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Appendix: The Survey Questionnaire

In the following pages I reproduce an English translation of my survey questionnaire as I presented it to my 202 survey respondents in an interview format. For reasons of interviewing technique, the questions are not always in thematic order, and subjects can change abruptly. A question on gardening, for example, follows a series on the Stasi in order to relieve tension in the interview. I also provide the survey's raw statistical results. Because not all 202 respondents answered all questions, the total number of responses to each question may be less than 202. In other cases, where the question indicates the possibility for more than one response, the number of responses may exceed 202. Where appropriate, I provide the mean response value (indicated by a small m in parentheses). For the open-ended questions (indicated by an asterisk following the question number), I developed response categories over the course of the entire survey process. In the summary form presented here, these categories do not, of course, fully reflect the diversity and richness of the responses. For some of the closed-ended questions, the respondents had to identify among several pre-existing answer categories presented to them on a card the one or two that best described their opinion or experience. These questions include the words 'which of the following' or refer to a list or a text to be read. To illustrate the kinds of comments and responses my questions elicited, I have on occasion reproduced (in italics) some of the most typical or interesting remarks of individual respondents ( cf. McFalls, 1992). Finally, I have annotated (in square brackets) some of the questions which posed methodological difficulties or whose meaning or context might require further explanation for non-East German readers.

QUESTIONNAIRE

Introduction

[After explaining to the respondent how I had randomly selected him or her (see Chapter 1), I read the following introduction. During the interview, I reminded the respondent as necessary of my introductory request to answer as much as possible as she or he would have before the revolution, or Wende.]

With this survey, I hope to gain an understanding of the daily life experiences of the so-called typical East German and in so doing would like to uncover the strengths and weaknesses of the social and political system of the former GDR. My main question, which I shall not ask

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168 The Survey Questionnaire

directly but which I shall approach from different points of view, is: what led to the Wende in the GDR? I do not ask this question directly because I do not want you with hindsight to reinterpret the past in light of recent events. Instead, I would like to undertake a thought experiment with you. Imagine that we were speaking sometime before the Wende, say in early 1989, before anyone knew what the year would bring.

I would like to start with a few questions about your town and your life here in ---.

Fl. Since what year have you lived in this town/ city? 1960 ( m) F2a. Have you lived here your whole life?

(O)lli No (to F2c) (1) .Jl8 Yes (to F2b)

b. Are your parents from this area? (0)___2_3 No (to F2c) (1)....!22 Yes

c. Where did you (they) come from originally? (0)~ from the same area (county or district) ( 1) ___1 from the same Land (2)~ from a different part of the GDR ( 3) ....2.2 from East Prussia, Silesia, Pomerania ( 4) ___.2. from western Germany ( 5) ___1 from non-German territory

F3.* Very briefly, since you've lived here, how has life changed? [A vague question designed to loosen respondents' tongues.]

(0)_12 no big changes, stagnation, always the same (1)...l.Q constant rise in political pressure/repression (2) _J modernisation of agricultural/rural life (3),21 slow progress, general modernisation (4)_21 steady decline, degradation, discouragement (5) 46 progress until 1970s, then slow decline (6) _1 socialisation of industry with bad consequences (7)_u rapid growth but service sector neglected

F4a. If you consider life in your town during the last five years before the Wende, would you say that the quality of life generally got better, stayed the same, or got worse?

(0) .Jill better (1) ___!i2 about the same (2) 118 worse

b.* Why? (0) _1l supply situation improved (1) ~ general liberalisation, more visits to West (2) _1l industry in good shape (3) _1l things always kept getting better ( 4) _1 community activities grew livelier ( 5) ___.2. isolated improvements in housing stock

(6) _1l more political surveillance ( 7) .Jill widespread dissatisfaction or resignation

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(8) ~ privileges/connections crucial during crisis (9) ___.:i factory shut down

(10)...illi shortages, economic crisis ( 11) ....2.8 physical decline of town ·

F5a. In comparison to other towns/cities of the same size in the GDR, do you think that your town/ city was relatively advantaged, average, or disadvantaged?

(0) 76 advantaged ( 1) M average (2)...12 disadvantaged

b.* Why? (O)_lfi favoured because of specific industry here ( 1) 15 consumer goods supply better here (2) _lQ housing stock better here (3) ___.:i town a centre for tourism ( 4) ___.1 more goods available in countryside

( 5) ___.:i environmental pollution bad here ( 6) ___.:i few opportunities in villages (7) __11: bad consumer goods supply (8) ....Ji no subsidies for infrastructure/services here (9) M all resources went to Berlin

- In Berlin they lived just like in the West. - We all hated the Berliners. They had trouble buying gas when they

came to the provinces. F6a. * Did you ever do anything personally to improve or beautify your

community, for example through complaints to officials or through participation in a citizens' initiative?

(0) .Jill No (to F7) ( 1) ___1.2 through personal complaints to local authorities (2) 33 through (written) complaints to higher authorities [in-

cluding Honecker himself] (3) ___.1 through participation in a citizens' initiative ( 4) ....1£! through 'voluntary' neighbourhood work projects (5) ___8 as member of local government representation (6) _2 as member of association for historic preservation

b. Was your action or your group's action effective/successful? (0)~ No ( 1) __112 Yes

c.* Why (not)? (0) ___.:i nothing possible without party connections ( 1) _31 officials uncooperative (2) _1 nothing possible without personal connections (3) ___8 after the 1970s nobody cared about community life

( 4) _2Q voluntary work projects successful ( 5) _1 letter to higher official spurred action (6) _1 constant complaining paid off

- I wrote to Erich Honecker when my kitchen sink was broken. I said


that I was a single mother with five children. My sink was fixed within a week!

F7a,b,c. * What kind of people in your community were the most Im-portant or most respected?

(O)...llli (question not asked before interview 39) ( 1) 2.a no one, everybody withdrew into private life (2) ...22 the party secretary (3)_12 directors of enterprises ( 4) _.2 private artisans/ entrepreneurs (5)....21! artists (6).22, doctors, teachers, scientists (professionals) (7)~ mayor and/or city councillors (8)....21! Stasi and SED officials feared (9) ..1!! sports stars

(10)_2Q pastors (11) _a people active in public life who didn't belong to a

party (12) ___..2 the National Front (13) _1 the neighbourhood committee ( 14) _1 anti-fascist resistance heroes (15) _1 volunteer firemen (16) _1 policemen

F8. Societal life in the GDR was apparently highly organised. I am going to give you a list of various societal organisations and commissions, and for each one of them, I would like to know if you were a member in early 1989, or in the case of the commissions if you were ever a member.

a. ill Society for German-Soviet Friendship (DSF) b. __lQ Democratic Women's Federation (DFD) c. ___3 County or district court juror d. _11 Conflict commission (workplace adjudication) e. _1 Arbitration commission (neighbourhood court) f. ....6..8 PTA or school commission member g. ___3 Cooperative store council h. _a Workers-and-Peasants Inspectorate 1. ~ Cultural Federation j. _2Q Chamber of Technology k. _a Peasant Mutual Aid Association (VdgB) I. ....2.8 Small Gardeners' Association m. 2.6 People's Solidarity (local social services)

F9a. Did you belong to the trade union (FDGB)? (0)~ No (to FlO) (1)167 Yes

b.* What office, if any, did you hold in the FDGB? (O)_jlli none (1) _a Enterprise union council member (2)_11 Work group treasurer (3)_12 Departmental union council member ( 4) _1 District vacation service commission

The Survey Questionnaire

(5) _1 District commission member (6) ___Q Cultural activities coordinator (7)_11 Shop-steward (8) ___2 Professional union functionary (9) ___8 Social insurance coordinator

(10) ___2 Other commission member

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F10a. Did you belong (in your youth) to the Free German Youth (FDJ)? (If not, why not?)

(O)ill Yes (l)....lZ No, too old (2) __11! No, for religious or oppositional reasons

b. Did you undergo the Youth Initiation (Jugendweihe)? (O).Dl2 No (to FlOc) ( 1) _jlli Yes (to FlOd)

c.* Why not? (0)__1Q practically impossible, ceremony not yet available ( 1) _2.1 for religious reasons (2) ____,2 for explicit oppositional reasons

d.* What did the Jugendweihe mean for you back then? (0)_22 not much, felt compelled to participate ( 1) ...12 it was a normal part of growing up (2)...2.Q important experience, ideologically meaningful

- My first decent pair of shoes! Fila. Were you confirmed in a church?

(O)...l.Q No (l)ill Yes

b. What is/was your family's religious/church background? (0) 137 Protestant (I) _.1_:! Catholic (2) ___1 other (non-conformist Protestant sect or Jewish) (3)...12 none, atheist

c. What church/religion did you belong to or feel associated with in 1989?

(O)ill none (to F12) (1) .Jil Protestant (2) __1 Catholic (3) ___2 New Apostolic

d. Which one of the following reasons would best explain your church membership/ association?

(0) _1.1 family tradition (1) __11! active faith (2) __2!1 opportunities for human contact ( 3) _11 alternative to state organisations

Fl2a. Were you a member of a political party in early 1989? If so, which one?

(O)lli none (to F13) (1 ) .Jill SED (2) ___2 CDU (3)_1 DBD

172

(4) ~ LDPD (5) _1 NDPD


b. + c.* Tell me how you happened to join this party. (0)....212 specific, positive ideological reasons ( 1) ~ very general, vague ideological reasons (2) ...1.2 family tradition (3) ......8 no apparent reason, thoughtlessly joined ( 4) ~ wanted political involvement, information (5)~ to get ahead in career (6)..1.,2 respondent uses word 'conviction' (7) ___l! SED was logical step after finishing FDJ (8) _..1 joined bloc party to avoid having to join SED (9) _1 wanted to form an internal opposition

(10) ~ strongly pressured to join (11) _1 needed membership to get hunting rifle permit

F13. * Did you belong to any other organisations? If so, which? (0)109 none ( 1) ....5..8 sports organisation/team (2) ...1.,2 cultural organisation (3) ~ professional association ( 4) ___..2 entertainment club (5) _1 hobby club (not incorporated in Kulturbund) (6) _1 neighbourhood association (7) _1 peace movement (8) _..1 volunteer fire department (9) _1 animal protection society

(I 0) _1 volunteer police helper F14. A well-known GDR-observer, Gunter Gaus, described the GDR as a

Nischengesellschaft [niche-society]. He meant that East Germans withdrew from public, politicised life into their private lives, i.e. into their circles of family and friends, into their hobbies, into their gardens, in a word, into their niches. Do you recognise yourself and your life-style in the expression Nischengesellschaft'? [As the FRG's first permanent representative in East Berlin, Gaus was very well known among my respondents, as was his famous term.]

(0)...11 No (follow-up to get answer for F15) (1)1.2.a Yes

F15. * What was your niche? (0) ___l! respondent didn't understand Gaus's concept (l)..J;ill refuse Gaus's label, personally engaged in public life (2) M house and garden, family life (3)___3_2 circle of friends (4)..11 music or art ( 5) ___..2 sports (6)..11 other hobby (7) ......8 church (8) ~ career, professional advancement

F16a. lnasfar as you had a private life or a niche, did you feel free of


state control, observation, or interference? (0) _jill No (1) _llli Yes, fairly free (2) .J!.Z Yes, entirely free

b.* Why was that? (0)....11 one always felt observed (1)~ mail, telephone, West contacts controlled

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(2) _J! family life taken into consideration for educational/ professional opportunities

(3)__1Q wasn't bothered by observation ( 4) _12 considered observation normal/necessary (5)_Jil didn't notice any state interference ( 6) ...1..8 simply felt safe in niche

F17. Would you say that, in the last three or four years before 1989, the state interfered with private life more or less or no differently than before? That is, did you feel that there was an increase in observation (domestic spying)?

(0)....81 more state interference in private life (l)llQ about the same, no perceptible change (2) ~ less

F18a. What about in public life, at your place of work, for example, do you think that the state tried to control public life more or less or about the same during the last three or four years before 1989?

(0)....2.9 more (1)___llli about the same (to F19) (2)_1_1 less

b.* How was this change evident? (0) _J! party loyalists got more advantages ( 1) ~ applications for trips to West more scrutinised (2) ....2.1 less trust at work, more reports to submit (3)....11 had to watch out more what you said in public ( 4) ...11 had to go to more political events (5)....11 Stasi activities and buildings got bigger (6) _§ Stasi agents got more clever in their techniques (7) _1 even contacts in East restricted (8) _2 demonstrations violently repressed [1987, 1988] (9)~ possible to complain more in public

(10) _2 easier to travel West (11) _1 more private economic activity allowed

F19a. Did you always, sometimes, or almost never feel intimidated by state security organs?

(0) _M always ( 1) ..1l2 sometimes (2)ill almost never

b.* Why (not)? (0) __ll! feared capricious penalties (e.g. visa denial) ( 1) ~ tested for loyalty at work (2)~ telephone tapped, neighbours questioned about me (3) 36 had to think about what you said or wrote


( 4) ____2 job safe, could say what I thought (5)_2,8 simply don't let myself get intimidated (6)....2..9 no reason to be scared if you did nothing wrong (7) ___ji knew and trusted everyone in village (8)_ll was up-standing citizen with good conscience

F20a. Did you ever have any personal problems/encounters with the state security organs?

(0) 166 No (l).....lfi Yes

b.* Can you describe them for me?

- One day I got picked up by some men from the Stasi after work. They drove me out into the country, broke my glasses and left me there to get home alone. For months I was followed so that I couldn't tell anyone what happened. I still don't know what they wanted from me.

F21. Were any of your closer acquaintances in any way active on behalf of the Stasi?

(O)ill No (1)_ll Yes, but found out after Wende (2) .Jill Yes, knew it before Wende

[No formal follow-up question. Most respondents explained spontaneously.]

- My art teacher at school was homosexual. The Stasi used that to blackmail him into being an informant.

F22. Did you yourself consciously (or at the time unconsciously) provide information to the Stasi?

(0) 184 No (1)..l.a Yes

[All 18 respondents who admitted giving information to the Stasi said that they knew that a copy of every report they completed in exercising their normal work function went to the Stasi.]

F23a. Did you have a garden in 1989? (0)_11 No (to F24) (1)ill Yes

b. With a small garden house [Laube]? (O)M No (1)_11 Yes

c. Did the fruit and vegetable production of your garden meet a significant proportion of your household's food consumption needs? That is, did you consider the fruit of your garden labour to be an important part of your household income?

(O)_hl No (1) _1 Sometimes, partly, maybe (2) .JiQ Yes

F24a. Did you live in a single-family house, a two- or three-family house, an older apartment [Altbauwohnung], or a new apartment block [Neubaublock]?

(0)__16 single-family house ( 1) _..2.!2 two- or three-family house


(2)_1li older apartment (3)__22 new apartment block

b. Did you own your home/apartment in 1989? (0) 151 No (to F25) (1)_,21 Yes

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c. Did you inherit your home (or buy it before 1945), buy it (after 1945), or build it yourself?

(0) ....22 inherited (1) ...11 bought after 1945 (2) ____a built

F25a. If you owned your own car in 1989, what kind was it? (0)_11 none (1)M Trabant (2) --.2..8 Wartburg (3)....22 Lada, Skoda (eastern import) (4) __.1 Western import (VW)

b. Have you bought yourself a new or used Western car since 1990? (0) 153 No (1) __Q_2 Yes, used (2).-ln Yes, new

F26a. * What was your occupation in 1989? [The sample included persons with 65 different occupations.]

b. Under which of the following categories would you place your occupation (or occupation before retirement)?

(0) _Q unskilled industrial worker ( 1) __12 skilled industrial worker (2) _.2 industrial technician (3)__12 industrial engineer ( 4) ..1.2 management or administration in industry (5) _1 unskilled worker in other enterprise ( 6) ..In skilled worker in other enterprise (7) _1. unskilled worker in government services (8) __%2 skilled worker in government services (9) _jJ_ director or cadre in government services

(10) _1 artisan in cooperative (11) ___12 independent artisan or journeyman ( 12) _2 private business person (13) _2 independent professional (journalist) (14) ~ 'intelligentsia' (school teachers) ( 15) ..1.2 doctor, architect, engineer, etc. (16) __.1 peasant in cooperative (17) _1 agronomist or other skilled agricultural prof. (18) __.1 administration of societal organisation ( 19) _.2 student (20) _2 church employee

[The sample included one veritable capitalist, who after the expropriation of his factory continued textile production with a putting-out system.]

F27a. What is your current occupation [1990-91]?


(O)lli same job ( 1) __21 unemployed (2)..22 new job ( 3) __15_ retired since 1989

b. Would you say that your personal professional situation has im-proved, deteriorated, or stayed the same since reunification?

(O)..M! improved (1)Jil neither better nor worse even if different (2) 75 deteriorated [unemployment anticipated]

F28. In which of the following categories would you place your gross monthly income in 1989?

( 1) _l2 less than 300 Marks (2)_l;i between 300 and 500 Marks (3)_lQ between 501 and 700 Marks (4)..22 between 701 and 900 Marks ( 5) .Jli! between 901 and 1100 Marks ( 6) _llQ between 1101 and 1300 Marks (7)_22 between 1301 and 1500 Marks (8)_21 between 1501 and 2000 Marks (9) __15_ over 2000 Marks

F29a. Did you also engage in moonlighting [Feierabendarbeit]? (0) 163 No (to F30) (1) _3_8 Yes

b. Did a significant part of your household income stem from your moonlighting?

(0)_22 No (1)__15_ Yes

F30a. What was approximately your average monthly net household in-come in 1989?

( 1) _l2 less than 500 Marks (2)_lQ between 500 and 800 Marks (3)_1!2 between 801 and 1200 Marks (4)..22 between 1201 and 1600 Marks (5)...11 between 1601 and 2000 Marks (6)..21 between 2001 and 2400 Marks (7)_lQ between 2401 and 2800 Marks (8)_l;i between 2801 and 3200 Marks (9) __2 over 3200 Marks

b. How many persons were in your household in 1989? 2...ilii ( m) c. How many of them were working or on pensions? .L19. ( m) d. And now another very indiscreet question: how much money did

your household have in its savings accounts on 2 July 1990, i.e. the day after monetary union?

(O)__lZ 4000 DM or less (1)_22 between 4001 and 6000 DM (2)..22 between 6001 and 10 000 DM (3)_QQ between 10 001 and 20 000 DM ( 4) ..21 between 20 001 and 30 000 DM (5)_l;i between 30 001 and 50 000 DM


(6) __12 between 50 001 and 100 000 DM (7) _2 over 100 000 DM

177

F31. People say that connections were more important than money in the GDR because there wasn't much to buy with your money, but with good connections you could barter your way through life. Would you say they you were well connected or poorly connected?

(O).JU well connected (I) .Jill neither well nor poorly, average (2) .Jli poorly connected ( 3) __2:1; always against the use of connections

F32a. Would you say that your personal economic situation improved, stayed the same, or deteriorated during the last five years before the Wende?

(O)_LQ improved ( 1) llQ stayed the same (to F33) (2) ...22 deteriorated

b.* In what way did it improve/ deteriorate? (0)~ earned more money (1) _2 got own apartment, independent household (2) _1 had more disposable income (3) _1 had less disposable income ( 4) ..lJ2 there was nothing to buy

F33a. Would you say that the general GDR economic situation improved, stayed the same, or deteriorated during the last five years before the Wende?

(0) __12 improved ( 1) _21 stayed the same (2) 176 deteriorated

b. + c.* And how was that evident? (O)_jlli nothing to buy but basic food stuffs (1) _61 enterprises didn't get supplies/spare parts (2) _ll plans not filled/unfulfillable (3)..l.l2 rising foreign debt (4)....2!1 bad investments and bad planning (5) ...21 inflation (6)_ll more corruption, connections more important (7) _2 bureaucracy got more rigid (8).2.!1 technology gap with West got bigger (9)~ workers unmotivated

(10) ___li! cities and factories falling apart (11) __12 social policies got too expensive (12) _1 more goods available for purchase ( 13) ___Q slow growth, but things getting better

- We knew that the economy was bad, but it had been bad before and we knew how to live with it. We didn't think this crisis would be the last.

F34a-c.* As I said at the beginning of our interview, I'm trying to conduct a thought experiment with you. Imagine your life situation in early 1989. What were your hopes and expectations at that time?


(0)...11 no hope, no change, pessimistic ( 1) .22 professionally and socially secure, satisfied (2)~ buy house, get own apartment (3)__16 get a new car ( 4) _ill! desire to travel (in East as well as West) (5)....2..9 don't ask for much, modest contentment (6)_21 improvement of the economic situation (7) .22 things get better, vague desire for change ( 8) M personal/ professional advancement (9)__16 reunification and/or more political freedom

(1 0) _ll reform of socialism ( 11) --.1 emigration

[Despite people's tendency to claim in hindsight that they had anticipated an event, very few respondents retrospectively claimed to have expected the upheavals of 1989 early that year.]

F35a. Overall, leaving aside particular romantic or familial circumstances, would you say you were happy with your life in early 1989?

(0)..12 No (l)ill Yes

b.* Why (not)? (O)_ll consumer frustration, drudgery of daily life ( 1) .22 felt psychologically stressed, under pressure (2) _2_ opposed to the political system (3)_12 the whole system was in crisis ( 4) ....2..2 happy with job/work life (5) _1. quiet, secure life (6) .......5. satisfied in niche (7) ....2;2 satisfied with existing social order (8) ___11 modest desires all fulfilled (9)_21 knew nothing else, thus nothing to change

F36a. Because of the division of Germany, it was probably unavoidable that people in the GDR often compared their living conditions with those of people in the FRG. Before 1989 did you believe that you would have had more or fewer or the same chances for your personal and professional development if you had lived in the FRG?

(0)101 more chances in FRG ( 1) ....1:.6 same chances (2)~ fewer chances in FRG

b.* Why is that? (0) ...1.\! friends/relatives there more successful ( 1) ..22 higher standard of living with same job there (2) ...1.\! better educational opportunities there (3) __j! more opportunities there for creativity, self-motivated

activities ( 4) _1 profession more respected/prestigious there (5) _2_ better work equipment/technology there (6) _2_ politically persecuted/disadvantaged here (7) _1 bad work ethic here


(8)_11 more social/job security here (9) ___Q ordinary workers had same chances here/there

(10) ____8 more opportunities for women here ( 11) _2.2 better educational opportunities here (12) _)_ more competition in my field there (13) ___1 achieved all my goals here, what more to ask? ( 14) ____2 less consumerist here

(15)__11! can't compare, knew life chances only here

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F37a. Did you ever think of emigrating to the FRG, or even apply for an emigration visa?

(0)141 No (1)..21 Yes, thought about it (2) ___1 Yes, applied to emigrate

b.* Why (not)? (0)...12 my home [Heimat] was here (1)_2..8 didn't want to give up what I had, too old to go (2) _2.2 life was pleasant here (3)....31 felt responsible for family/family property (4) ____2 didn't know anyone in West ( 5) 33 GDR system/life-style better (6) _)_ felt responsible for, wanted to make best of GDR ( 7) ...lQ too scared to leave (8) ___1 FRG system/life-style better (9) ~ material conditions better in FRG

(10) _1 lots of relatives in West (ll) ____2 had difficulties with party or Stasi ( 12) ~ felt politically persecuted

F38a. Many scholars and others in the West as well as the East claimed that the different political, economic and social systems in the GDR and FRG had shaped the consciousness and even the national identity of the people in the two states differently. Do you think that the 40 years of Germany's partition led to the formation of two difl'erent national characters?

(0)..2!2 No (1)164 Yes

b.* Why (not)? (0)~ common German culture remained (1) ___1 only the communists believed in separate GDR (2) _'!: everybody dreamed of reunification

(3)2Q social orders very different ( 4) _21 we were brought up to think like socialists (5)~ we always felt inferior, dependent (6)...12 GDR relatively backward (7) .Jl5. we were more solidaristic and modest (8)_2.2 they were always selfish and arrogant there (9) _12 young here brought up to be lazy/indifferent

c. Do you think that if the GDR had continued to exist, it would have become a self-sufficient German-speaking nation (like Austria).


or do you think it already was one? (0) 135 No, never (1)_2Q Yes, GDR would have become its own nation (2)_11 Yes, GDR was one already

d.* Why do you think that? (0) _QQ independence economically impossible (1)__12 same culture/history as FRG; division unnatural (2) _1. people too dissatisfied here (3) ~ state/political system illegitimate (4)....12 GDR dependent on USSR; system imposed

(5).....2.2 had distinct social/political system (6)....ll GDR politically/economically successful (7)__19 new culture created through Abgrenzung (8) ___.2 GDR treated as foreign by FRG

e. Which of the following expressions would best describe your feeling of national identity in early 1989?

(1) ~ GDR-citizen [DDR-Biirger, official designation] (2)~ German (3)__12 GDR-German

f.* Why did you feel that way? (0) _lQ GDR was successful state ( 1) _fZ born in GDR, knew nothing else (2) ....2_2 treated as a GDR-citizen, second-class German (3) ____2 didn't believe in/want reunification ( 4) ....ll 'German' sounds too much like Third Reich

(5)__1.1 born/grew up before division (6) ___.2 had many relatives in West (7) ~ belong to German culture, division unnatural (8) __12 always opposed to regime, anti-communist

(9) __2.8 GDR was my experience, German was my culture F39a + b. This question is about your current feelings. I'm going to

read six sentences with you. They describe the differences bewteen former GDR-citizens (the so-called Ossis) and the old FRG-citizens (the Wessis). I'd like to know which two of these sentences correspond best to your feelings about the differences between the two groups.

(1)-..--i The biggest differences between Ossis and Wessis are the ancient regional differences between areas such as Prussia and Bavaria, Saxony and Baden, etc.

(2)_81 The Wessis distinguish themselves from the Ossis primarily in their well-being and by virtue of the life experiences that wealthier people can afford (e.g. travel).

(3)_2_2 The Ossis have held on more than the Wessis to old German values and traditions because these were not destroyed by a consumerist economy and a mentality of social climbing.

( 4)1.2Ii The Ossis and Wessis differ primarily in their


economic behaviour because 40 years of the social market economy and of state socialism motivated people differently.

(5)1.2!2 The biggest difference between Ossis and Wessis lies in their relations with other people, and namely the Wessis are used to living in an [aggressive] 'elbow society'.

(6) ~ The differences between Ossis and Wessis are minimal or superficial and therefore not worthy of mention.

F40. Frankly speaking, if you've travelled to western Germany lately, did you feel a bit proud to come from the ex-GDR, or did you try not to stick out as an Ossi, or did you feel just like you do when you go to another part of the ex-GDR?

(0)_25 haven't been to the West ( 1) ~ felt proud (2) 56 tried not to stick out (3)__11 felt no different ( 4) _1li felt like in foreign country [answer offered spontaneously]

F41. Do you accept the Oder-Neisse line as the final, undisputed east-ern border of Germany? (0)~ No (1)159 Yes (2) __12 Yes, but with reservations

F42. The GDR has not existed politically since 3 October 1990, and economically not since 1 July 1990. But socially and mentally the GDR will continue to exist for some time. The GDR may have had some characteristics that you are glad to be rid of today but also surely some characteristics that you would like to see carried over into the united Germany. I am going to give you a list of some supposed positive characteristics of the GDR, and for each of these characteristics, I would like to know if you would like to keep it or would have liked to have kept it if it had been possible or whether you would (have) like(d) to get rid of it. [This question sought to identify which features of GDR life people found positive (coded 1) and which they found negative (coded 0). If the respondent spontaneously questioned whether the characteristic had ever been present, their response was coded -1. For the sake of simplicity, I here present only the mean score for each characteristic. Mean scores approaching 1 would thus show my respondents' positive appreciation of the characteristic.]

a. 0.72 women's independence through equal employment op-portunities and special privileges for working mothers

b. 0.26 the promotion of world-class sports c. 0.52 the cooperative farming system (LPGs) d. 0.31 the Marxist critique of bourgeois society as a counter

weight to capitalist thinking c. 0.52 state control of large industry f. 0.86 state subsidies for cultural facilities such as provincial

theatres and orchestras

182 The Suroey Questionnaire

g. 0.36 the anti-fascist tradition h.-0.12 grassroots democracy, as in the neighbourhood committees i. 0.45 the promotion of mass amateur sports j. 0.75 the system of mid-career professional (re-)training k. 0.76 the right to work I. 0. 76 guaranteed day-care for all children m. 0.53 the preservation of a representative number of socialist

monuments and street names F43. Since we've just mentioned monuments and are working with lists,

I shall give you another list of names of famous people from German history and then another list of contemporary figures. But first I want to show you this thermometer. It runs from 0 to 6 degrees and measures your feelings towards other people. The more you like the person, the higher the temperature rises. Thus, six would, so to speak, be hot love and zero ice-cold hate. In the middle, at three, would be indifference:

6- +- hot/love/very good/positive, etc. I

5-+- warm I

4- +- lukewarm I

3- +- indifference/neither good nor bad/person unknown I

2-+- cool I

1-+- cold I

0- +- ice-cold/hate/very bad, etc.

So, for each of the following I'd like to know what kind of temperature he or she raised in you. Remember to try to answer as you would have in 1989. (Temperatures reported are means.]

a. 3.33 Otto von Bismarck b. 3.44 Karl Marx c. 3.81 Rosa Luxemburg d. 3.60 Karl Liebknecht e. 0.40 Adolf Hitler f. 3.31 Ernst Thalmann g. 3.48 Wilhelm Pieck h. 2.,!!1 Konrad Adenauer i. 2...912 Otto Grotewohl j. 1.78 Walter Ulbricht k. 4.37 Willy Brandt I. 3.39 Franz Beckenbauer m.1.36 Erich Honecker

The next list of names includes people who played some role in the Wende. I'd like you to give them a score based on your sympathy for them today.


n. 2.85 Hans Modrow o. ;L.U Wolf Biermann p. 4. 73 Mikhail Gorbachev q. 2.,Q2 Manfred Gerlach [LDPD leader] r. 2.65 Gregor Gysi s. 2.,Q2 Peter-Michael Diestel t. 0.95 Egon Krenz u. 2.,11 Helmut Kohl v . .2..Jil. Rainer Eppelmann w. 4.3I Kurt Masur x. 3.65 Barbel Bohley y. 3.36 Oskar Lafontaine z. 2....12 Lothar de Maiziere

F44. Here is another scale. It measures how much you agree with an opinion. It runs from I to 5 with the following values:

(I) agree completely (2) tend to agree (3) indifferent, no opinion, not sure, etc. ( 4) tend to disagree (5) disagree completely [ (.) indicates that respondent rejects premise of question, refuses

to answer, doesn't understand question]

am now going to read together with you sentences expressing various opinions about politics and society in the GDR. For each of these opinions, I'd like to know how much you agree with it. I ask once again that you answer as you would have before the Wende. a. The founders of the SED and of the GDR were entitled to a

leading role because of their anti-fascist past. (1)..1iZ (2)...19. (3)...li (4)....ll (5)....22 (.)_Q_ (m).2...2_

b. Socialism could never develop itself successfully in the GDR primarily because simultaneous reconstruction and reparation payments to the USSR made it impossible to establish decent foundations for a socialist economy. (1).-1:5. (2)...51. (3)...U (4)....M. (5)....ll (.)_2 (m)___2_,_9_

c. Real existing socialism tended to make people in the GDR morally worse rather than better. (1)_1Q (2)....ia (3)_22. (4).2,1 (5)_22. (.)___Q (m)__2_,_5_

d. CDR-citizens can be proud of the economic achievements of their country since they built up everything in this resourcepoor country without a Marshall Plan or any other help (but rather after systematic Russian plundering). (1)....22 (2)...12 (3)_12 (4)...2.2 (5)....21 (.)~ (m)__2_,_5_

e. The socialist economy got into difficulties because not enough competent experts were in responsible positions. (l)lli (2)~ (3)___1 (4)....2.2. (5)...li (.)_Q_ (m)...L..9.

f. Socialism is inconsistent with human nature. (1)_fl (2)_22. (3)_22. (4)...12 (5)_M (.)___Q (m).2...2_

g. The state socialism we experienced in the GDR shouldn't be


confused with real socialism, which might still be possible. (1)107 (2)....5.5. (3)...ll (4)__2 (5)...11 (.)__2 (m) 1.8

h. Only the Stasi's systematic intimidation of the population allowed the SED to rule for 40 years. (1)100 (2).23. (3)...l.S. (4).22. (5)_2Q (.)_2 (m)....2...2

1. The vast majority of all SED comrades were careerists who didn't care the least about the ideals of socialism. (l).Jili (2)....1.8. (3)..19. (4)..1B_ (5)...22 (.)___2. (m)~

j. In the last two decades, the Stasi was less intimidating than annoying. (l)....ll (2)...22 (3)~ (4).Jili (5)...1.6. (.)__Jt (m).2,12

F45. I'd like to work a bit more with this scale, from (1) agree fully to (5) disagree completely. I'm now going to read some hypothetical sentences together with you. They all have something to do with the Wende. I'd like to know how much you would have agreed with the opinions expressed in each sentence before or during the Wende. a. If CDR-citizens had enjoyed greater freedom to travel, for

example, four to six weeks in 'non-socialist foreign countries' with the possibility of buying hard currency, it would never have come to the emigration wave of summer 1989 nor to the mass opposition of the fall. (1)..11. (2)..1ili (3)......9. (4)....ll (5)~ (.)_2 (m)...2..,1

b. The SED could have reformed itself and maintained at least some of its power if it had adopted Gorbachev's programme of perestroika and glasnost in a timely manner. (1)_27 (2)...QZ (3)......9. (4)....1Q (5).Jili (.)___2. (m)....2..&

c. Without the influence, if not agitation, of the Western media, it would never have come to the wave of emigration nor the massive opposition of autumn 1989. (1)_21 (2)....2.2. (3)...lfr (4)....18. (5)_82 (.)_2 (m) 3.7

d. If Erich Honecker had taken the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the GDR to step down and to present a younger, more pragmatic politburo, he would have taken the wind out of the opposition's sails. (1)...25. (2)....1.2. (3)...lfr (4)...19. (5)...1.5. (.)_1 (m) 3.5

e. If, after Honecker's resignation, Hans Modrow or Gregor Gysi instead of Egon Krenz had come to power, the SED might have been able to hold on to its leading role. (1)...12 (2)_2.8_ (3)~ (4)....12 (5) 109 (.)_1 (m) 4.1

f. If the Wall hadn't come down on 9 November 1989, the GDR demonstrators would never have raised the question of reunification. (1)....1Q (2)...21 (3)__jt (4)_1Q, (5).Jill (.)___± (m).2.2

g. If the Wende had not come, the SED would surely have introduced the necessary political and economic reforms at the 12th Party Congress [planned for 1991]. (1)~ (2)...l.S. (3)..1.1 (4).22. (5)ill (.)___1 (m) 4.4

F46a. And so, here we are at the Wende. It began with the massive wave of emigration in August-September 1989. Did anybody from your


family emigrate at that time? (O)ill No (1)__Q_Q Yes

b. And from your friends and acquaintances? (0) 104 No (1)__91 Yes

c. Was the emigration wave noticeable at your place of work? (O)ill No (to F47) (1)M Yes

[Question not asked to those who did not work in 1989.]

185

d. Did your enterprise get into production difficulties because of the emigration wave?

(O)__lill No (1)_11 Yes

F47a. During the emigration wave, there was a joke: the last person who left the GDR should turn out the lights. If the emigration wave had continued on like that, would you have left too?

(O)ill No (1)..21 Yes

b.* Why (not)? (0)....2.,1 you can't run away from problems ( 1) ...1l(i was happy here (2)....1!2 personal/familial responsibilities here (3).Jil future too uncertain there, too old to go ( 4) _Q better professional opportunities there (5) _Q had thought of emigrating before ( 6) __21 would have gone if things here hadn't changed

F48a. The emigration wave introduced the first demonstrations about the time of the 40th anniversary celebrations. Which of the following sentences would best describe your attitude during the period of demonstrations preceding 9 November 1989, i.e. preceding the fall of the Wall?

(1) _Q I thought the demonstrations were stupid and wouldn't have gone under any circumstances.

(2)...22 I agreed with some of what the demonstrators wanted but wouldn't have gone myself.

(3) 54 I was completely in favour of the demonstrations but unfortunately couldn't go myself.

( 4) ...2.2 I participated in one or two demonstrations. (5)....2.,1 I regularly went to demonstrate. (6) ___B I helped organise one or more demonstrations. (7) __2 I gave a speech at one or more demonstrations.

b + c.* Why? (What was it like?) (0)..,22 wanted things to change (vague response) ( 1) _11 went along with colleagues from work (2) __18 wanted specific reforms (3)....2.,1 wanted to reform/improve socialism ( 4) ...22 wanted to see what was happening/be there (5) _.2. mobilised through church service


(6) ___1'! wanted reunification (7) ____1 out of solidarity for arrested demonstrators (8) ~ every participant counted

(9) ....2.1 too scared to participate (10) ~ don't believe in street politics ( 11) __J! couldn't go because of work responsibilities (12)~ age, illness, travel prevented participation (13)~ no opportunity to demonstrate in my region (14) ___15. against the demonstrators' demands

- I overheard two old ladies talking at the demonstration. One asked the other if she wasn't afraid. She responded, 'Yes, but I've lived my life. '

- It was so exhilarating to be with so many people who wanted the same thing that I forgot to be scared.

F49a. Did you sign the New Forum's petition of 10 September 1989? (0) 138 No (to F50) (1)~ Yes (2)_11 don't recall (to F50)

b.* How /where did you have access to the petition? (0) ___£! through friends (1)_11 at a church service (2)_18 at work (3) _2 at theatre performance ( 4) ...12 on the street, signature collection (5) ___1 meeting at or after demonstration

F50a. Were you a member or participant in one of the following citi-zens' initiatives/movements in the fall of 1989?

(O)ill none (to F51) ( 1) __J! New Forum (2) _1 Democracy Now (3) _1 Democratic Awakening ( 4)_Q_ Initiative for Peace and Human Rights

b.* How did you get involved? (0) _2 through friends (1) _1 through church (service) (2) _1 through leaflet distribution (3) _l through door-to-door petitioners

F51a. Did you participate in any demonstrations after 9 November i.e. after the fall of the Wall?

(O)ill No (to F52) (1)..27 Yes

b.* Why? (0)...2!i against further rule by SED (1) _1 against trade union corruption (2) ____1 for reunification (3) ___£! against reunification

F52a. If you could pick only one of the following slogans from the fall of 1989 that for you best expresses the sentiment and the causes of the Wende, which would it be?


(0) 55 We're staying here! (1)__5_Q We are the people! (2)_li2 Life punishes those who come too late. (3)_±1 We are one people! (4)_l2 We don't want to be guinea pigs!

b.* What did this slogan mean for you personally?

187

F53a. Were you in favour of a rapid reunification in the fall of 1989? (0)143 No (1)~ Yes

b. Do you believe today that the quick reunification was a good thing? (0) ll.Q No ( 1) _'1.1 partly, yes and no (2) __!!!2 Yes

c.* Why (not)? (0)_29 economic costs disappointing ( 1) _1_;2 everything here being inconsiderately destroyed (2) ___,2 two societies too different (3)_11 not everything was bad here ( 4) _lQ too much left uncertain, should have been faster or

slower (5) 57 couldn't happen any other way (6) _Q happy about new freedoms (7) __4 we'll all be better off in the end

F54a + b. Which two of the following are in your opinion the best explanations of why reunification became the main demand of East German demonstrators during late November and December 1989?

(0)....31 The long-repressed German national sentiment of the people finally had a chance to express itself.

(1)lli Mter CDR-citizens had seen the level of material well-being in the FRG, they wanted to be included in it as soon as possible.

(2) 34 CDR-citizens recognised that only reunification could put an end to SED domination and Stasi spying.

(3).....5.1 The interference of West German politicians and parties into political events in the GDR raised the theme of reunification.

( 4) ..Jt1: CDR-citizens recognised that only reunification could prevent a total economic and social breakdown in the territory of the GDR.

F55. The political Wende in the GDR surely had many deep causes. In fact, in hindsight we can probably find too many causes. There must be some way of assessing which causes were the real ones and which were less important. Perhaps you can help me weed out the decisive causes. I'm going to give you a list of some possible causes of the Wende and would like to know for each one whether you would consider it to have been:

(1)_ decisive (without it there would never have been a Wende);


(2)_ contributing (without it the Wende would not have come as quickly, easily, or successfully); or

(3)_ not very important (without it things would not have hap-pened very differently).

[Reported answers are mean response values.] a . .L2B the economic crisis of state socialism b. 1.67 the senility of the Politburo c. 2.09 the electoral fraud of 7 May 1989 d . .LQ2 the growing contradiction between the ideals and the re

ality of socialism e. 1.81 the government's inaction in the face of the emigration

wave of August-September f. 2.07 the free societal space in the shelter of the church g. 2.33 the example of reforms in Poland and Hungary h.lJli the non-intervention of the armed (police) forces i. .2.,11 the dissemination by the Western media of important in

formation critical of the regime j. ~ the incapacity of the Stasi to dominate the citizens' move

ments k. 1.93 Gorbachev's barely veiled critique of Honecker at the 40th

anniversary celebrations I. 2.47 growing awareness of an impending ecological catastrophe m.l. 73 the encouragement of criticism through the example of

glasnost and perestroika in the USSR F56a. To conclude my interview, I'd like to ask a few questions about

your current political opinions and behaviour. Once again, I remind you that your answers will remain strictly confidential. Are you today a member of one of the following parties or do you strongly identify with one without being a member?

(0)___12 PDS (1) _5. FDP (2) ____Q Republicans, NPD (or other far-right party) (3) ~ CDU ( 4) ___2 Greens (5)_..11 SPD (6) ~ Biindnis 90 (7)~ DSU (8)148 no party

b.* And why (not)? [Over 25 different response categories.]

F57a. For which party or list did you vote on 18 March 1990, for the Volkskammer election?

(0)___1ll PDS (1)__18 FDP (2) _1 Democratic Awakening [allied with CDU) (3)___1ll CDU ( 4) __ll Greens (including Independent Women's Fed.) (5)....1Q SPD (6)~ Biindnis 90


(7) _1 DSU (8) _2 DBD (9) _l NDPD

(10) _J_ did not vote (.) ~ answer refused

b.* And why for this party?

189

F58a. For which party or list did you vote on 14 October 1990, for the Landtag elections?

(0)_21 PDS (1)_1_2 FDP (2) _Q NDP (or other far-right) (3)_22 CDU ( 4) _J_ Greens (5)~ SPD ( 6) _1_2 Bundnis 90 (7) _1 DSU ( 8) __lll abstained (.) __±l Berliners did not vote for Senate in October

b.* And why? F59a. And on 2 December 1990, for the Bundestag election?

(O)_M PDS (1)_21 FDP (2)_Q NDP (3)__12 CDU ( 4) _1 Greens (allied with Bundnis 90) (5) 43 SPD (6)....2§ Bundnis 90 (7) _1 DSU (8) _1 Grey Panthers (9) _1 extreme left

(10)__1_8 abstained (.) ~ won't say

b.* Why? F60a. Now I just have a few biographical questions. How old are you?

44.25 (m) years b. (Respondent's gender:)

109 male ~ female F61a. In which of the following categories would you place your father's

principal practised profession? (0)_1_2 peasant/farmer ( 1) .22 worker (2) _M artisan, craftsperson (3)__11 small businessperson (4)....M civil servant (5)_1_2 engineer or technical employee ( 6) ...2Q managerial employee ( 7) __lll professional (8) _1 enterprise- or estate-owner (9) _l2 military


b. What about your paternal grandfather? ( 0) ..1lli peasant/ farmer ( 1) __19 worker (2) __1lli artisan, craftsperson (3)....2..2 small businessperson ( 4) ....2.1 civil servant (5) ......2 engineer or technical employee (6) _1 managerial employee (7) ___2 professional (8) ......2 enterprise- or estate-owner (9) ____Q military

c. Did your father belong to one of these parties? (0)__91 none (1)...11 SED (2) ___.:! KPD (3)__ll SPD (4) ___.:! CDU (5) ___2 NDPD (6) _1 LDPD (7) ___.:! DBD (8)_25. NSDAP (Nazi) (9) ____Q DVP

(10) _1 DNVP ( 11) ____Q Zen trum (12) _1 DDP

d. What about his father? (.) .Ji2 don't know (O)____!i!i none (1) ___.:! SED (2) ___2 KPD (3) _1 SPD (4) _1 CDU (5) ____Q NDPD (6) ____Q LDPD (7) _1 DBD (8) _1 NSDAP (Nazi) (9) ____Q DVP

(10) _1 DNVP (11) ____Q Zentrum (12) ____Q DDP

F62a.* If you had the time to read a newspaper before the Wende, which paper did you read primarily?

(O)..l.Q none (1)lli local/regional paper (2) _1 Nationale (NDPD newspaper) ( 3) _25. Junge Welt ( 4) __3_2 Neues Deutschland (official SED organ) (5) ___2 Neue Zeit (CDU) (6) ___2 Tribune (FDGB)


b. Would you say that you were generally well, poorly, or averagely informed about events in the GDR and the world?

( 0) ...11 poorly informed ( 1) ...1.:2 averagely (2) 140 well informed

c. Did you listen to or watch Western broadcast media exclusively, regularly (but not exclusively), occasionally, or hardly ever if at all?

( 1) ....1!! exclusively (2)ill regularly ( 3) ..22 occasionally (4)_ll hardly ever

F63a. In an election before the Wende, did you ever vote against the unitary list of the National Front or did you ever purposely not go to vote?

(O).li9. No (1).1ill Yes, voted against list (or certain candidates) (2)....22 Yes, purposely avoided voting

b.* Why (not)? (0)~ scared, didn't want trouble at work ( 1) ..22 conformist (2) _...2 knew candidates, liked electoral system ( 3) ....21 in favour of political system ( 4) _12 voting is a citizen's duty (5) _Q wanted to reform the system ( 6) _16 was opposed to system (7) _.2 protest, wanted something specific from state (8) _1 didn't like certain candidate personally

- Once I didn't vote because I had moved and wasn't on the electoral list. I was very proud of that.

F64a. What is the highest level of education you have achieved? (0) __21 elementary ( 1) _11 secondary (2)_1Q secondary and apprenticeship (3) _Q 'Abitur' ( 4) ..1:1 post-secondary technical or vocational (5)....±1 university or equivalent

b. Were you able to complete the level of education you wanted to reach?

(0) 160 Yes (to F65) (l).lill No

c. Why not? (0) _ll insufficient financial means, had to work (1) _.2 parents didn't want me to continue (2) ____8 not enough slots available (3) __1 got children ( 4) _1 got sent to jail (5) _.2 not allowed because of relations in West (6) _...2 not allowed because of bourgeois origins (7) _...2 not allowed because not member of FDJ


(8) _1 didn't want to serve longer in military (9) _1 quit teacher training because I didn't want to have to

lie to children F65a. Did you perform military service in the National People's Army

(NVA)? (0) 133 No (to F65b) ( 1) _iili Yes (to F65c)

b.* Why not? (and on to F65e) (O)llQ too old, too young, or female ( 1) _1 health exemption (2) ___2 conscientious objector (3) _1 in police ( 4) _1 exempted as construction worker ( 5) ___.2 exempted because of large age cohort

c. Did you perform an extended service (beyond mandatory 18 months)?

(0)....5.Q No (to F65e) (1) _l8 Yes (to F65d)

d.* Why? (0) _1 professional soldier ( 1) _1 for job training (2) _Q to get a place in university (3) ___2 wanted to serve in specific service ( 4) _1 thought it was fun

- I did extra seroice because I wanted to be in the border troops. At least there I knew everybody would be serious and I wouldn't have to live with a bunch of morons.

e. Did you belong to a Fighting Group [Kampfgruppe, militia] or (in the case of women) to the Civil Defence force?

(0) 174 No (to F66) (1)....2.1 Yes

f.* Why? (0) _Q out of conviction/loyalty to party ( 1) ___.2 required to at school (2) ___.2 wanted extra pension (3) ___.2 thought it was fun ( 4) ___,1 didn't want to have to do army reserve service (5) __B job requirement (6) _1 wanted training (7) _1 somebody from my work brigade had to go

F66a. What is the approximate population of your city/town? (0) __j! less than 300 (1)...12 301 to 1000 (2) __B 1001 to 2000 (3)....2.(2 2000 to 5000 ( 4) ___2 5000 to 10 000 (5) __B 10 000 to 20 000 ( 6) ....2.2 20 000 to 50 000 ( 7) ____22 25 000 to 100 000


(8)_21: over 100 000 b. (Economic character of town):

( 1) .Jill agricultural (2) ...lill light industry (3)....1.8 heavy industry ( 4) .Jill tertiary ( 5) ___i! mixed

c. (Region): ( 1) __ill! south-central industrial region (2)__21 Leipzig ( 3) __11! southern Thuringia ( 4) __j& Berlin and suburban Brandenburg (5) ___1& Inner Pomerania (6) ___2 other

F67. Did you have a private phone at home in 1989? (O)..illi No (1) 107 Yes

193

F68a. Did you have occasional or regular (and if regular, frequent) contact with friends or relatives in the FRG before the Wende?

(0)...1,1 No ( 1) ___1& Yes, occasionally (2) ___12 Yes, regularly (3).Jia Yes, regularly and often

b. Which of the following was your closest or most important con-tact or relation in the FRG?

(0) ...2.1 none ( 1) ...2.1 only distant relatives or friends (2) _12 cousins, great uncles or great aunts (3)...1!1 good friends ( 4) .Jill uncles, aunts, grandparents, grandchildren (5) ....1Q siblings, parents, children (6) _Q spouse, partners

F69. * How do you see your future now? What are your hopes and ex-pectations?

(O).Jill negative, pessimistic response ( 1) __1.1 mixed feelings (2) .Jitl optimistic, positive

F70. For a last time, I'm going to ask you to pretend that our conversation was occurring two years ago, well before the Wende. Which of the following sentences would best describe your personal attitude towards socialism in the GDR?

( 1) ...2.1 I believed in socialism and contributed to its construction.

(2) ..l.1 I would have been happier to live under socialism if the SED had brought in more democratic freedoms.

(3)M I accepted socialism as given and tried to make the best of it.

( 4) 39 I was opposed to socialism but conformed with the system to avoid dangers for my family and myself.


(5) ___2 I hated the GDR and would have done almost anything to get out.

( 6) __12 I was fundamentally opposed to socialism and criticised it as much as possible.

(7) ____Q I was not interested in politics and lived my life without thinking about politics.

(8)~ I criticised real existing socialism as much as possible so that true socialism could develop in the GDR.

(9) _2_Q [spontaneously offered response:] I initially believed in socialism and helped build it up (response 1) and then criticised the system so that true socialism might develop in the GDR (response 8).

F7l. And as a last question: did you regret the disappearance of the GDR at all?

(0)119 No (l)~ Yes

·- It was like emigrating without packing your bags. F72.* [Supplementary question posed to about a quarter of the respon

dents:] I am supposed to give a talk about my research to some American students next week [actually true when I first started asking the question]. If these students should learn only one thing about the GDR from my talk, what one thing would you like them to know?

- It wasn't a nightmare.

Notes

WHO OVERTHREW HONECKER

1. George Kennan (1951: 120-5), the father of American containment policy, actually did foresee the Soviet Union's collapse from within, though in a shorter period than 40 years. Problems of uneven economic development, political succession, and societal disorganisation meant that 'Soviet power, like the capitalist world of its conception, bears within it the seeds of its own decay, and that the sprouting of these seeds is well advanced.'

2. I experimented with offering potential respondents a 20 D-Mark cash incentive for participation but found that the mention of money only awakened suspicion among people who were just beginning to be bombarded with direct-mail advertising, sweepstakes and 'free' samples. Favourable response rates varied by time (with a low of 10 per cent during the Gulf War) and by region (with a high of 50 per cent in Greifswald) for an average participation rate of about 20 per cent.

3. I have often heard the following critique of my methodology and the generalisations it generated: 'Well, the East Germans I know don't think and act the way you say.' This objection is no doubt valid; the East Germans in my sample contradicted each other in many ways. Nonetheless, the generalisations I make in this book, though illustrated with individual anecdotes, are based on a systematic (and ongoing) dialogue with over 200 not atypical East Germans. I am of course happy to consider counter-arguments and examples based on comparable or better samples. A more egregious critique I have had to suffer has been: 'You didn't need to interview 200 people to draw that (banal) conclusion.' While many of my findings are indeed not always entirely original or counter-intuitive, I have never known the empirical confirmation of longstanding or previously unsubstantiable assumptions to be a scientific vice.

2 BEHIND THE WALL: THE EAST GERMAN SONDERFALLE

1. For good general histories of the GDR see Dennis ( 1988) and McCauley (1983) in English and Weber (1990) in German. Leonhard (1990) provides an interesting overview of GDR history in the form of an anthology of personal commentaries and reports, while Neumann (1991) recounts GDR history from the perspective of the party and its progressive perversion of Marxist idealism. The opening of archives in Berlin and Moscow has of course allowed and necessitated a re-examination of GDR history, though for the present overview the general histories cited here are adequate and I draw on them for basic factual information.

195

196 Notes

3 POPULAR EXPLANATIONS OF THE POPULAR REVOLUTION

1. See Appendix for an English translation of the survey questionnaire, including results.

2. In a regression model including the variables F68a, F37a, and F62c, all three independent variables had significant t-values, but the corrected r-squared for the model was only 0.13. See Chapter 5 for a more complete statistical analysis of survey results.

3. Interview with Dr Bernd Lindner, sociologist at the former Zentralinstitut fiir Jugendforschung (Leipzig), 27 May 1991.

4. In a survey conducted in early March 1990 and reported in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of 23 March 1990, Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann found that 60 per cent of East Germans believed that socialism had not failed but rather that incompetent politicians had ruined it.

5. In a cross-tabulation, gamma = 0.52 and p = 0.0004. 6. Forster and Roski (1990: 161) estimate that the initial core of dem

onstration participants in Leipzig were workers and employees aged 25 to 55. Students were not an important mobilising force as in Czechoslovakia (cf. Urban, 1990), and teenagers and children, according to one study, experienced the Wende as objects and not subjects of history (cf. Lindner, 1992).

7. In a cross-tabulation, 63 per cent of those Berlin respondents whose economic situation had improved went to demonstrate as compared to 34 per cent whose situation was stable or had deteriorated (gamma = 0.54, p = 0.08, n = 46).

8. Finding presented by Karl-Dieter Opp during a guest lecture at the Universite de Montreal, 2 April 1992.

9. In a cross-tabulation, 62 per cent of those who had a friend emigrate participated in demonstrations as compared to only 28 per cent who had not (gamma = 0.61, p = 0.000003, n = 200).

4 THE MODEST GERMANS: THE CULTURAL CONTEXT OF MASS MOBILISATION

1. The particularly paranoid character of East German elite political culture that Leonhard ( 1955) revealed has received confirmation with the recent publication of various leaders' memoirs and of studies of the Politburo (cf. Krenz, 1990; Andert and Herzberg, 1990; Schabowski, 1990; Kirschey, 1990; Przybylski, 1991).

2. When I write here of 'the East Germans', I do not of course wish to imply a uniformity of behaviour and attitudes among GDR citizens but am referring to common traits or tendencies that emerged from my survey interviews.

3. Writing in the early 1980s, Gaus naturally stressed historical continuity since at that time the East German state was seeking popular legitimacy through a revival of the Prussian heritage. In fact, throughout its history the GDR - from its creation of a goose-stepping National People's Army in 1955 to its celebration of Luther in 1983 - drew

Notes 197

on Prussian authoritarian traditions ( cf. Chapter 2). 4. A few of the Neues Deutschland subscribers in my survey sample said

they read it avidly in order to know which slogans they should utter the next time they had to speak at some mandatory political meeting.

5. The East German author Landolf Scherzer (1989: 107), in his booklength study of the daily routine and functions of a county first party secretary offers an insight into the relatively minor level of material corruption that offended East German egalitarianism. When he visits the party secretary's standard prefabricated apartment, Scherzer is surprised not to discover any Western toiletry products in the bathroom and uses this incident to build up his portrait of the secretary as a particularly honest, praiseworthy politician.

5 DIFFERENT STROKES FOR DIFFERENT VOLKS

1. Numerous commentators have of course identified this contradiction as the source of the psychological energy behind the Eastern European revolutions (cf. Kuran, 1991; DiPalma, 1991; Bunce and Chong, 1990). Most base themselves on Havel's classic formulation 'living in [public] lies' vs 'living in [private] truth' in 'The Power of the Powerless' ( 1978).

2. The respondents were asked to pick the one sentence among the following that best expressed their posture towards the anti-government protests leading up to the fall of the Wall: (1) I thought the demonstrations were stupid and wouldn't have gone (joined them) under any circumstances. (2) I agreed with some of what the demonstrators wanted but wouldn't have gone myself. (3) I was completely in favour of the demonstrations but unfortunately couldn't go myself. ( 4) I participated in one or two demonstrations. (5) I regularly went to demonstrate. (6) I helped organise one or more demonstrations. (7) I gave a speech at one or more demonstrations.

6 THE CULTURAL LEGACY OF COMMUNISM

1. The term Wende had several immediate origins in the autumn of 1989. Egon Krenz used the expression to describe and to legitimate his breaking with Honecker's policies after 18 October. Some East Germans also embraced the ideologically less-charged term Wende in conversation because they did not know what their interlocutors' opinion of the revolutionary events were. Whatever the precise origins of the term, its nearly universal adoption signalled a retreat from the revolutionary aspirations of the early autumn of 1989.

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Winkler, Gunnar (ed.) (1990). Sozialreport '90: Daten und Fakten zur sozialen Lage in der DDR (Berlin: Verlag Die Wirtschaft).

Woderich, Rudolf (1992). 'Mentalitiiten zwischen Anpassung und Eigensinn,' Deutschland Archiv, v. 25, no. 1 (January).

Yoder, Jennifer ( 1993). 'The Renewed Salience of East German Identity after Unification.' Paper presented to American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Washington, DC, 2-5 September.

Index

Abgrenzung (isolation from the West), GDR's policy of, 35,78

abortion law, 37, 147 Adenauer, Konrad, 123, 182 AfG, see Akademie fiir

Gese llschaftswissenschaften age and protest participation, correlation between, 64, 66, 124-7, 196 n3.6

agriculture, collectivisation of, 31, 127, 181

Akademie fiir Gesellschaftswissenschaften (AfG) surveys (1987, 1988), 59, 104

Alleinvertretungsanspruch (West Germany's claim to represent entire nation), 144, 145, 147

'Ailianz fiir Deutschland' (CDU-led alliance, 1 990), 97, 160-1

Almond, Gabriel, 76 'anti-fascism' of GDR's founders, 26,

27, 131-2, 182, 183 Arendt, Hannah, 4, 5 asylum-seekers, right to asylum, 142,

147, 156 Ausreisewelle (emigration wave of

August-September 1989), 131, 188

effect of friend's or relative's emigration, 73, 113, 116-17, 122, 184-5, 196 n9.9

as precipitant of mass protest, 47-50, 72, 135, 161

predominance of young people in, 63, 64, 124

Austria, 47, 117, 143 automobile ownership, 123, 151, 175

Basic Law, Federal Republic's, 144, 146, 157

see also Constitution Berlin,26, 27, 79,158,160,169

Alexanderplatz rally ( 4 November 1989), 17, 120

popular protest, 2, 48, 115, 131 ~2 survey respondents from, 13, 15,

28, 68, 119 workers' uprising (1953), 30

Berlin Wall, 2, 12, 16, 184 construction and ideological

justification, 25, 31-2, 34, 43 East and West German attitudes

to, 23-4, 43-4, 152 fall of, 23-4, 45, 48, 97, 101, 120,

150 GDR's success dependent on, 24,

32-3,42 Biermann, Wolf, 37, 183 Bismarck, Otto von, 123, 182 Bohley, Barbel, 183 Bohme, Irene, 79 Bonn, 41, 160 borders

opening of Hungarian, 47, 48-9, 72,117,136

recognition of Germany's eastern, 144-5, 146

Brandt, Willy, 35, 123, 131, 144, 145, 182

visit to Erfurt (1970), 35 Brezhnev, Leonid, 37, 57 Brown, Archie, 77, 92, 162, 163 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 4-5, 136 Bulgaria, 11, 23, 38 Bundestag elections (2 December

1990), 189 Bundeswehr participation in

international peace-keeping operations, 147

Bundnis 90, 153, 189 bureaucracy, and decline of

communist party-state, 8, 10, 57-8

Catholic Church, Poland. 9

209

210 Index

CDU, see Christian Democrats censorship of Soviet reform

proposals, 96 Christian Democrats (CDU), 26, 34,

144:--5. 171 and reunification, 56, 97, 157-8,

160 Church, see Protestant Church citizens' movements, 64-5, 186 see also Demokratie Jetzt;

Demokratischer Aufbruch; Neues Forum citizenship

East German, 34-5 West German definition of, 146,

147 'civil society' model of change, see

societal mobilisation Cold War, 3, 4, 6, 27, 144, 147 collective farms (LPGs), 30, 31, 127,

181 communism, evolution and collapse

in Eastern and Central Europe, 2,25-31,54,70-1,75,150,165

social and political thought on, 3-11,70-4

see also conspiracy theories; cultural interpretations; economic explanations; ideological erosion; societal mobilisation; state socialism, GDR

Communist Party German (KPD), 26 Soviet (CPSU), 29, 30, 33

conspiracy theories of collapse of communism, 54-7

Constitution, German, 147-8 and reunification process, 157-60

Constitutional Court, 147 consumer expectations, 7, 10, 75,

94-5 post-Stalinist 'social contract' and,

37,38,150 reunification and, 47, 151, 154

crime, 154, 156 cultural interpretations

of GDR's popular revolution, 19-20,84-99,149,164-5

of Germany's post-reunification

problems, 140, 143, 148-66 see also political culture; value

system, GDR currency

dual-currency economy, 95, 98 union, 97, 98, 151 see also D-Mark

Czech Republic, 14 7 Czechoslovakia, 25, 38

popular revolution of 1989, 11, 23, 163

Warsaw Pact invasion (1968), 5, 36,88,150

D-Mark, 95, 97, 147 D-Mark Nationalismus, 146, 14 7

Duhrendorf, Ralf, 87 day-care system, 118, 122, 123, 126,

132, 182 DBD, see Democratic Peasants 'Delikat' shops, 95 democracy, German, current crisis

0~2.20-1, 140-3,147,160-1 see also cultural interpretations

Democratic Peasants (DBD), 27, 171 Democratic Women's Federation

(DFD), 27,170 Demokratie Jetzt (Democracy Now),

49,60,65,186 Demokratischer Aufbruch

(Democratic Awakening), 56, 65, 186

demonstrations of autumn 1989, 2, 10-11,57

degree of support for, 119-21 immediate precipitants, 47-53,

56-7, 72, 135, 161 popular explanations for, 45-74,

93 survey respondents' attitudes to,

185-6, 197n 5.2 see also cultural interpretations;

demonstrators; economic explanations; ideological erosion; nationalism; reunification; slogans; societal mobilisation

demonstrators in mass protests of autumn 1989

Index 211

individual motivation, 2-3, 19-20, 51-2, 70-4, 105-8, 134-7

statistical analysis of, 108-34 denazification process, 26, 28 detente, East-West, 36, 37 DFD, see Democratic Women's

Federation Diestel, Peter-Michael, 153, 183 dissatisfaction/happiness of survey

respondents, see happiness dissidents, intellectual, 37, 62, 163 Dresden, demonstrations in (1989),

2, 101, 119, 120 DSF, see Society for German-Soviet

Friendship Durkheim, Emile, 11

East German culture, see political culture; value-system, GDR

East Germany, see German Democratic Republic

Eckart, Gabriele, 79 economic explanations of

communism's collapse, 6-7, 8, 10,66-9

in GDR, 68-9, 75, 93-4, 183, 188 economy, GDR, 11,29-33 passim,

36,38,67,68 survey respondents' attitudes on,

89, 177, 183 see also economic explanations

education system, GDR, 94, 191-2 egalitarian values, GDR, 36-7, 90-2,

98, 99, 102-3, 197n 4.5 erosion of, 94, 96, 97, 149, 150,

151 elections

electoral abstentionism, 113-16 passim, 119, 120, 122, 124, 133, 141, 191

electoral fraud of7 May 1989, 17, 49, 134, 188

first free (March 1990), 49, 97-8, 157

survey respondents' voting patterns, 189

emigration from GDR, 33, 47-8, 179 authorised (1984), 40, 47 pre-1961, 30-1

see also Ausreisewelle (emigration wave of 1989); 'exit-voice' model

emotional repression ( Gefuhlsstau), 83,91

see also psychological interpretations

environmental degradation, 69, 75, 188

Eppelmann, Rainer, 183 equality, see egalitarian values ethnic Germans, claims to

citizenship, 142, 146-7 'exit-voice' model (Hirschmann),

applied to GDR's collapse, 72-4, 116-17, 119, 136, 161

'Exquisit' shops, 95

family, attitudes to, GDR, 89, 90, 141, 154

FDGB (Confederation of Free German Trade Unions), 27, 115-16, 133, 134, 170-1

FDJ, see Free German Youth fear of repression, 71, 72, 173 Federal Republic of Germany

(FRG), 34, 43, 117, 140-1 contacts between GDR and, 35-6,

38,40-1,52,78-9,89-90,97, 193

East Germans' belief in superiority of, 126, 127, 178-9

national identity, 144-6 see also reunification; West

German personalities foreigners, presence in German

society, see asylum-seekers; guest-workers; xenophobia

France, 141, 157 Frederick the Great, 40 Free German Youth (F~J). 27, 87,

171 Friedrich, CarlJ., 4-5, 136

garden plots, private, 88, 174 Gaus, Giinter, 78, 85, 86, 172 GDR, see German Democratic

Republic

212 Index

gender differences in protest motivation, 132-4

Gensicke, Thomas, 59 Gerlach, Manfred, 183 German Communist Party (KPD),

26 German Democratic Republic

(GDR) 40th anniversary celebrations (7

October 1989), 54,96-7 founding, 25-9, 131-2, 195n 2.1 international relations, see Federal

Republic of Germany; Soviet Union; West

map, 14 nostalgia for, 154, 161-2, 164, 165 social structure, 86, 154 see also Socialist Unity Party; state

socialism; value-system, GDR German unity, ideal of, see

reunification glasnost, 96, 184, 188 Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeivitch, 8,

39,54-5,98,183 role in spurring popular

mobilisation in GDR, 56-7, 70-1,96-7, 188

grassroots democracy (Basisdemokratie), 134, 182

Green Party, 141, 145, 153 Greifswald, survey respondents

from, 13,65 Grew, Raymond, 159 Grotewohl, Otto, 182 Grunenberg, Antonia, 62-3 guest-workers, 142 Gysi, Gregor, 152-3, 183, 184

Habermas,Jurgen, 145, 146 Halle, survey respondents from, 13,

69, 131 happiness/ dissatisfaction with life,

of survey respondents, 113-14, 117, 119, 121-2, 178

hate in GDR society, origins of, 91-2 Havel, Vaclav, 8, 93, 162, 163 Helsinki Conference (1975), 37 Hirschmann, Albert 0., 72-4,

116-17, 136

Historikerstreit, 145-6 historiography, GDR, 39-40 Hitler, Adolf, 4, 26, 27, 40, 143, 182 hometown, felt by survey respondents

to be disadvantaged, 113, 114, 118, 122, 123, 169

Honecker, Erich, 1, 39, 49, 169-70, 184

attitudes towards, 61, 87, 132, 182 foreign policy, 35, 40-1 Gorbachev's criticism of, 54-5,

188 social and economic policy, 36-7,

88, 150 Honecker, Margot, 134 housing, homes, 37, 85-6, 88, 95,

156, 174-5 Hoyerswerda, racist violence in, 139 human rights, 37 Hungary, 5, 68

collapse of communism, 9, 10, 62, 75

opening of borders, 47, 48-9, 72, 117, 136

reforms, 38, 71, 72, 188

ideological erosion, 4-5, 7-8, 10, 150 in GDR, 57-61,62,88,93

individual behaviour and social action, relationship between, 11, 71,166

see also demonstrators individualism, democratic value of,

97, 151 industry, 6-7, 29, 140

GDRpolicy, 30-1,38-9,67,69, 94, 181

see also micro-electronic revolution 'Intershop', 95 Italy, 141, 159

Janka, Walter, 30 Jaruzelski, General Wojciech, 38, 71 Jena, survey respondents in, 13 jobs, competition for, 156

see also unemployment journalists, West German, reports on

GDR, 78-9 Jowitt, Kenneth, 77-8

Index 213

Jugendweihe, 164, 171

Klier, Freya, 94 Koch, Thomas, 155 Kohl, Helmut, 1, 56, 145, 152, 155,

160, 183 Kombinate, industrial, 38 KPD, see Communist Party, German Krenz,Egon,55,56, 183,184, 197n

6.1 Kulturbund, 27 Kuran, Timur, 71

Lada automobile, 123, 175 Lafontaine, Oskar, 183 Lander, East German

map, 14 union with FRG, 156, 157, 158

landholdings, redistribution of, 29 Landtag elections (14 October

1990), 189 LDP, see Liberal Democrats Leipzig, 13, 15, 58, 153

demonstrations of autumn 1989, 2, 17,47-8,49,50,55, 120, 196n 6.6

Nicholai church as centre of opposition, 47, 101, 119

survey of protestors, 65, 71-2 Lemke, Christiane, 63, 66, 92, 162,

163 Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 67 Liberal Democrats (LDP), 26, 172 Liberman, Yevsey Grigorievich,

reforms, 8 Liebknecht, Karl, 60, 61, 118, 182 literature, East German, 79 Lithuania, 165 living standards, 71, 150

GDR, 38, 39, 120-1, 131, 177 LPG's, see collective farms Ludz, Peter, 42 Luther, Martin, quincentenary

celebrations (1983), 40, 63 Lutheranism, 83 see also Protestant Church Luxemburg,Rosa,60,61, 118,182

Maaz, Hans:Joachim, 50, 83, 91

Maiziere, Lothar de, 183 marriage bonuses, 88 Marx, Karl, 40, 61, 66-7, 182 Marxism-Leninism, 28, 57, 66,80 Masur, Kurt, 183 materialism, 47, 83-4, 97, 154

see also consumer expectations maternity leave, 37 media, Western, exposure to, 52 Menge, Marlies, 78 Meyer, Gerd, 92 micro-electronic revolution, GDR

promotion of, 33, 39 military service, 106, 192

see also Bundeswehr military spending, 6, 10 Ministry for State Security, see Stasi modesty of personal needs, as GDR

primary cultural value, 89, 91, 95,99,102-3

erosion of, 92, 94, 97, 103, 149-51 nostalgia for, after reunification,

154 Modrow, Hans, 183, 184 Molin, racist violence in, 139 Moore, Barrington, 46 motor cars, see automobile

ownership

National Democrats (NDPD), 27, 172

National Front, GDR, 27, 115 national identity

ambiguities of German, 127-8, 142-8, 179-81

CDR's quest for separate, 32-3, 34-5,39-40,42,143-4

and reunification, 23-4, 140, 143, 146-8, 161-2, 164

West German, 144-7 Nationale Volksarmee, 139-40 nationalism, 38, 97, 156

role in popular revolution, 46, 49-53, 126-7, 128

NATO, 75 Nazism, 90

acceptance/ suppression of Nazi past, 144, 145-6

replacement by Soviet

214 Index

totalitarianism, 3-4, 25-6, 27-8

see also denazification; neo-Nazis; NSDAP

NDPD, see National Democrats neighbourhood councils

( Wohnbezirksausschiisse), 134 neo-Nazis, 139 Neues Deutschland, 88, 197n 4.4 Neues Forum, 17, 49-50, 64, 121

petition of 10 September 1989, 65, 186

New Course, SED (1953), 30 New Economic System, SED ( 1962),

33,36 niche-society, see Nischengesellschaft Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm, 143 Nischengesellschaft (niche-society),

GDRas, 78,85-9,91, 98,149, 172-3

see also private life Nolte, Ernst, 145 nomenklatura, 8, 10, 57 Norden, Albert, 35 NSDAP (National Socialist German

Workers' Party), membership of, 122, 123, 190

Oder-Neisse line, 145, 181 Opp, Karl-Dieter, 65, 71, 196n 3.8 opposition groups in GDR, 62-6, 71,

93, 120 see also citizens' movements;

Protestant Church Ostpolitik, 1, 35, 131, 144, 145

Pakulski,Jan, 42-3 Party of Democratic Socialism

(PDS), 153, 188, 189 party-state, erosion of, 10, 53-61,

62,93 see also bureaucracy

paternalism, socialist, 92, 165 PDS, see Party of Democratic

Socialism perestroika, 7, 39, 71, 96, 97, 184, 188 PGHs (cooperatives), 31 Philipsen, Dirk, 17 Pieck, Wilhelm, 28, 61, 129, 182

antipathy towards, 113, 114, 115, 117-18, 121, 122, 123, 132

Plauen, protestors in, 120 Po1and,25,68, 75,145,165

civil society model of change, 8-9, 10,37,62

nationalism, 38, 53 reforms, 71, 72, 188

Politburo, 17, 33, 55, 56, 95-6, 188, 196n 4.1

political culture GDR, 76,78-9,82,83-4, 137, 140 study of, in communist societies,

76-84 see also cultural interpretations;

value-system, GDR Pollack, Detleff, 64 Pomerania, 29 popular mobilisation, see

demonstrations Potsdam agreement, 144 Prague, occupation of West German

embassy (September 1989), 49, 72,101

Prague Spring, 36, 37, 88 private life

cultivation of, 85-90, 154, 163 state intervention in, 132, 173

private sector, socialist offensive against, 29, 30, 36

privileges, 94, 98, 123-4, 149 Protestant Church

discrimination against members of, 116, 126, 129

relationship between membership of and opposition to regime, 115-16, 120-1, 127-9

as shelter for oppositional groups, 41, 63-4, 66, 188

survey respondents confirmed in, 125, 126, 127, 171

Prussia, 27, 29, 40, 144, 148, 196n 4.3 psychological interpretations, 72-4,

83, 84, 91-2, 116

quality of life in GDR, perceptions of, 168-9

racist violence, see xenophobia

Index 215

Rakowski, Mieczyslaw, 54 rational choice model of political

protest, 70-2, 80-1 Red Army, 5, 26 refugees, see asylum-seekers regional variations in protest

motives, 118-19, 129-32 Reich, West Germany as legal heir

of, 144, 146 Rei~ig, Rolf, 64 religious affiliation and protest

participation, 127-9 see also Protestant Church

Republican Party, West German, 141 reunification, 42, 97, 101, 103, 139,

140 desire for, cause or consequence

of 1989 revolution? 46-7, 48, 49-53

economic repercussions, 147, 155-6

process of, 156-60 SED policy on, 34-5, 36, 41 survey respondents' attitudes to,

187 tensions between 'Ossis' and

'Wessis', 148, 151-3, 155, 180-1

see also cultural interpretations; national identity; xenophobia

revolution, theories of, 6, 45-6, 53, 66-7, 67-8, 105

'revolutionaries of the first hour', 120-1

right-wing extremism, 141-2, 143, 146, 155, 160

see also xenophobia Rostock-Lichtenhagen, racist

violence in, 139, 156 Rumania, 11,23,25,38,56,68

Saarland, accession to FRG, 157 Saxony, 26 SBZ (Soviet-occupied zone), 26, 28,

29 Schabowski, Gunther, 55 Schalck-Golodkowski, Alexander,

55,68 Scherzer, Landolf, 79

Schirdewan-Wollweber group, 30 Schnur, Wolfgang, 56 Schorlemmer, Friedrich, 51 Second World War, effect on

attitudes to communism, 3 SED, see Socialist Unit Party Silesia, 29 'Sinatra Doctrine', 70 slogans, 46, 48, 73, 101, 151-2,

186-7 see also demonstrations

Smith, Jean, 42 'social contract' of Soveit bloc

regimes, 37, 88 in GDR, 38, 47, 88-9, 150

Social Democrats (SPD), 26, 34, 98, 160-1

social sciences, 3, 80-1, 104 social security, 92, 165

SED policy, 36-7, 88 socialism, see communism; state

socialism Socialist Unity Party (SED)

Congresses: Second (1952), 29; Fifth (1958), 31; Eighth (1971), 35-6, 150; Ninth (1976), 39

and construction of distinct national identity, 32-3, 34-5, 39-40, 42, 143-4

economic policy, 29-34 passim, 36, 38-9, 41, 67, 68

foreign policy, 36, 40-1, 72 founding and consolidation of

political control, 26-33, 41, 131-2

ideological shift under Honecker, 'social contract', 35-9, 47, 88-9, 150

legitimacy of regime, 27, 32, 39, 41,42-3,44,96-7

party members' participation in survey and demonstrations, 15, 121-4, 171

and popular consent, citizen loyalty, 28-9,30-1, 32, 33-4, 41-2,44,89-90

reliance on repression, 5, 30, 35, 37,41,42

216 Index

social policy, 36-7, 88 survey respondents' attitudes to,

113-18 passim, 183-4, 193-4 undermining of authority of, 73,

75,96-7 see also state socialism

societal mobilisation, 'civil society' model of communism's collapse, 6, 7, 8-9, 10-11

in GDR, 62-6, 162-3 Society for German-Soviet

Friendship (DSF), 51, 170 solidarity, as primary cultural value

in GDR, 89, 91, 99, 102-3, 149-50

erosion of, 92, 94, 97, 151 Solidarity trade union, Poland, 9, 38,

54 Solingen, racist violence in, 139, 142 Sommer, Theo, 42 Sontheimer, Kurt, 149 Soviet Union, 3-4,6-7, 33, 93, l95n

l.l Communist Party ( CPSU), 29, 30,

33 and founding of GDR, 26-7, 29 relations with East European

regimes, 25, 27, 37, 70-l relations with GDR, 34, 36, 40, 43,

75,96-7,158 SPD, see Social Democrats Spengler, Oswald, 40 sport, GDR's promotion of, 36, 118,

126, 128, 181, 182 Sputnik (Soviet magazine), banning

of, 96 Stalin, Joseph, 3, 26, 27, 29

removal of statues in GDR, 33 Stalinism, 28, 32, 96

Stasi (Ministry for State Security), 30, 152, 184, 188

SED's reliance on, 41,42 survey respondents' encounters

with, 106, 115, 116, 120, 173-4

theory of Stasi's complicity in collapse of communism, 53-4,55-6

Stassen, Manfred, 158

state socialism, GDR apparent stability of, 2, 19, 20, 25,

41-4,75-6, 136-7 citizens' attitudes to, 90-l, 183-4,

193-4 consruction and development of,

25-35,41 Honecker's version of, 35-41 popular explanations for collapse

0~2-3,6, ll, 19,45-74,93; see also conspiracy theories; cultural interpretations; economic explanations; ideological erosion; nationalism; reunification; societal mobilisation

role of individual motivation in collapse of, 2-3, 19-20, 70, 71-4, 105-8

and 'true' socialism, 61, l96n 3.4 see also Socialist Unity Party

Stolpe, Manfred, 152 Stoph, Willi, 87 Sudeten Germans, 14 7 survey of East Germans ( 1990-91),

2,3, 102,161 methodology, 11-18, 103-4, 105 questionnaire, 13, 84, 167-94 respondents (personal details

only) age, parentage, 189-90 church membership, 125, 126,

127,171 education, 191-2 geographical distribution,

13-15 hometown, local community,

113, 114, 118, 122, 123, 168-70, 192-3

housing, car/telephone ownership, 123, 174-5, 193

membership of societal organisations, 170-2

military service, 106, 192 newspapers read, 190 occupational/income, 175-7 party membership, 171-2,

188-9 protest participation, 186

Index 217

survey of East Germans - cont. statistical analysis, 108-34, 161 voting patterns, 188-9

technical-scientific deficiency of Soviet bloc, 7, 94

see also micro-electronic revolution telephones, private, 122, 123, 193 television, exposure to Western

broadcasts, 52 Thalmann, Ernst, 128, 129, 182 Thalmann-Pioniere, 129 Thuringia, survey respondents from,

13 Tienanmen Square incident, China

(.June 1989), 72 Tilly, Charles, 102 totalitarianism, theories of, 3, 4-11,

27-8,62,136 Touraine, Alain, 104 Trabant automobile, 93, 175 trade unions, see FDGB travel restrictions, GDR, 48, 49, 133,

134, 184 easing of (mid-1980s), 93, 94-5 Politburo's statement on (9

November 1989), 17,55 Treuhand privatisation agency, 156 Two-plus-Four-Treaty (1990), 145,

146

Ulbricht, Walter, 26, 30, 34, 35, 36 attitudes towards, 28, 61, 132, 133,

182 unemployment, 140, 154, 155, 156 United States of America, 6, 141 utopianism, socialist, 10,60-1,62,

150 see also ideological erosion

value-system, GDR, 18, 87, 89-93 passim, 136-7, 149-50, 161

collapse of, 92-9, 103, 104, 135-6, 149-51

conflict between West German and,21, 140,143,148-9,151, 155, 161

revival and continuation of, in reunited Germany, 152, 153-4, 161-2, 164-5

see also egalitarian values; modesty; solidarity

values, cultural, 80, 82-3, 87, 92-3 traditional German, 84, 86, 97 see also value-system, GDR

Verba, Sidney, 76 Verfassungspatriotismus, 146, 147 Volk, concept of, 101-2 Volkskammer elections (March

1990),49,97-8, 157 Volkssolidaritat (local social

services), 134, 170 Voss, Peter, 65, 71

wage differentials, 94, 95 Wandlitz Woods Settlement, 95 war-guilt, 145 Warsaw, occupation of West German

embassy (September 1989), 49, 72, 101

Warsaw Pact, 75 invasion of Czechoslovakia

(1968),5,36,88, 150 Wartburg automobile, 123, 175 Weber, Max, Weberian theory, 8,

80-4 passim, 104, 108 Wende, adoption of term, 55, 157,

197n6.1 see also demonstrations of autumn

1989 Wendehiilse (former SED

functionaries), 124 West, 6, 37

GDR's relations with, 40-1 see also Cold War; Western media

West German personalities, GDR attitudes to, 122, 182

West Germany, see Federal Republic of Germany

Western media, exposure to, 52, 188, 191

'Wirtschaftswunder DDR', 34 women, status and benefits in GDR,

33, 118, 132, 181 effect of reunification, 153 see also gender differences

work incentives, 92, 94 right to, 118, 182

218 Index

work- cont. see also jobs

workers' uprising (1953), 30

xenophobia, racist violence, 139-43, 146, 147-8, 154-6, 157

young people

political and social attitudes, 58-9, 79, 124-6

role in CDR's demise, 63, 64, 65-6

Zeit, Die, reports on CDR in, 42, 78 Zentralinstitut fiir Jugendforschung

(ZIJ) Leipzig, apprentice and student survey, 58-9, 66, 104