APWH new chapter 33.notebook

APWH new chapter 33.notebook

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Chapter 33• By 1900 Europe's countries were all bureaucratic, centralized states with constitutional governments and universal manhood suffrage(except for Russia) and large militaries.• The most influential ideology in 19th century Europe was nationalism. Some nations wanted independence (for example, Poles, Irish, Hungarians, Czechs) or national unification (Germans and Italians).• Italian unification was led by the Kingdom of PiedmontSardinia which first fought a war against Austria (18591860) in alliance with France (Austria ruled part of northern Italy). Piedmont then absorbed Lombardy, the smaller Italian states, and after Giuseppe Garibaldi's invasion, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in the south. Garibaldi was a liberal nationalist revolutionary who had long sought Italian unification. The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861.The pope opposed Italian unification because he lost the Papal States and his control over Rome.


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• German unification was led by Otto von Bismarck, chancellor of the Kingdom of Prussia. Bismarck believed Germany could only be unified through "blood and iron," meaning war.• The chief obstacle to German unification was Austria, which saw itself as the leader of the German states. Austria's population, however, was too ethnically mixed to join a unified Germany. Prussia had a superior military and easily defeated Austria in a war in 1866.• Prussia then led the German states in a war against France in 1870, which they easily won. The German Empire was proclaimed in 1871, with the King of Prussia named Germany's first emperor (Kaiser).• Germany became the most powerful European state. It had the largest army, the most productive and technologically advanced industrial economy, and the best universities. It was a leader in scientific research.


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Origin of World War I (1914)• Britain: biggest navy in the world, largest colonial empire, dominated global trade and finance, parliamentary monarchy, satisfied power.• France: democratic republic, large colonial empire, industrialized. It felt threatened by Germany's superior power and claimed Alsace and Lorraine, territories it had lost when Germany unified.• Russia: part of the Triple Entente, along with Britain and France. Russia was not yet fully industrialized, and so, despite its great size, it was militarily weaker. After the loss to Japan and the Revolution of 1905, Russia had its first constitution and elected parliament. However, Tsar Nicholas II still retained significant power. Russia saw itself as the protector of the new states in the Balkans because of their shared Slavic and/or Orthodox identity. After the humiliation of its loss to Japan, Russia felt its status as a great power depended on defending its interests in the Balkans.• Russia's rivals in the Balkans were the Ottoman Empire, which by 1914 had lost most of its Balkan territories, and AustriaHungary, which ruled territories inhabited by Slavs.• Germany: most technologically advanced and productive industrial economy, largest army, best railroad network. Not fully democratic, despite its elected parliament, as Kaiser Wilhelm II controlled foreign and military policy. The Kaiser was jealous of Britain's global empire and navy. Germany's provocative behavior, race to acquire colonies, and naval buildup all drove Britain into forming an alliance with France and Russia. Germany was left with only one ally:


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• AustriaHungary: multinational empire threatened by growing nationalism among its various ethnic groups. It felt especially threatened by Serbia, which claimed AustroHungarian lands inhabited by Slavs.• Most Balkan countries had become independent from the Ottoman Empire after 1878. They were all very nationalistic, and because of mixed populations, were each others' rivals. • World War I started because of great power rivalries and their intersection with Balkan instability and violent nationalism. • June 28, 1914: Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the AustroHungarian throne was assassinated in Sarajevo by a Serb terrorist sponsored by the Serbian government. Sarajevo was in an area claimed by Serbia. AustriaHungary gave an ultimatum to Serbia, demanding that its forces be allowed to occupy Serbia and investigate the crime. Germany gave AustriaHungary a "blank check," offering its unconditional support. Russia supported Serbia. Serbia rejected the ultimatum and AustriaHungary attacked it on July 28, as Russia and Germany mobilized. Since Russia and France were allies, and Russia mobilized more slowly, Germany needed to attack France first. German forces passed through Belgium because it was the easier route. This violation of Belgian neutrality led Britain to declare war on Germany.


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Allies Central Powers


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• The Allies were able to stop the German offensive, but the war turned into a stalemate. The expected quick victory did not materialize, as the war settled into trench warfare. Any offensive, because of artillery and machine gun fire, resulted in enormous, unprecedented levels of casualties, with little territorial gain.• World War I was a total war, where all citizens and resources were mobilized for the war effort. Economic activity was closely regulated and managed by the state. Large numbers of women entered the workforce. New technologies were used: airplane, tank, submarine, poison gas.• Italy joined the Allies in 1915 in return for promises of Austrian and Ottoman territory.• The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in 1914. Germany had established close economic and military relations with it, and Russia was its traditional enemy. • Russia and the Ottoman Empire fought in the Caucasus where the Armenians were deported because of their perceived support of Russia. This was the first modern genocide (an attempt to exterminate a population because of who they are).• Britain attempted to land soldiers at Gallipoli near Constantinople in 1915, but it was the worst Allied defeat of the war.• Britain invaded Iraq and conquered it using mostly Indian soldiers. Britain wanted to secure control over areas with major oil deposits.


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• British soldier T. E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia) went among the Arab tribes and encouraged a nationalist rebellion against Turkish rule, organizing the tribes into a guerrilla army. The Arabs were promised their own state after the war.• Zionism was a Jewish nationalist movement which had arisen in Europe in the 1890s in reaction to continued antiSemitism and following the example of other European nationalists. The expected Zionist homeland was their ancestral land,Israel, which had not a significant Jewish population in 1900 years. Zionists began emigrating to Palestine and revived Hebrew as a spoken language. In the Balfour Declaration (1917)Britain promised Zionists that they would support the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.• Britain invaded Palestine and Syria from Egypt in 1917, and captured Jerusalem.• Britain's dominions joined the Allies as soon as Britain declared war, and all sent soldiers to fight. Colonial subjects from Asia and Africa fought in the armies of all the imperial powers.• Germany's colonies in Africa and the Pacific were captured by the Allies during the war (except for German East Africa). Japan entered on the Allied side in order to acquire German islands in the Pacific and its leased city in China.


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• The United States remained neutral at first and was a major supplier and lender for the Allies. Germany could not trade overseas because of the British blockade. Germany responded to the blockade with submarine warfare against Allied ships, including civilian vessels. The Lusitania, a passenger vessel, was sunk in 1915, prompting an ultimatum from President Woodrow Wilson.• Unrestricted submarine warfare resumed in 1917, because Germany was desperate and hoped to starve Britain into surrender. After several American ships were sunk, Wilson then asked Congress to declare war on Germany (April 1917). Wilson said the United States was fighting to make the world safe for democracy.


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Russian Revolution• The war went very badly for Russia, as Russia lacked the industrial capacity to match the Germans. Russians suffered increasingly from food and weapons shortages and many soldiers deserted. The tsar and his German wife were also increasingly unpopular. • March 1917 Strikes and demonstrations broke out and soldiers joined the demonstrators. The tsar abdicated because he no longer commanded the army's support. The new Provisional Government supported democracy and pledged to honor Russia's alliances and remain in the war.• Vladimir Lenin was the exiled leader of the Bolsheviks, Russia's Marxist revolutionary party. Lenin opposed the war and wanted an immediate communist revolution even though Russia was not fully industrialized. He believed the communist party could lead a revolution with the support of both the peasantry and the proletariat.• Germany helped Lenin return to Russia in 1917 hoping he would start a revolution and withdraw Russia from the war. After organizing and arming workers and veterans, the Bolsheviks seized power in a coup in November 1917. All opposition parties were banned, the imperial family and many opponents were murdered, and all businesses were confiscated by the state. Russia fell into civil war (Whites vs. Reds) and famine. Lenin pulled Russia out of the war and surrendered to Germany in the Treaty of BrestLitovsk. With the collapse of the Russian Empire many new states became independent in Eastern Europe.


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• After Russia's withdrawal, Germany launched its final offensive in the West in the summer of 1918. By then, U.S. forces had arrived by the millions, and they helped break the stalemate on the Western front. Germany was exhausted, depleted, and demoralized. When the offensive failed, the German military withdrew its support from the Kaiser's government and surrendered. Germany became a republic and signed the armistice on November 11, 1918. AustriaHungary also surrendered, and its empire collapsed. Many new states in Central Europe became independent as a result.• Fourteen Points: President Wilson's agenda for the peace negotiations: 1) selfdetermination: every nationality should have its own independent state. problem: mixed populations in much of Eastern Europe, and the colonial empires 2) collective security would replace the rival alliances. A League of Nations would include all countries and would defend any victim of aggression.• Paris Peace Conference (1919): The losers and Bolshevik Russia were not invited. Most decisions were made by Wilson and the British and French prime ministers. France wanted security, since Germany was still larger and stronger. Since it did not trust the promised League, it insisted on crippling Germany in the peace treaty so it could never be a threat again.• The Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to disarm, give up all of its colonies and some territory in Europe, admit its guilt for the war, and pay reparations. The treaty also established the League of Nations.


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Middle East• Britain and France broke their promises to the Arabs and violated the spirit of selfdetermination by acting like imperialists and drawing borders dividing the Arabs. France received Syria and Lebanon while Britain received Iraq, Palestine, and Transjordan. Iraq's borders were determined by its oil reserves, not its mixed population of Kurds and Arabs. Palestine was intended to be the future Jewish homeland.• These former Ottoman territories, along with the former German colonies in Africa and the Pacific, were mandates of individual Allied powers. Mandates were ruled under the supervision of the League of Nations and were supposed to be prepared for independence.• Unlike in Germany and AustriaHungary, the Ottoman sultan was not overthrown upon the surrender of 1918. The original peace treaty placed the Straits under international control and carved up what remained of the empire into homelands for the Kurds and Armenians, plus areas controlled by Britain, Italy, France, and Greece.• Mustafa Kemal, a Turkish nationalist officer, led a rebellion against the Allied occupiers and imperialists and the sultan's rule. He hoped to create a modern republic based on Turkish identity, as opposed to an empire based on Islam and dynastic rule. Kemal's rebellion was successful in forcing the Allies to withdraw and overthrowing the sultan. The Republic of Turkey was proclaimed in 1923, and the caliphate was abolished in 1924.The ancient Greek population of Asia Minor was expelled when Kemal defeated Greece, and there would be no Armenian or Kurdish homeland in a Turkish state.


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• Kemal, known as Ataturk, or father of the Turks, created a secular state based on a single national identity, like most European states. The alphabet was changed from Arabic characters to Latin ones. Dress became European. Women were not to veil themselves in public life, and enjoyed equal rights, including the right to vote. Turkey became completely secular, as Islamic law and faith no longer played any public role.

China and Japan• Imperialistic Japan saw World War I as an opportunity to expand its empire. It declared war on Germany and seized many of its Pacific colonies as well as their leased city of Qingdao in China. Japan took advantage of the great powers' distraction and put pressure on China, trying to dominate it and deprive it of its sovereignty.• Allied acceptance at the Paris Peace Conference of Japanese expansionism and resentment of the Japanese led to the rise of a nationalist student movement in China known as the May Fourth Movement. It was named after student demonstrations in China on May 4, 1919. This became the nucleus of the future Chinese communist movement, which was motivated by opposition to imperialism as well as by Marxism.


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• War increased nationalism in Europe's colonies. Many colonial troops served in the war, and acquired a sense of national identity. The Fourteen Points and its defense of selfdetermination also inspired nationalism in the colonies. Because of the war, Europeans lost their claim of moral and cultural superiority over the nonWestern world. Imperialism could no longer be justified if "superior" Europeans slaughtered each other by the millions.• The U.S. Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles, and so the United States never joined the League of Nations, although every other country eventually did join. The Senate did not want the United States to be automatically committed to defending any country, so the League lacked the support of the world's most powerful country.

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APWH new chapter 33.notebook