprojects. Air traffic also imposes stricterrequirements on traffic facilities than doesvehicular t ra f f ic . Consequent ly , the s i teselected has to be the best available. Tech-nical Manual 5-330 details reconnaissanceplanning for airfields and heliports.

S i t i n gWhen new construction is undertaken, theplanner and the reconnaissance team mustchoose a site with soil characteristics thatmeet strength and stability requirements, ora site that requires minimum constructioneffort to attain those standards.

Airf ields present more drainage problemsthan roads. Their wide, paved areas demandtha t wat er be diverted completely around t hefield, or that long drainage structures bebuilt. Sites a t t he low point of valleys or other

depressed areas should be avoided becausethey tend to be focal points for water col-lection. As in road construction, subsurfacewater should be avoided. A desirable airfieldsite lies across a long, gentle slope, because it



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is relatively easy to divert water around thefinished installation.

To accommodate missions efficiently, air-fields require large areas of relatively flatland. Advance location and layout avoidscramping facilities. To obtain the requiredarea, the airfield may have to be spread overa large section. This may call for a complexnetwork of tax iways and serv ice roads .Runways should be aligned in the directionof the prevailing wind.

The safe operation of fixed- or rotary-wingaircraft requires that al l obstacles above

elevations specified by design criteria beremoved. These criteria vary according to theoperating characteristics of the aircraft thatuse the airfield. For example, most heliportsrequire an approach zone with a 10:1 glideangle, whereas heavy cargo aircraft in therear area require a glide angle as flat as 50:1.To achieve the right glide angle, it is oftennecessary to remove h i l l s and do majorea r thwork on d i s t an t app roaches t o t heairf ield proper. The reconnaissance teamshould avoid locations that need extensiveearthwork to achieve the necessary gl ide

angle. Clearances are also required along thesides of runways. An area of specified widthmust be cleared of all obstacles and gradedaccording to specification.

S u r v e y s

Except for staking requirements, the tech-niques and principles for conducting airfieldand heliport construction surveys are iden-tical to those for roads. Technical Manuals5-232 and 5-233 discuss these principles andtechniques of field surveying in detail.

H O R I Z O N T A L S T R U C T U R E SE a r t h w o r k

An accurate estimate of earthwork volume isessential to proper control and management

of a horizontal construction project. Severalacceptable methods are described in TM5-330. Following mass diagram constructionand analysis, equipment is scheduled andproject durations are determined. Analysis ofthe mass diagram will also determine haulroutes, location of equipment work zones,and areas for waste and borrow sites.

Earthwork is conducted as described earlierfor road construction, except that projectwidth permits more balancing perpendiculart o t h e a i r f i e l d s c e n t e r l i n e . E a r t h w o r kbalancing may also occur between adjacentprojects (runway and taxiway, for example).

D r a i n a g e

During-construction and permanent drain-age structures are essential to the successfulcompletion of an airfield or h eliport . Plan ningconsiderations are similar to those used forroad construction. Detailed discussion ofdrainage design, construction, and main-tenance is contained in TM 5-330 and TM5-820-3.

S u r f a c i n g

The decision to pave an airfield or heliport in

the Theater of Operations is based upon theurgency that the airfield be completed, thetactical situation, the amount and type oftraffic expected, the soil-bearing charac-teristics, the climate, and the availability ofnew materials and equipment. Surfacingmust meet the allowable roughness criteriafor each type of aircraft that will use thefacility. Specific information on pavementdesign is contained in TM 5-330 and TM5-337.

Soi l s tabi l iza t ion

S o i l s t a b i l i z a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s i m p r o v estrength, control dust, and render surfaceswaterproof . The process i s d iscussed inChapter 4, and in further detail in TM 5-330.



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S U P P O R T F A C I L I T I E S

D e s i g n

Maximum use must be made of exist ing

facilities. However, airfields and heliportsmay need extensive support faci l i ty con-struction. The Army Facilities ComponentsSystem (AFCS) provides est imates of ma-terial, man-hours of construction effort, andmaterial cost estimates (TM 5-301) for stan-dard types of facilities. Plans for most facil-ities that support airfield operations can befound in TM 5-302.

S t a n d a r d s

Standards for construction in the Theater ofOperations are based upon expected du rat ion

of use. Facilities are classified as initial (0 to 6months), and temporary (6 to 24 months).The theater commander normally dictateswhich standard will be adopted, considering

the expected duration of use and the avail-ability of labor and construction materials.

Standards of construction and design appearin the AFCS. Of ten AFCS-recommendedconstruction materials are not available, andlocally procured substi tutes must governconstruction standards and design.

S u r v i v a b i l i t y e n h a n c e m e n t

Several kinds of fortifications are availableto enhance aircraft survivability. TechnicalManual 5-330 provides information to help inselect ing designs, constructing, and main-taining fort if icat ions. Their purpose is toprotect parked aircraft from hostile ground

fire and the associated damage effects of e x p l o d i n g f u e l a n d a m m u n i t i o n . F i e l dManual 5-103 discusses revetment construc-tion.

EXPANSION AND REHABILITATION

Whenever possible, existing facilities mustbe used. The wartime missions of theaterengineer troops are so extensive and thedemand for their services is so great tha t n ewconstruction should be avoided. Facility use

must be coordinated with host nat ion a uth or-ities, because existing airfields, particularlyin the rear area, are n eeded by host na tion airforces and for commercial purposes.

Military operations may require that friendlyor captured enemy airf ields be modified,expanded, or rehabilitated. Expansion andrehabil i tat ion must always be consideredover n ew const ru ction, since th ere is genera llya substantial savings in t ime, effort , andmaterials.

Except in highly developed areas, existingairf ields are seldom adequate to handlemodern, high-performance aircraft. However,some airfields may be made adequate with

only minimal effort. They may also serve asthe nucleus for larger fields that meet thespecifications of high-performance aircraft.Helicopters and light planes can often operatefrom existing roads, pastures, and athletic

fields.

When the decision to use an existing facilityhas been made, a reconnaissance is conductedby representatives of the anticipated usersand by Army and/or Air Force engineers.They use principles outlined in Chapter 4 forroad reconnaissance. Support facilities areconverted to stan dards dictated by the t heatercons t ruc t ion pol icy . Imaginat ive use of existing facilities is preferable to new con-struction. Ground reconnaissance of an air-field previously occupied by enemy forces

must be cautious,booby trapped ornance (UXO).

since facilities may beharbor unexploded ord-



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Pr ior i t ie s for expand ing and /or r ehab il it a - ma ter ia l r equir ement s for expanding or r e -t ing an exist ing a ir field genera l ly para llel habil ita t ing a i r fields a re usually s imi lar to

th ose for new a irfield or heliport constru ction.requirements for new construction and air-

P r oce du r e s , pe r s on n e l, a n d c on s t r u ct i on field d am age r epa ir .

MAINTENANCE AND REP AIR OF AIRF IELDS AND HE LIP ORTS

E X P E C T E D D A M A G E hinder repa ir efforts. Airfields are likely to beRecen t Threa t ana lys is i nd ica t es t ha t a i r- t a rge t ed for r epea t ed i n t e rdi ct i on a t t acks .fields will be subjected to damage by an Pavement damage categories established byincreasingly capable an d complex ar ray of the USAF are shown. The damage ca tegorydestructive weapons, including cannon fire, for a given munition depends on the deliveryrocket fi re, smal l bombs, bomble ts, and la rge method and extent of penet ra t ion as well asbombs. Scatterable mines and UXO may charge size.

PAVEMENT DAMAGE CATEGORIES



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R E P A I R S

The airfield commander prioritizes essentiala i r f ie ld damage repa ir (ADR) miss ions ,

usually in this order:

Reconnaissance/damage assessment;

Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD);

Rapid Runway Repair;

Collateral damage repair to operationalfacilities, communication systems, am-mu nition storage facilities, essential m ain-tenance facilities, fuel storage and dis-tribution, utilities, on and off base access

routes.

R u n w a y a n d t a x i w a y r e p a i r s

Emergency repairs are conducted as part ofRRR to provide a temporary fix. This allowsthe earliest possible resumption of air mis-sions. The service that is responsible for theairfield determines the Minimum OperatingStrip (MOS) and performs crater and surfacerepairs. All UXO, including remotely de-livered mines, must be cleared from the MOSbefore surface repair starts. Innovations inhardening common construction equipmentnow give additional protection to engineersperforming rapid removal of small UXO fromth e MOS . S u c h h a rd e n in g a l so p ro te c t soperators and equipment during subsequentattacks.

Rapid repair can be achieved with poly-urethane- and polyester-reinforced fiber glassmats. These form a protective cover overcrushed stone, and show promise as a sub-stitute for more cumbersome metal airfieldmatting. Research continues in the use of

polyurethane concrete, which offers a rapidmethod of providing a semipermanent pave-

ment repair.

Permanent pavement repairs are performedby Army engineer teams, primarily fromEngineer Combat Heavy Batta lions. Thea ir f ie ld commander d i rec ts the p r io r i tyof pavement repair effort, allowing perma-nent repair to begin as soon as the tacticalsituation, available equipment, and laborpermit. Pavements outside the MOS, includ-ing taxiways, usually have a lower repairpriority. Deliberately marking and/or clear-ing UXO must be done before permanent

repairs. Usually, EOD personnel are avail-able for clearing operations, but engineersmay have to perform this task under somecircumstances.

Techniques and criteria for maintaining andrepairing surface areas is provided in TM5-624. Office of the Chief of Engineers (OCE)reference documents listed at the end of thism a n u a l a d d r e s s r e p a i r o f b o m b c r a t e rdamage.

Suppor t f ac i l i t i e s

Army engineers are responsible for helpingAir Force Prime Beef teams to repair criticalair-base support facilities, when such repairsexceed the Air Forces capability. Normallythe Air Force performs emergency repairs,wh i l e a rmy e n g in e e r s p e r fo rm se mip e r -manent and permanent repairs. Methods forrepairing colla teral damage are much thesame as ordinary engineer construction tech-niques, and are within the capability of theEngineer Combat Heavy Battalions.



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RO A D S

An adequate road network is needed to transport troops,

equipment, and supplies in support of the combined armsteam in the Theater of Operations. Depending upon the mission,situation, and terrain, the road system usually carries most ofthese assets. Responsibility for road construction and mainte-nance within the theater rests almost wholly with the Army.While no engineer unit is designed solely for road constructionand maintenance, many engineer elements in the theater areactively engaged in this task.

R O A D N E T R E Q U I R E M E N T S 2 8

E XI S T I N G R O U T E S 2 9

M A I N T E N A N C E A N D R E P A I R 3 0

N E W R O A D C O N S T R U C T I O N 3 2

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ROAD NET RE QUIREMENTS

T Y P E S O F R O A D S

Roads in the Theater of Operations are clas-sified according to their location, traffic-

ability, and degree of permanence. Militaryroads are rarely constructed to meet theexacting requirements of civilian construc-t i on . S t anda rds va rycomba t t r a i l s androads in the Forward Combat Zone (FCZ)(FM 5-101) may be hast i ly-cut pathwaysdesigned only to enhance mobility for a shortt i m e . M o r e p e r m a n e n t n e t w o r k s M a i nSupply Routes (MSRs) and Lines of Com-munication (LOCs)are designed and builtto higher standards. This manual addressesmore pe rmanen t road cons t ruc t ion andmaintenance .

Sound engineering logic and the urgencies ofthe military situation dictate that existingroads be used whenever possible. Exceptionsinclude the construction of roads in supporto f Un i t ed S t a t e s Mar ine Corps (USMC)amphibious operat ions and road mainte-nance on instal lat ions or bases of otherservices. Where suitable networks do notexist, roads are upgraded or constructed tothe following specifications.

T e m p o r a r y r o a d s

Temporary roads are designed with a l i fespan of up to 2 years. Frost design is omitted.Roads within the Theater of Operations aren e a r l y a l l c o n s t r u c t e d t o t e m p o r a r ystandards.

P e r m a n e n t r o a d s

Permanent roads are designed for greaterthan 2 but less than 20 years of use. Frostdesign is incorporated.

S u b c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

Within temporary and permanent specifica-

tions, roads are subclassified as type A, B, orC according to the amount of traffic plannedper day. Type A roads are designed for thehighest capacity, while type C roads areplanned for the lowest.

C O N S T R U C T I O N R E S P O N S I B I L I T I E S

Engineer e lements , under the appropr ia teArmy command, have the following respon-

sibilities:

Road and bridge reconnaissance.

Recommendations for traffic circulationas it pertains to terrain and constructionconsiderat ions.

Maintenance, repair, improvement, andconstruction of roads and bridges.

Topographic support (FM 5-105).

R O A D P L A N N I N GThe following factors must be considered inall Theater of Operat ions road planningdesign:

L o c a t i o n

Route location is dictated by military neces-sity. Where possible, however, use existingroads to avoid unnecessary construction.

S i m p l i c i t y

Use simple designs that require a minimumof skilled labor and specialized equipment.

Use available materials.

Economy o f t ime

Speed is critical to road construction in theTheater of Operations. The nearer the re-quired road is to the forward area, the morevital it becomes. Save valuable timeusemanpower, equipment, materials, and facil-ities efficiently.

Economy o f ma te r i a l s

Conserve materials, especially those shippedfrom outside the Theater of Operations. Use

local materials wherever possible.

P l a n n i n g a n d m a n a g e m e n t

Use effective job management. Good plan-ning, careful scheduling, and thorough super-vision speed job completion and save time,

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labor, equipment, and materials. Whereverpossible, use staged construction to allow theearly use of roadways while further con-struction and improvement continue.

T e r r a i n

Study slopes, drainage, vegetation, characterof soil, likelihood of floods, and other con-

dit ions that may affect construction andlayout. Avoid dense brush, timberland, androlling terrain that require heavy clearing orgrading.

EXISTING ROUTE S

R E C O N N A I S S A N C E

Conduct route reconnaissance to evaluatethe traffic-bearing capabilities of previously-constructed roads. Results support routeselection decisions designed to facilitate unit

and logistical movement within the theater.Reconnaissance also determines improve-men t s needed be fo re a rou t e can ca r ryproposed traffic.

T y p e s

Route reconnaissance is classified as eitherhasty or deliberate. Hasty route reconnais-sance determines the immediate mil i tarytrafficability of a specified route. It is limitedto critical terrain data necessary for routeclassification. The results are presented asan overlay supplemented by such additional

reports as are required by the situation andth e comm an ders guidan ce. A deliberate routereconnaissance is conducted when sufficienttime and qualified personnel are available.Deliberate route reconnaissance is usuallyconducted when the situation demands pro-tracted use of an MSR. An overlay is madewith enclosures that describe all pertinentterrain features in detail. These documentsform a perm anent record which is retained atthe engineer uni t tasked to per form thereconna i s sance . Pe r t i nen t i n fo rma t ion i sforwarded to the corps and theater transpor-

tation offices to be used in transportationplanning. The data may also be used tomanufacture special overprinted route mapswith the assistance of engineer topographicuni t s .

I n f o r m a t i o n s o u g h t

The engineer reconnaissance team is briefedas t o th e ant icipated t ra ffic (wheeled, tra cked,or a combination) and the anticipated trafficflow. Single flow traffic allows a column of

vehic les to proceed whi le indiv idual on-coming or overtaking vehicles pass at pre-determined points. Double flow traffic allowstwo columns of vehicles to proceed simul-ta neously in t he sa me or in opposite directions(see FM 5-36). The reconnaissance team mayalso be asked to determine the road name ordesignation, the location of the road by mapgrid reference, and the nature and location ofobstructions.

Obstructions are defined as anything thatreduces the road classification below that

requir ed t o ha ndle proposed t ra ffic efficient ly.Obstructions include

Rest r ic ted la te ra l c learance , inc ludingtraveled way width such as bridges, built-up areas, rock falls or slide areas, tunnels,and wooded areas.

Restricted overhead clearance, includingoverpasses, bridges, tunnels, wooded areas,built-up ar eas.

Sharp curves.

Excessive gradients.

Poor drainage.

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Snow blockage.

Unstable foundation.Rough surface conditions.

Reinforcing obstacles, including NBC con-t amina t ion , r oad b locks , c r a t e r s , andminefield.

Existing bridging may require special atten-tion, as it is often a weak link. It may benecessary to conduct a bridge reconnaissanceand classification computations (see Chapter5 of this manual).

U P G R A D I N G E X I S T I N G R O A D S

Upgrading an existing road, combined withrout ine maintenance and repai r , usual lyinvolves reducing or eliminating obstructionslisted above. It is the preferred method ofimproving the trafficability of a selectedroute. Techniques, equipment, and materialsneeded for upgrading are the same as thoserequired for new road construction.

A changing tact ical s i tuat ion and unpre-dictable military operations may also requirethat engineer troops modify and expandcompleted construction. The location of aroad should allow for potential expansion.Expanding an exis t ing route or fac i l i ty

conserves manpower and material and per-mits speedier completion of a u sable roadwa y.

MAINTENANCE AND RE P AIR

Road maintenance is the routine preventionand correction of damage and deteriorationcaused by normal use and exposure to theelements. Repair restores damage caused byabnormal use, accidents, hostile forces, andsevere environmental actions. Rehabilitationres tores roads tha t have not been in thehands of friendly forces and do not meettheater requirements.

R O U T I N E M A I N T E N A N C E

A N D R E P A I R

Routine maintenance and repair operationsinclude inspection and supervision, stock-piling materials for maintenance and repairwork, maintenance and repair of road sur-faces and drainage systems, dust and mudcontrol, and snow and ice removal. The mainpurpose of maintenan ce and repair work is tokeep road surfaces in usable and safe condi-t ion. I t also increases route capacity andreduces vehicle maintenance requirements.E f f e c t i v e m a i n t e n a n c e b e g i n s w i t h acommand-wide emphas is s t ress ing gooddr iv ing prac t ices to reduce unnecessary

damage. Once damage has occurred, promptrepair is vital. After deterioration or destruc-tion of th e road su rface begins, ra pid degener-ation may follow. A minor maintenance jobpostponed becomes a major repair effortinvolving reconstruction of the subgrade,base course, and roadway surface. The fol-lowing pr inc ip les should be observed inconducting sound road maintenance andrepair.

Min imize i n t e r f e r ence w i th t r a f f i c

In order to keep surfaces usable, maintenanceand repair activities should interfere as littleas possible with the normal flow of traffic. Atemporary bypass may be required.

Cor rec t ba s i c c ause o f su r f ace f a i l u r e

Effort spent to make surface repairs on adefective subgrade are wasted. Any mainte-

nance or repair job should include an investi-gation to find the cause of the damage ordeterioration. That cause must be remediedbefore the r epair is m ade. To ignore the cau seof the damage is to invite prompt reappear-ance of the damage.

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fences, and keeping drainage systems free units . Engineer and nonengineer patrolsf rom obs t ruc t ion . Each command should must be established to monitor snow and ice

publ i sh a comprehens ive snow- and ice- condit ions within the area of operat ions.c o n t r o l p l a n t h a t c l e a r l y s p e c i f i e s t h e Available snow- and ice-control equipmentresponsibilities of engineer and nonengineer and supplies mu st be allocated t o support the

plan.

N E W R O A D C O N S T R U C T I O N

R O U T E R E C O N N A I S S A N C E

Engineer reconnaissance ef for t s can beclassified by their extent or their compre-hensiveness. In extent, reconnaissance maybe classified as either area or specific recon-

naissance. Area reconnaissance is a searchconducted over a wide area to find a generalsite suitable for construction. Specific recon-naissance is investigation of a particular siteor an undeveloped but potential route.

New route reconnaissance may be classifiedeither as hasty or deliberate. The way inwhich reconnaissances are performed de-pends upon th e amount of detail required, thetime available, the terrain problems encoun-tered, and the tactical situation.

Reconnaissance involves the following steps.

P l a n n i n g

Planning includes coordination of recon-naissance effort by appropriate headqua rters,predict ion of needs, and assignment of adefinite reconnaissance mission.

B r i e f i n g

In a briefing, the reconnaissance party is toldwhat s i te or area to reconnoiter , what isalready known, and what information theparty is expected to obtain. Pertinent details

concerning the times or methods of reportingresults are included in the briefing.

P r e l i m i n a r y s t u d y

The initial job of the reconnaissance party isto conduct this s tudy. The party reviews

information obtained during the brief ing,conducts a map reconnaissance of the site ora r ea , s t ud i e s a i r pho tos , de l i nea t e s so i lboundaries, assembles any other availableinformation, and plans and prepares for the

actual reconnaissance.

The reconnaissance team may request thefollowing sources of information in planningreconnaissance missions and in making thepreliminary study of a specific mission:

Existing intelligence dossiers; Army andAir Force periodic intelligence reports.

Strategic and technical reports, studies,and summaries .

Road, topographic, soil, vegetation, andgeologic maps.

Existing aerial reconnaissance reports; airp h o t o s .

A i r r e c o n n a i s s a n c e

An air reconnaissance includes a generalstudy of the topography, drainage pattern,and vegeta t ion . Cons t ruc t ion problems,camouflage possibilities, and access routesshould be identified. Usually, specific groundreconna i s sance p rocedure i s p l anned by

selecting, from th e air, the a reas t o investigateand the questions to be answered. Air recon-naissance can be used to eliminate unsu itablesites, but cannot be r elied on for sit e selection.Aerial photography greatly enhances theusefulness of this method of reconnaissance.

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G r o u n d r e c o n n a i s s a n c e

While a i r reconnaissance can ef fec t ive lyminimize needed ground reconnaissance, itcannot replace ground reconnaissance. It ison the g round tha t mos t ques t i ons a r eanswered, or that most observations ten-tatively made from the air are verified. Often,ground and air reconnaissance are not asdistinct as they would seem from this dis-cussion. A continuing air reconnaissancemay be interspersed with specif ic groundreconnaissances.

R e p o r t i n g

The importance of prompt, accurate, andcomple t e r epo r t s canno t be ove rempha-sized.

S I T E S E L E C T I O N

Select the most favorable trace for the routeto follow. Future problems can be avoided bycareful reconnaissance and wise considera-tion of future tactical, strategic, and post-hostilities needs. A project that is not welllaid out may not meet the requirements forconstruction ease and efficiency, maintain-ability, usability, capacity, and convenience.

Wherever possible, use existing facilities. Inmos t a r ea s , an ex t ens ive road ne tworkalready exists. With expansion and rehabili-tat ion of the roadway and preparat ion of adequate surfaces, this network can carryrequired traffic loads.

Where new constru ction m ust be underta ken,the roadbed should be aligned to take ad-vantage of the most favorable surface andsubsurface terrain. An alignment over soilwith good properties meets the design stan-dards for st rength a nd st ability and m inimizesthe need to remove undesirable materials.

D r a i n a g e

Drainage patterns are also important in siteselection. When the tactical situation permits,roads should be located on ridgelines. Thus,

natural drainage features minimize the needfor costly and time-consuming constructionof drainage structures. Whenever possible,avoid subsurface water. If it is impossible toavoid road construction in saturated terrain,water tables must be lowered during con-struction. Steps must also be taken to min-imize waters adverse effect on the strengthof the supporting subgrade and base course.

E a r t h m o v i n g

Ear thmov ing ope ra t i ons a r e t he l a rges tsingle work item on any project involving theconstruction of LOCs. Any step that can be

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