ARCHITECTURE DEPARTMENT CHINESE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG

MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE PROGRAMME 2008-2009 DESIGN REPORT

WOMEN'S SPACE

CHENG Lok Nin Olivia May 2009

Women's Space Cheng L〇k Nin, Olivia, M.Arch 2. 08-09

Thesis Report

The Chinese University of Hong Kong Department of Architecture

Theory Analysis Definitions Construction of feminine space Relationship between architect and feminine space Feminine Space in Different Cultures Environmental psychology

My position

3. Project Analysis 3.1 Programme Description 3.2 Case Study 3.3 Site Selection and Analysis 3.4 Process 3.5 Documentation

Bibliography

Appendix I

ABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements

1. Introduction 1.1 Background 1.2 Purpose 1.3 Structure of Report

1 2

z z z

2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people have offered generous help in the process of doing the thesis in the Chinese University of Hong Kong. Particularly, I am indebted to my advisor Homsi Eymen whose suggestions and advice have been very stimulating and enlightening. Special thanks are due to Dr. Sam Chan whose extensive knowledge in theories of East and West Feminisms was an important source of inspiration for my research. I am grateful to my family, my classmates (especially Alice Chau, Natalie See, Caspar Lam and Jonas Tang) and friends who shared my ambitions and anxieties throughout my study. Most important, the thesis would have remained impossible without the support and love of God. Thanks.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Over the past two decades, there have been substantial changes in the marital status and family conditions of people in Hong Kong, underlying considerable changes in the roles of female in the sphere of family life (appendix I). Nowadays, it is increasingly common for women to stay longer in education and start work when they grow older. Thus they form family older. The phenomena rise my interest in researching for the relationship between women and space. I would like to find out what architecture can provide to support, rather than restrict, the activities of employed women and their families.

1.2 Purpose

The purpose of this research is to find out the relationships between female and space. It covered the influence of culture on the design of space for women, theories and development regarding the feminine space. The following questions are raised up.

What are the representations of feminine space?

What are the feminine building forms and materials?

How is a feminine space constructed?

What are feminine ideas in different cultures?

Can an architect construct a feminine space intentionally?

1.3 Structure of the report

The report is set out in five sections: -Introduction introduces the topic and objectives of the research -Theory Analysis develop an analyze from the available textural materials and

describes the feminine space in different cultures -Project Analysis overviews the program and design process

A bibliography contains reference materials used in the above sections. An appendix provides supporting information of the above sections.

2. THEORY ANALYSIS

Research on gender and architecture first started to appear in the late 1970s They were largely done by women and from an overtly political feminist^ angle. Besides, the majority of the research dealt with the feminine and female aspects of gender and considered sexuality from a heterosexual perspective.

Beatriz Colomina's edited "Sexuality and Space" published in 1992 was the first collection of researches related gender and space. Most of the writers and subjects are western in origin, many from the United States. There are far too little research focused on women and space in Asia.

2.1 Definitions

According to Jane Rendell, sex- male and female- exemplifies a biological difference between bodies while gender- masculine and feminine- refers to the socially constructed set of differences between men and women. Sex differences are differences of a natural and pre-given order while gender differences- socially, culturally and historically produced differences which change over time and place. The Cambridge English Dictionary defines feminine as acting, or having qualities which are traditionally considered to be suitable for a woman.

2.2 Construction of feminine space

Referring to the book "Gender Space Architecture" edited by Jane Rendell, Barbara Penner and lain Borden, space is gendered through physical occupation and representation. Specific places may be 'sexed' according to the sex of the people who occupy them. For example, toilets are 'sexed' male or female as they are occupied by men or women. Domestic kitchen is gendered feminine as the activity of cooking is an activity that socially connected with women. On the other hand, descriptions of gendered space make use of words and images which have cultural associations with particular genders to invoke comparisons to the biological body. The 'feminine' in architecture is often associated with soft, organic forms or, organizationally, with the family or the home, or people while masculine in architecture is often associated with straight phallic towers.

1 Feminist is someone who holds that women suffer discrimination because of their sex, that they have specific needs which remain negated and unsatisfied, and that the satisfaction of these needs would require.

The archetype of feminine principle in architecture is based on the female experience, sensibilities and ways of knowing the wor ld 2. The Temples de Mnajdra in Malta was gynecomorphic in form. It shaped like a female body. People entered to the "womb-cavern' passing through the narrow "birth canal"

archetype of every holy of holies) by

Temples de Mnajdra, Malta, Neolithic, 3500-3000 B.C. (Source: Architecture: a place for women / 曰len Perry Berkeley)

Repair hall of the Union Tank Company, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 1958, Richard Buckminster Fuller (Left) Max-Bra, 1958, Haus-Rucker-Co (Right) (Source: Androgynes: the male-female in art and architecture / Gunther Feuerstein)

During the Greek and Roman era , there were columns of buildings representing human beings. Ionic (female) was characterized by being longer and slimmer than Doric and it had volutes which was referred to female's hair.

i i i Cofinthia«

(Source: http://schools.lwsd.org/Frost/PSolum/TOM/Tom.htm)

'The Buried Treasure — Women's Ancient Architectural Heritage" by Mimi Lobell

Moller house, Vienna, 1928, Adolf Loos (Source: Privacy and publicity : modern architecture as mass media / Beatriz Colomina.)

The room that Loos designed for his wife, Una, was the most intimate place in the house. It was the realm with a scene of sexuality and reproduction, like the womb. The white walls, draperies and angora sheepskins created a sensual and delicate fluidity. This was architecture of silence, of a sentimental and erotic approach. Every object was white. It contrasts with the more public living spaces, the realm of exchange and money.

2.3 Relationship between architect and feminine space

There was a discussion about whether a feminine space produced through intentional acts of architectural design or a interpretative lens of architectural criticism. Beatriz Colomina in the essay "The Split Wall: Domestic Voyeurism" tried to use feminist techniques to interpret the works of male architects, such as Adolf Loos and Le Corbusier.

In the Muller and Moller House, the female space was like a private theater box while women were the spectator. The threater box both provided protection and drew attention to itself. The lady sitting area was raised from the living room to provide the occupants a vantage point overlooking the internal social spaces. A sense of security is thus produced by the position of the couch and the placement of its occupants, against the light. In contrast, the male space was like a stage while men were the actor. Gender difference is structured by the relations of desiring and being-desired, looking and being-looked-at - the female spectacle and the male gaze.

The dark leather sofas, chimney, the desks, the mirrors in the library represent within the house (Left) Muller house, Vienna, Adolf Loos

'public space'

Adolf Loos's flat. Una Loos's bedroom mass media / Beatriz Colomina)

(Source: Privacy and publicity : modern architecture as

2.4 Feminine Space in Different Cultures

Space is socially produced, but that space is also a condition of social production (David Harvey and Edward Soja). Anthropologists have argued that space is materially and culturally produced, and architecture is one of culturally produced artifacts. Thus, space is not inert or measured geometrically only. It is an integral and changing part of everyday life. The examples were understood within the context of representation.

following architecture its consumption and

Architecture Architecture as an reflection and rein-forcement of gender inequality

Women

space is socially pro-duced, but that space is also a condition of social production.

Culture Women are subordinated to men in the dominant patriarchal & capitalist system

2.4.1 Indonesia Timor

The Atoni house is like a model of the cosmos. It symbolically depicts the dual classification of the body coordinates into male/ positive, female/ negative categories. The roof is associated with the spiritual and male realms while the lower regions associated with female and secular. The north or left side of the house is the interior and associated with female space. It is contrasted to the right side including the outer area, inside the door and the front yard, a male domain.

Immeuble Clarte ：讽V Geneva, 1930-1932, Le Corbusier

… ： 〜

- .-..III .、—

Suburban house (Source: The personality of a house: the blue book of home charm / Emily Post.)

/ -

- f

Atoni House of Indonesia Timor (Source: Discrimination by design: a feminist critique of the man-made environment / Leslie Kanes Weisman)

2.4.2 Western countries

The most pervasive representation of gendered space is the paradigm of 'separate spheres', an oppositional and hierarchical system. Under the patriarchal and capitalist system, male is expected to be strong and active while female is expected to be weak and passive. 'Men' is associated with the dominant public realm of production (the city) while 'women' is associated with the subordinate private realm of reproduction (the home). The self-sufficient suburban housing is an idealized home reflecting the middle class, Western, white and masculine culture and life style. Women are trapped at home, taking duties of child care and housework. Their needs to participate in the labour market and other social activities are neglected. (Kam Wah Chan, 1997)

2.4.3 China

The layout of a simple Chinese courtyard house represents traditional Chinese morality and Confucian ethics. The four buildings in a single courtyard receive different amounts of sunlight. The northern main building receives the most, thus serving as the living room and bedroom of the owner or head of the family. The eastern and western side buildings receive 丨ess, and serve as the rooms for children or less important members of the family. The southern building receives the least sunlight, and usually functions as a reception room and the servants' dwelling, or where the family would gather to relax, eat or study. The backside building is for unmarried daughters and female servants because unmarried girls were not allowed direct exposure to the public, so they occupied the most secluded building in the siheyuan.

L J . _ J

ir L J ——^ 1 N

L 严，.......

：

Chinese Courtyard House in Beijing (Source: Traditional Chinese dwellings / Jing Qimin)

In classical Chinese philosophy, Yin is associated with female, downward, darkness, static, lower position

internal, cool.

2.4.4 Hong Kong

In Hong Kong, women have less access to housing resources as compared to men. For example, lone mothers are not regarded as a priority group in applying for public housing. Sheltered housing services for battered women are extremely underdeveloped. Furthermore, single women have difficulties in finding accommodation in the public and private housing market. (See Social Construction of Gender Inequality in the Housing System by Kam Wah Chan,

1997) Provision of gathering space for foreign domestic helpers is far behind social demand.

Low-income women living in public housing in 1950s (Source:空間之旅：香港建築百年 / 陳翠兒，蔡

宏興主編J

Low-income new immigrant women living in private housing (Source:空間艱難：新來港婦女生活環

境遷歷）

Lack of gathering places for domestic helper, mainly female (Source: http;//www.workinginhongkong.com/domestic-helper)

2.5 Environmental psychology

Findings in environmental psychology consistently indicate that males have larger territories than females and are more territorial in their behavior. Women value concrete, family, and domestic sphere while men value abstraction, business, and the public world. Women are more frequently engaged in house care, elder care, and child care activities. The behavior can be explained by the object relations theory. Daughter's self-identity centers on at tachment to the main parenting figure and thereby to the generalized 'other' and the world. Development of the son's self-identity requires differentiation and separation from the mother, leading more generally to separation from the 'other' and the world. (See Handbook of environmental psychology / edited by Robert Bechtel and Arza Churchman. New York: J. Wiley & Sons, c2002.)

Women

Basic orientatio ns

less exploratory more fearful less physically act ive than boys Having a smaller Spatial range of activities beyond the home and girls' play is less likely to involve act ive manipulat ion of the environment in United States (Susan Saegert and Roger Hart, 1978) Being taught to take up less space and to cross their legs (Henley, 1977) More restrained in their bodily occupat ion of space (Iris Marion Young) "Feminine existence appears to posit an existential enclosure between herself and the space surrounding her, in such a way that the space that belongs to her and is available to her grasp and manipulation is constricted and the space beyond is not available to her movement" (Yong, 1990, p.l51j Women's act ion emphasize communicat ive activity (relationships to people and to things) and plural and engaged, to and fro" movement (Young, 1998, p.289) Constrained mobility outside the home (where, when, and how they move about in public spacej in Western industrialized countries due to women's domestic responsibilities and fear of crime and the resultant precautionary measures they adop t (Day, 1995, 2000; Franck & Paxson, 1989; Gordon & Riger, 1989; Wekerle & Whitzman, 1995) See the house primarily as a p lace where people interact (Csikszentmihaiyi & Rochberg-Halton, 1981)

Men

Men's act ion emphasize instrumentality (the complet ion of a task) and unified and singly directed movement A single activity is d i rected toward a single goal (Young, 1998, p.289) See the house as a p lace to do things

2.6 Precedents in Architecture

2.6.1 Women's centre in Senegal by Jenni Reuter, Saija Hollmen, Sandman 2002

Helena

In the Senegalese society, women look after the house and children without having a role either in society or in the world of work. The women's centre becomes new urban spaces for local women. The designers use local techniques and materials to construct the building. The strong iron oxide coloring of the lime wash highlights the public nature of the building.

The new social facilities help empowering Senegalese women and fit the requirements of the women's activity, linked to the neighborhood and part of the local economic system. The central courtyard enclosed with large walls is for dyeing of cloth, a job traditionally carried out by women and the principal activities go on around the central courtyard.

Women's centre, Rufisque, Senegal by Jenni Reuter, Saija Hollmen, Helena Sandman, 2002 (Source: http://www.archiafrika.org/en/node/251)

2.6.2 Women's dormitory, 1990-91

Kumamoto, Japan by Kazuyo Sejima & Associates,

The dormitory for employees of a Japanese business enterprise is situated in a provincial city. Since the women living and studying here for only the first year of their employment, communal living are considered as major design emphasis. For example, providing a large living zone was considered more important than individual living spaces. A spacious common bathroom has been designed to accommodate 4 people while the communal spaces are as large as possible.

2.6.3 Exhibition project for the Pao as a dwelling of Tokyo's Nomad Women by Toyo lt〇，1985

The project is for an installation in a Tokyo department store. People can assume the temporary shelter is a room of a girl who lives alone roaming around Tokyo, a town of information.

Z / 夕 /

/ / / /

\ \

f善"

Pre-fumiture for snacking (a petite tea table)

Pre-fumiture for styling (a combination of a dresser and a wardrobe)

Pre-fumiture for intelligence (a combination of a chair and desk, bookshelves)

The dimensions of all furniture make reference to women scale.

3. PROJECT ANALYSIS

Over the past two decades, there have been substantial changes in the marital status and family conditions of people in Hong Kong, underlying considerable changes in the roles of female in the sphere of family life, and there are lots of researches related to the gender issue. In this thesis, I would like to find out the relationships between women and space. It is interesting to see what architecture can provide to support, rather than restrict, the activities of women and their families.

Since women have different identities and needs, according to their situation and demands.

generally categorized them

Identity

Working women

Full time homemakers/ housekeepers

Girls and children

Women in mid-life (aged 35-64)

曰 derly women

Single women

Situation

the second most common group in this sad ranking (after the unemployed), rank low in knowledge of HIV/AIDS, isolation, burden, caregivers for parents and children

many are housewives, second highest rate of suicide, highest aspirations for continued educat ion but the least attainment, suffer stress from work and family conflicts one of the highest rates of elderly suicides in the world never married or divorced (/single mothers)

Demands

family-friendly work

Potential building types day-care centre

policies commercial day-care facilities, laundry facilities, shopping centre, after school care for children, learning

Women's centre (place for teaching, learning and meeting), children's centre

health care and child care

health centre, youth centre

education, counseling services

women's centre (place for teaching, learning and meeting), children's centre

more psychiatric care elderly home, health centre

re-enter the work force, more housing favoring single parents, childcare and

housing for single women and 〇r • group of single adult and or a

job training

Battered women (both sexual and physical abuse) and child abuse

Immigrants/ new-arrival (a person who has resided in Hong Kong for a period of less than seven years)

Female migrant domestic workers

do wish to support themselves by working, have difficulty adjusting to Hong Kong, seeking out their own networks

need more help in leaving abusive relationships, starting with provisions for housing and extending to other social services more government services in the area of job and language training, cultural integration, job protection, support networks and housing > help them to achieve economic self- sufficiency

group of single parents battered women's shelter/ emergency housing

women's centre/ women's resource center, day-care center

social / recreation centre

3.1 Programme Description

The program of design is a shelter with training facilities for about 60 battered women and their children, and the ex-residents. The decision of creating a shelter for battered women and their children is that it is a building for women's exclusive use. Women exist outside of the control of men.

Services for Women Services for Children Services for Families

Individual Counseling Individual Counseling Library and playroom activities

Therapeutic groups Therapeutic groups Recreational/festival programme

Women house meeting Children house meeting Ex-residents programme

Women's training corner Tutorial class

Resources & counseling group Children training corner

Women activities Children activities

丨丨 I miZ

The objectives are summarized here: - T o provide a safe place for women where their burden of child care and housework can be shared, and they can enjoy their private spaces, take part in recreational and learning actives - T o empower women - T o free the women's' movements and increase connections of different programs - T o break down the boundaries between public and private, domestic and non-domestic space

3.2 Case Study

3.2.1 Robertson House Crisis Care Centre, Toronto. 1999, Taylor Hariri Pontarini Architects

• • H l s i i j j h 1

ttU*.

-irjWIiii ...I . . nrf,：

Residential Units Common Area Institutional Area

薩 Visitor Area

Robertson House Crisis Care Centre, Toronto, 1999, Taylor Hariri Pontarini Architects

3.2.2 A shelter for victims of domestic violence, Ben J. Refuerzo, Stephen Verderber, Waldorf, Maryland

y Oi* Or, :、、 iKTtJ utmt!^- i

r.、. ？ — • \ “ 。

、’ \ i l i

a

m ；盒

！ I \ 5

(T

(Source: Journal of Architectural and Planning Research (Spring, 1993))

「 ^ — 』

W I

4

nf .

ni

fl： • J 歷

r l j j j J

Secure reception and counseling offices: start of healing process (left)

M l 1 I 1-4：

rY l i v i

i n i l i r a

Community Building: a place of interaction and activity and interconnected visually, layered transition from community to the most private zones (middle)

• t - l 丄 ’

11

SSI 纽3B

i 「了

！' 1 ！

Interior Courtyard: semi-private outdoor room, sense of united community, a buffer between public courtyard and private residential units

3.3 Site Selection and Analysis

The site is in Shek Kip Mei and close to an housing estate and health centre. The site has a good support of public transport and community resources. Thus the residents would not be isolated from city.

Health Centre Shek Kip Mei Church. School MTR Station

Nearby street life，school，housing estate and market

The rectangular site is behind an existing health centre.

Site plan

DOMESTIC

Programme: A Shelter for Battered Women Location: Berwick Street, Shek Kip Mei, Hong Kong

3.4 Process

DOMESTIC

yecreatio(i

m

DOMESTIC

• [ I •

i • |i Residen-tial Units

! • • ii : ecreatio i

k — _ - _ 急

ChHdCare

INSTITUTIONAL

Btoitoho

m Shop

feffiriBT irlrtiir^ifl

Laundry

INSTITUTIONAL

；Woifcstw

INSTITUTIONAL

study of the relationship between different programs

rw

study of the relationship between perspectives and orientation of blocks

谱 减 C 書 盗

\

R燃

Building blocks i I way that some private space is hidden from the eyes of visitors

I Internal Surfaces

Path of Residents

够*八da 'A A 響 f

People must pas through the gathering space of women In order to access the private garden

Diagrams showing the development of design

UJH

JJi^^J

Outdoor Playground

3.5 Documenta t i on

4PBr«y itotm 7M»«Mn««e IPWvMoam IflOwpWM

0

o r

6 \

2CM4IWI PiayATM 4T0Mn « MedWRj 7e«oroo<n I

Mr- !

3

j 一

E，^^

！ .

t、

r1長！

‘ 〜 •

〜： . . i . . . I 广一 ,’-二 , ‘

1

IV

m

I

Sharing of Housework Place of Learning

Exterior View

\

Place of Gathering

r

lepoiAl

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Accommodating inequality : gender and housing / Sophie Watson. Sydney : Allen & Unwin Australia, 1988.

Altering practices : feminist politics and poetics of space / edited by Doina Petrescu. London ; New York : Routledge, 2007.

Androgynos : the male-female in art and architecture / Gunther Feuerstein ; Mitarbeiterinnen des Autors, Johanna Krenn, EIke VVikidal ； englische

Obersetzung, Michael Robinson]. Stuttgart: Edition Axel Menges, cl997.

Architecture : a place for women / 曰len Perry Berkeley, editor ; Matilda McQuaid, associate editor. Washington, D.C. ; London : Smithsonian Institution Press, C1989.

Architecture and order : approaches to social space / [edited by] Michael Parker Pearson and Colin Richards. London ; New York : Routledge, 1994.

Battered women as survivors : an alternotive to treating learned helplessness / Edward W. Gondolf with 日len R. Fisher. Lexington, Mass. : Lexington Books, cl988.

Discrimination by design : a feminist critique of the man-made environment / Leslie Kanes Weisman. Urbana : University of Illinois Press, cl992.

Environmental psychology : an interdisciplinary perspective / Russell Veitch, Daniel Arkkelin. Englewood Cliffs, N J. : Prentice Hall, cl995.

Environment / Karon Oliver. London : Hodder & Stoughton, 2002.

The fate of place : a philosophical history / Edward S. Casey, Berkeley : University of California Press, cl997.

Gender & commun丨cat丨on / Judy Cornelia Pearson, Richard L. West, Lynn H. Turner. Madison, Wis. : Brown & Benchmark, cl995.

Gender space architecture : an interdisciplinary introduction / edited by Jane Rendell, Barbara Penner and lain Borden. London ; New York : Routledge, 2000.

Handbook of 6rivi「〇Am6门t〇l psychology / edited by Robert Bechtel and Arza Churchman. New York : J. Wiley & Sons, c2002.

Housing and women : reconstruction of women's point of view / by Moshira Abdel-Razek El-Rafey. 1992.

The personality of a house : the blue book of home charm / Emily Post. New York : Funk & Wagnalis Co., cl948.

Privacy and publicity: modern architecture as mass media / Beatriz Colomina. Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press, cl994.

Raumplan versus Plan libra : Adolf Loos and Le Corbusier, 1919-1930 / edited by Max Risselada ; with contributions by Beatriz Colomina ... [et al.]. New, N.Y.: Rizzoli, 1988.

Sexuality & space / Beatriz Colomina, Jennifer Bloomer, editor. New York : Princeton Architectural Press, 1992.

Shelters for battered women and their children : a comprehensive guide to planning and operating safe and caring residential programs / by Albert L. Shostack. Springfield, III. : Charles C Thomas, c2001.

Social construction of gender inequality in the housing system : housing experience of women in Hong Kong / Kam Wah Chan. Aldershot, Hants, England ; Brookfield, Vt. : Ashgate, cl997.

Sourcebook for working with battered women : a comprehensive manual specifically designed for counselors, ministers, social workers, educators, and support group leaders who want to improve the content relevancy, and participation of discussion for / by Nancy Kilgore. Volcano, Calif. : Volcano Press, 1993.

Traditional Chinese dwellings / Jing Qimin ; translated by Liu Zhuangchong. Tianjin : Tianjin da xue chu ban she, 1999.

Women and the environment / edited by Irwin Altman and Arza Churchman. New York : Plenum Press, c 1994

曰马 日. 空間艱難:來港婦女生活環境遷歷/主編郭恩慈.香港：香港理工大學設計學院都市空

文化研究組,2004

空間之旅:香港建築百年/陳翠兒，蔡宏興主編；香港建築師學會統籌.香港：三聯書店(香

港)有限公司，2005.

Number of Hours 2.0

JIX.

Female

Doing housework for ones^f o rho j sd io ld

Purchasing qocds and services for oneself or household members

Average Time Spent on Unpaid Activities Per Day for Persons Aged 15 and Above by Sex, 2001 (Source: Hong Kong Women in Figures 2007, Women's Commission, p.37)

Numbel of Victims 4 0 0 0

3500

3000

2500

2000

Female

500

3巧多/

7

970

373 381,..

121

2000 2005 2 0 0 6

Source: Social Welfare Department

Battered Spouse Cases (First Reported to Social Welfare Department (Source: Hong Kong Women in Figures 2007, Women's Commission, p.41)

_ _ 1 _

•t f. 秦一 ： . 一

眷麗, 、

f

_

r6

聽

_

‘

5慕

震

HI

iili ：

n

_ i

_

I

_

1

泰i

=s

I

丨，tfk。：.丨丨Is..丨丨；丨.

.,；..、〈”\ C.",,、、V：： ： i

、： 、：r 沒 U

羅

_

i

pi _ ’y4

1

_

邊I零

K^^ ^Kh^ i

麵1 〜 _

广广 c

_

了 < - . V. —i J)

-等 3r -I 巧1

_ « Tf:-

_ 1

r、:：

_

ff I 1 �！

_ _ Is M

i.

_霞

\

7 - fj^ -《1

饭 tJ

，、

—

^

{

ARCHITECTURE LIBRARY 建 築 學 圖 書 餘

THESIS畢業論文 Overdue'Fines on Thesis

HKSl.OO per hour 4 hrs.

Time Due — > . 還書時間 1

A ) '斗〜 7

‘

C U H K bra

004564638