Appendices

Appendix A People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA)

LIST OF INFLUENTIAL FIGURES IN THE PDPA, IDENTIFIED BY FACTION AND POSTS HELD.

Babrak Karma!

Nur Ahmad Nur

Abdurrashid Aryan Sultan Ali Keshtmand

Dr Anahita Ratebzad Dr Saleh Mohammad Zeary Maj Gen Mohammad Rafi

Dr Najibullah

Dastigir Panjsheri Lt Col Mohammad Aslam

Watanjar

Mahmud Baryalai

Lt Gen Yasin Siddiqui

(P) President, Politburo member

(P) Vice-President, Politburo member

(K) Vice-President (P) Chairman Council of

Ministers (PM) Politburo member (P) Politburo member (K) Politburo member (P) Deputy Chairman

Council, Politburo member (P) chief of secret police

KHAD, Politburo member (K) Politburo member (Nat) Minister

Communications, Politburo member

(P) PDPA secretary and Politburo member

(P) Director General Political Affairs, Armed Forces, Politburo member

225

226 Afghanistan Under Soviet Domination, 1964-81

Lt Gen Abdul Qader

Engineer Mohammad Danesh

Dr Khalil Ahmad Abawi

Professor Guldad

Shah Mohammad Dost Maj Gen Sayed M Golabzoi Mohammad Khan J alalar Suleiman Layek

Sarwar Mangal

Lt Col Sher Jan Mazdooryar

(Nat) Minister Defence, Politburo member

(K) Minister Mines and Industries, Politburo member

(P) Deputy Chairman Council

(K) Deputy Chairman Council

(P) Minister Foreign Affairs (K) Minister Interior (Nat) Minister Commerce (P) Minister Tribes and

Nationalities (P) Minister Higher

Education (K) Minister Transport

Appendix B Afghan Opposition Parties or Fronts

PAR TIES BASED IN EXILE IN PAKISTAN

fundamentalist muslim

Hizb-i-Islami (Islamic party) Hizb-i-Islami (Islamic party) Jamiat-i-Islami (Islamic society)

of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar of Yunis Khalis of Burhanuddin Rabbani

These parties established a common council in 1981. Islamic Alliance of Afghan Mujahidin, led by Professor Abdul Rasul Sayaf.

conservative/nationalist

Mahaz-i-Melli-i-Islamiye- of Sayyid Ahmad Gailani Afghanistan (National Islamic Front of Afghanistan)

Jabha-i-Nejat-i-Melli-Afghanistan of Sibghatullah Mujaddidi (National Liberation Front of Afghanistan)

Harakat-i-lnqilab-i-Islami of Mohammad Nabi (Islamic Revolution movement) Mohammadi

REGIONAL FRONTS OR PARTIES INSIDE AFGHANISTAN

Central- Hazara, Shi'a Revolutionary Council of Islamic Union of Afghanistan(Shura), of Sayyid Ali Beheshti

227

228 Afghanistan Under Soviet Domination, 1964-81

Kabul region, north- non­Pushtun minorities

South-west, north East- Nuristani

East - Pushtun, tribal West - Baluch, tribal South-west, north - Shi' a,

Iranian links North, centre- Hazara, Shi'a,

Iranian links South, Kabul- Pushton

nationalist

Afghan Peoples' Liberation Organisation(SAMA)

Fedayan Islam Nuristan Front of Mohammed

Anwar Amin Kunar Front Nimruz Front Islamic movement (Harakat-i­

Islami), of Shaikh Muhsini Organisation for Victory

(Sazman-i-Nasr) Afghan Mellat

(Afghan Social Democratic Party), of Dr Amin Wakman

Appendix C Shabnamah (night letter) of Kabul Opposition, summer 1980

THE SOCIETY OF REVOLUTIONARY WOMEN

Oh Babrak- oh you Russian puppet! Do you remember- have you got in your dirty memory that eternal day of sehum-i-aqrab (25 October 1965, when a Kabul demonstration of students urged on by Babrak Karmal was shot at by troops)? That day when you were shouting about 'the cowardly killing of the martyrs of sehum-i-aqrab, and about their slayer [General] Sardar Wali, and the black reaction using weapons against our penholding youth'.

Yes - you were uttering these words to deceive people - but damnation be upon you! You yourself used guns, tanks, machine guns and helicopters against schoolgirls who had no weapon but their headscarves, and against boys who had nothing but books and pens. You killed hundreds of them (in demonstrations against the Soviet takeover in Kabul in 1980), filling up your prisons with this courageous youth, leaving thousands of families in sorrow and anguish. But Babrak, be afraid of the tears of the sorrowing, suffering mothers! These tears will turn into a rebellious flood which will wash away you and your [Russian] masters.

The fate of Amin and Taraki - your comrades in crime - is awaiting you too, but more ominous and more terrible. If they killed at midnight, you kill by full daylight - you, with your impudence, which is a part of your low nature- damnation upon you, shameless one!

229

230 Afghanzstan Under Soviet Domination, 1964-81

Your bloodthirsty face shows what you are, you henchman of Russian colonialism, with cleaver in hand. Your true bloodthirsty face hides behind the mask of democracy which your masters designed for you. You reached power by fawning like a dog, rubbing your nose like a dog in front of the Kremlin's doors. The good hearted youth, not knowing your servile mentality, thought you still had some patriotism left in you. But when you were sent to Kabul on thousands of Russian tanks, your barbaric actions showed themselves one after another - you loudspeaker of Brezhnev!

The truth has become as clear as the light of the sun, that you have no fate in front of you but your self-destruction. You mild, good-natured, docile cow- you chief of the secret police, you who filled the prisons ....

The epic of the girls of our country makes the red dragon [Soviet Union] waver! Oh motherland! Your girls have become women. . . . [Here allusions are made to two powerful sources of Afghan popular culture- (1) the Persian epic Shahnama of Fird­ausi, and (2) national history, in the form of a heroine of the second Anglo-Afghan war.] These girls are as if they have marble bodies, which are completely indestructible. The martyred girls have become heroines - stars, brighter by far than galaxies!

Mallali - that lioness of Maiwand [battle of 1880, in which British forces were defeated], she took her bloodstained chador [veil] like a banner of freedom, and fought beside our Afghan men against the British invaders. Here example lightens the way forward.

You lioness girls, students of the lycees of Kabul, fighting beside your brothers the courageous students, who for the freedom of your country broke the talisman of silence. Giving your pure blood you will never be forgotten in the memory of the suffering motherland, which will, no doubt, be freed again one day.

Now the Parchamis and Khalqis and Russians are all trying to destroy our culture; HEROIC GIRLS! with your soft hands you are not rocking a baby's cradle, but shaking the foundations of the Kremlin palace!

ABOUT THE REVOLUTIONARY WOMEN'S SOCIETY

It is organised by progressive and socially aware women. Its

Shabnamah (night letter) of Kabul Opposition 231

eventual aim is to secure the rights of women in Afghanistan. But it believes the liberation of our oppressed women is not separate from the salvation of our suffering nation. The essential thing must be freedom and regaining our independence from the Soviet Union.

So the Society puts at the centre of its duty the coordination of its activities with the struggles of the entire nation - peasants, workers, students, civil servants and small traders. If we desire the freedom of women, first we must have freedom from the Russian grip, and the tyranny of their servants. After gaining genuine independence ... we shall continue our basic struggle to obtain women's rights in Afghanistan.

The organisation of the women's society is totally secret, through local cells connected by link-officers. It tries to help the families of martyrs [those killed in the struggle] as best it can.

(Translated from Persian)

Appendix D Land Reforms

Decree no. 8 of 28 November 1978 stated the aims (Article I)

1 Elimination of the feudal and prefeudal relations from the socio· economic system of the country.

2 Popularisation, consolidation and deepening of the unity of workers and peasants for the purpose of further strengthening the unity of the people of Afghanistan for the building of a society without hostile classes and free of exploitation of man by man.

3 Raising the volume of agricultural products for the purpose of supplying sufficient and a variety of food for the people, provision of raw materials for expanding exports of agricultural and industrial products of the country.

(There was a long-term aim to form cooperatives of small farmers.)

OPPOSITION STATEMENTS ON LAND REFORM

Manifesto of the National Islamic Front of Afghanistan (NIFA), led by Sayyid Ahmad Gailani (nationalist/secular oriented) s. 14;

The existing land reform is null and void - the expropriate or confiscated land shall, upon presentation of legal documents, be restored to the rightful owner. This equally applies in as far as it is feasible in the case of all those whose movable or immov­able property has been expropriate after the coup d'etat of April 1978.

It is significant of a mood of realism that already by April1979, distributed copies of the original manifesto had this passage crossed out, with only the remaining portion of section 14

232

Land Reforms 233

The NIFA advocates strengthening the agricultural sector by providing various forms of credits and agricultural equipment to the farmers at reduced prices with the aid of government subsidies.

Compared to the Front, the fundamentalist Muslim Hizb-e­Islami led by Gulbuddin Hekmatyar appears more muddled in its approach to the land question, its manifesto betraying signs of policies incompatible with stated ideals-extract from Chapter V of the manifesto:

Agriculture: 1 Unauthorised possession of land shall be nullified 2 Usurped properties shall be returned to their actual owners 3 Fair distribution of land with a view to offer it to those who

who do not possess any 4 Introduction of the Islamic land-cess 5 Distribution of the land will be based on basic requirements

of every family.

Afghan exile circles frequently exaggerated the tendency of agrarian reforms - as in a published speech of 6 June, 1980 in Paris, by Mohammad Habib, member of Federation des etudiants afghans a l'etranger ( 6 heures pour !'Afghanistan, booklet, Paris 1980) - my translation:

... In studying the decree no. 8 concerning agrarian reform, we state that the basic aim of this so-called reform was to promote the creation of big state cooperative farms to meet the interests of the Soviet economy.

Appendix E Chronology

1839-42 1878-80 1880-1901

1893

1901-19

1919

1919-29

1929

1929-33 1933 1947

1947-52

1'953-63

1950/ 1955/1961-63 1963

1964 1965

First Anglo-Afghan war. Second Anglo-Afghan war. Amir Abdur Rahman's consolidation by 'inter­nal imperialism'. Durand Line fixed boundaries of political con­trol of Pushtun and Pathan lands. Amir Habibullah, maintaining good relations with India; 'Young Afghan' or Constitutional movement. Third Anglo-Afghan war (of only 1 month) Peace Treaty provides for full independence in foreign relations. King Amanullah's attempts to reform Afghani­stan. Period of civil war and brief rule of Bacha-i­Saqao. King Nadir Shah, founder of Musahiban family. King Zahir Shah reigns - the royal uncles rule. Birth of Pakistan renews Afghan irridentist claims on Pathan lands. 'Awakened Youth' liberal movement began and ended. Mohammad Daoud takes over as Prime Minister. Development schemes flourish in Cold War competition.

Pakistan borders crises - severe disruptions. Daoud's resignation, followed by Constitutional period. New Constitution ushers in the 'new democracy'. Free Press encourages new parties, among which

234

1965-67

1969-73 1973

1977

1978

1979

1980

Chronology 235

PDPA; 25 October demonstration brings down Yusuf government. Maiwandwal government - nationalist and left­wing groups thrive - Khalq, Parcham, Shula-i­]awed and Setem-i-Meli. Decline of the new democracy. Coup overthrows Zahir Shah, Daoud declares Republic, himself President, with support of Parchami elements. Two rival factions of PDPA, Khalq and Par­cham, reunite. 27 April, Saur Revolution- military coup places PDPA in power, with Nur Mohammad Taraki as President. Parchamis lose out. Civil war. September - Taraki killed and Hafizullah Amin rules until 'Christmas Coup' by Soviet army places Babrak Karma! in office. Opposition intensifies and most of Afghan Army disintegrates. Afghan refugees shelter in Paki­stan and Iran, and border relations are seriously strained by guerrilla warfare.

Notes CHAPTER I

1. Olaf Caroe, /he Pathans (1958) p. 25. 2. H.K. Kakar, Government and Society in Afghanistan (Austin, USA, 1979)

for a full study of Amir Abdur Rahman's reign. 3. Major-General Sir H. Rawlinson, England and Russia in the East (1875,

new edition 1970) p. 355. 4. See further J. Spain, The Way of the Pathan (1962). 5. Hans Kohn, The idea of Nationalism (1944), E. Kedourie, Nationalism

(1960) and R. Emerson, From empire to nation (USA, 1960), with biblio­graphies.

6. Among sources consulted are J. Anderson and R. Strand ( eds. ), Ethnic pro­cesses and intergroup relations in contemporary Afghanistan (New York, 1978) and F. Barth, 'Pathan Identity and its maintenance', in F. Barth (ed.), Ethnic groups and boundaries (1970).

7. R. Canfield, Faction and conversion in a plural society (Michigan, USA, 1973) pp. 117-19.

8. Eugene Schuyler, Turkistan (1877) in G. Wheeler's revised edition (1966) p. 87.

9. Xavier de Planhol, The world of Islam (Cornell, USA, 1970) p. 82. 10. I rely here on published material, but also private information. Compare L.

Dupree, Afghanistan (1973) ch. 10 for settlement patterns. 11. Victor Segesvary, Afghanistan among the least developed of developing

countn"es, mimeo. report, UNDP office, Kabul, dated June 1977. 12. A stimulating review by Dr Neville Goodman, 'Health services in

Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey', in Royal Society of Asia Journal (RSAJ), vol. LIII Qune 1966).

13. Afghanistan Council of the Asia Society (ACAS), USA, paper by A. Shalinsky, 1979, and paper no. 15, by T. Barfield, 1978.

14. J. Baljon, in A.J. Arberry (ed.) Religion in the Middle East, vol. II (1969). 15. Fazlur Rahman, Islam, 1966, p. 158. 16. See L. Dupree's fascinating chapters 8 and 9 on folk religion in op. cit.

(1973). 17. Reliable statistics are all the more difficult to obtain with the civil war

upsetting patterns, by bombings and refugee problems. A recent German study attempts this, though - K-H. Rudersdorf, Afghanistan-eine Sowje­trepublik? (Rowohlt, 1980).

18. See further Dupree (1973) pp. 153-64. 19. R. Canfield op. cit. (1973) p. 52. 20. L. Dupree, The new republic of Afghanistan, special paper of ACAS, USA,

spring 1976.

236

Notes 237

CHAPTER2

1. Peter Levi, The Light Garden of the Angel King (1972) p. 36. 2. V. Gregorian, The Emergence of modem Afghanistan (Stanford, USA,

1969) pp. 345-68. 3. An illuminating account is Hasan Kakar's The Fall of the Afghan monarchy

in 1973, in lntemationaljoumal of Middle Eastern Studies, (IJMES) vol. 9, 1978.

4. See L. Dupree, op. cit. (1973), ch. 22 and R.T. Akhramovich, Concerning the recent stages in Afghanistan's social history (Moscow, 1967).

5. As in the subcontinent and other largely illiterate societies, groups of men would gather in public places to hear literates read the newspapers, and to discuss the news.

6. L. Dupree, Leftist movements in Afghanistan, American Universities field staff (AUFS) report 44 of 1979, p. 5.

7. Nake Kamrany, Peaceful competition in Afghanistan (Washington, USA, 1969) p. 51.

8. See further L. Dupree, op. cit. (1973) ch. 23. 9. Types of MiGs, tanks and other weapons provided were often the latest

models, instead of older ones out of service with Warsaw Pact armies. Useful comparisons of Soviet handling of Afghan arms contracts can be found in publications of SIPRI (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute), The arms trade with the Third World (1971), esp. pp. 501-5, and Pelican abridgement 1975. For a detached Arab view of Soviet arms trade and strategy for influence in the Middle East, see Mohamed Heikal, Sphinx and Commissar (London, 1978).

10. Hasan Kakar, op. cit. (1978) p. 212. 11. L. Dupree, A note on Afghanistan, 1971, AUFS, 1971, p. 23. 12. N. Kamrany, op. cit. (1969) pp. 90-1. 13. See Dr Heider Dawar, Die Bedeutung der Zollpolitik (Berlin, 1975). 14. Maxwell Fry, The Afghan Economy (Brill, Leiden, 1974) p. 48, and for

causes of idle capital for investment, ch. 8 of this volume. 15. I have found very useful reports by Victor Segesvary, esp. Afghan Foreign

Trade in 1356 (dated August 1978), copy in UNDP office, Kabul. Also confidential information.

16. M. Fry, op. cit. (1974) pp. 241-3. 17. The implications of corruption in Asian societies have been analysed in

Gunnar Myrdal's Asian Drama, (1968) and abridgement by Seth King, (1972) ch. 14.

18. For a vivid picture, see L. Dupree, op. cit. (1973) pp. 654-8.

CHAPTER 3

1. The whole range of problems is analysed in A. Lamb, Asian Frontiers, Studies in a continuing problem (1968) p. 62.

2. Ibid., p. 86, and see ch. 4. 3. Afghanistan files of the period in the India Office are eloquent. 4. V. Lenin, in The national liberation movement in the East (Moscow 1969)

p. 242.

238 Notes

5. L. Adamec, (Germany third Power) in G. Grassmuck and L. Adamec (eds), Afghanistan; some new approaches (Ann Arbor, USA, 1969).

6. L. Poullada, Reform and Rebellion in Afghanistan 1919-1929 (Cornell, USA, 1973).

7. Quoted by F. Kazemzadeh, 'The Imperial Dream'; New York Times Book Review, January 1980.

8. L. Poullada, op. cit. (1973) ch. XI, nb. pp. 257-66. Two distinguished Afghan historians also attribute Amanullah's downfall to his own alienation of the Afghan people, rather than British plots, Ghulam Muhammad Ghobar, and recently H.K. Kakar in Government and Society in Afghanistan (Texas 1979) pp. 252-4.

9. Munshi Sultan Mahomed Khan (ed), The life of Abdur Rahman Amir of Afghanistan, vol. n (1900) p. 212.

10. Reysner's article 'Afghanistan', quoted in Central Asian Review, vol. IX

(London, 1967) pp. 310-15. 11. The American specialist Selig Harrison has written on this theme widely,

e.g. Foreign Affairs (USA, Fall, 1978).

CHAPTER4

1. Estimate from Ministry of Planning, Survey of Progress 1961-62, Kabul, Table 4, p. 50.

2. See L. Dupree and Albert, Afghanistan in the 1970's (Praeger, USA, 1974) pp. 60 ff.

3. L. Dupree, op. cit. (1973) p. 562. Ch. 24 covers the constitutional reforms exhaustively.

4. H. Kakar, in IJMES (1978) p. 201. 5. From a short biography of Noor Mohammad Tarak (Kabul, 1978) p. 12. 6. H. Kakar, in IJMES (1978) p. 213. 7. Although Dari was long established as the literary language, Pashto was

deliberately being pushed by Pushtun·dominated governments. Thus each paper had to print Pashto pages, regardless of public demand, because Pashto was a national language by Article 35 of the Constitution.

8. Even now the influence of Setem-i-Meli is shadowy, though its opponents both on the right and left credit it with strength among Tajiks, Uzbeks, Hazaras, and a real hold on northern regions.

9. L. Dupree, op. cit. (1971) AUFS, treats this in detail. 10. See Baqui Yousefzai, 'Kabul University students - a potential political

force?', in L. Dupree and Albert (eds) op. cit. (1974). 11. A cogent study of problems £acting Prime Ministers is also in R. Newell, The

Politics of Afghanistan (Cornell, USA, 1972). 12. Republic of Afghanistan; statements, messages and Press interviews, no. I,

p. 2. In spite of these harsh words, some continued to view it as a quarrel within the Mohammadzai family, rather than a new era. Daoud sent a large monthly allowance to Rome for the expenses of the exiled royal family - and a similar 'pension' had been agreed with ex-King Amanullah by his usurping cousins.

Notes 239

13. L. Dupree has much valuable information in AUFS 1979, no. 44, Leftist movements in Afghanistan.

14. Ibid., note 53. 15. Ibid., p. 10. 16. Language disputes played a large part in University politics, because of the

difficulties caused by foreign teachers' programmes - in English, German and French medium translated into Dari (often defectively) in the various faculties.

17. The Times, 27 July 1973.

CHAPTER5

1. A detailed account in L. Dupree, AUFS, 1980, The accidental coup, or Taraki in Blunderland.

2. An intimate account by an Afghan is in F. Missen, Le Syndrome de Kaboul - un Afghan racconte (Edisud, France, 1980).

3. A short information about the Peoples Democratic Party, Kabul1978. The synonomous term 'scientific socialism' was also avoided.

4. Die Zeit, 9 June 1978, cited in K-H Rudersdorf (1980) p. 47. 5. For an incisive treatment see L. Dupree, AUFS 1980, Part III. 6. Kabul Times, 3 October 1978. 7. Kabul Times, 27 February 1979. 8. L. Dupree, AUFS 1980, Part III. 9. One of the early moves of the Babrak Karma! government was to offer a

deal on this core point; 'land-holders possessing less than 5 acres of first-class land or the equivalent thereof are entitled to buy at just rates extra peices formerly belonging to them' (up to 15 acres). From Karmal's speech of 26 February 1980.

10. Lenin's view is quoted in preface to English edition of Mother (Moscow, 1974).

11. In MERIP report no. 89, July/ August 1980 (USA). 12. Kabul Times, 24 February 1979. 13. Kabul Times, 3 April 1979. 14. This travesty of the facts was presented even in the otherwise authoritative

essay in the Chatham House review for 1980 (RIIA). 15. B. Jazani, Capitalism and Revolution in Iran (1980) pp. 132-3. 16. Kabul Times, 18 and 27 March 1979. 17. Kabul Times, 20 March 1979.

CHAPTER 6

1. The Dubs shooting gave rise to many theories of responsibility other than that of parties directly involved. The most interesting is probably the theory which claims that the entire operation was a parchami plot, mounted so as to discredit and embarrass the Khalq government by rupturing its relations with the USA (see F. Missen, L'e Syndrome de Kaboul (Paris, 1980) pp.

240 Notes

154-74. The least likely, but certainly the most cynical, 'theory' is from the Soviet side, in radio broadcasts for Asia, which in a strident expose of CIA involvement in the Afghan civil war stated that Adolph Dubs' assassination was, 'also the work of CIA operatives. This crime was perpetrated for the sole purpose of placing the blame for the American Ambassador's death on the Taraki Government, and using this as an excuse to break off diplomatic relations with Afghanistan and cancel all agreements of economic aid to the country.' (Radio Peace and Progress, 23 February, 1980).

2. Eyewitness accounts told to me in March/ April 1979. 3. Karma! speech of 21 April 1980. 4. Da Saur Enqalab and Kabul Times, 5 April 1979. 5. Kabul Times, 9 April 1979. 6. Another Dari language competitor started up on 8 April VOA (Voice of

America), with half-hourly daily broadcasts at 11 p.m. Kabul time- joining Deutsche Welle, Soviet stations, China and other regional states.

7. Kabul Times, 4 April 1979. 8. As noted in the excellent set of reports by Salamat Ali for Far Eastern

Economic Review, Hong Kong. 9. The Czechs signed a further agreement on 9 April1979, for the expansion

of cooperation in TV film-making, linked to a wider cultural exchange. 10. Kabul Times, 3 May 1979 and Asiaweek, 17 November 1978. 11. Details gathered from Afghan political prisoners. Already in summer 1978

five men slept to a cell of 3 X 3 metres. See my article, 'Afghan Intelligentsia 1978-81', in Index on Censorship, no. 2, 1982.

12. Amnesty International report, September 1979 and October 1980. 13. See F. Missen, op. cit. (1980) pp. 96-7. 14. K-H. Rudersdorf, Afghanistan-eine SoU!J"etrepublik? (1980) pp. 68-75. Lists

of 'missing persons' supplied by Amin's ministry of the Interior in November 1979 provided only some of the answers. Many Afghans are convinced that at least 25,000 people were killed by the end of 1979. Three amnesties in 1979 were, contrary to official statements, not for political prisoners at all, but for common criminals, of whom about 3,000 were freed.

15. Extract from letter to BBC, dated Kabul, 12 December 1978 (translation by Andrew Goodson).

16. My article in the Round Table, July 1979. 17. The Taraki cult aroused hostility from within PDPA ranks too, expressed in

shabnamah ('nightletters'), pamphlets distributed covertly during curfew hours in summer 1979.

18. K-H. Rudersdorf, op. cit. (1980) p. 33. While the practice of nepotism, like corruption, seems to be endemic in many countries - developed and underdeveloped, socialist and capitalist -nepotism tends to be more prominent perhaps in states where power is held by rulers with a narrow base of political support; suffice it to point to Syria, where the embattled Ba'ath socialist party (representing the minority Alawi Shi'a sect) is dominated by the family of President Hafez al-Asad, his deputy being his own brother General Rifaat al-Asad.

Notes 241

CHAPTER 7

1. As reported in Asiaweek, 15 June 1979. 2. 'Voice of Nuristan', October 1979, quoted in 6 heures pour Afghanistan

(Paris, 1980). 3. Details of this atrocity circulated in the region, and refugees from Kerala

were interviewed on tape in summer 1979 by the Afghan nationalist Ghulam Zamarlwal, though the world press only became aware of it in February 1980, via the Christian Science Monitor.

4. From Chapter 2, p. 14 of booklet, Aims of Hizb-i-Islami (Peshawar). 5. The best short debunking of this attitude known to me is by Meredith

Townsend, '"Fanaticism" in the East', in Asia and Europe (1901) pp. 315-22.

6. For much of this information I am grateful to Nick Downie and Peter Jouvenal, who are experienced observers of the scene.

7. E.g., Gerard Chaliand, the guerrilla war specialist, in the New Statesman, December 1980.

8. Thanks to Ulf Andenaaf of Aften Posten, Norway. 9. D. Khalid, 'Afghanistan's struggle for national liberation', in Inter­

nationales Asienforum (West Germany, 1980) vol. 2, p. 206. 10. See further my article in Asian Affairs, October 1980. 11. F. Halliday, Arabia without Sultans (1974) p. 333. It is ironic to note that

Fred Halliday's more recent writings on Afghanistan tend to identify with the official line of Kabul, and therefore follow the blinkered view he himself had noted above- though there is much of interest in his articles in New Left Review, 1978 and 1980.

12. Le Monde, Mike Barry's article, 'L'Afghanistan crucifie', III, May 25/26, 1980.

13. Quoted from a statement by the Ittehad's leader Wali Baig, August 1979. 14. Information from Afghan nationalists and D. Khalid, op. cit. (1980). 15. D. Khalid, op. cit. (1980) p. 214. 16. In the Guardian, 29 July 1980.

CHAPTER 8

1. Confidential information in letters from Kabul, June 1979. 2. Afghan report compiled for International PEN (World Association of

writers), West German branch, dated June 1979. 3. Eyewitness account given to me by an Afghan resident of Kabul. 4. Confidential information. 5. From an English source working in Kabul at the time. 6. J. Erickson, in interviews broadcast 1980, and see Spectator, 26 January

1980. 7. Sunday Times, 6 July 1980.

242 Notes

CHAPTER9

1. N. Cumming-Bruce in MEED, 30 June 1978. 2. Le Monde, series in October 1978. 3. Statement from Moscow Narodny Bank, July 1980, quoted MEED, 1

August 1980. 4. Asiaweek, 16 May 1980. 5. J. Erikson, 'Soviet strategic emplacement', Asian Affairs, February 1981. 6. Boris Meissner, 'Soviet foreign policy and Afghanistan', in Aussenpolitik

(Hamburg, March 1980). 7. The Times, 21 January 1980. 8. The Times, 15 January 1980. 9. The Times, 20 May 1980.

10. Observer, 10 February 1980. 11. Tehran radio, 9 and 13 July 1980- SWB.

CHAPTER 10

1. Financial Times, 18 February 1980. 2. Le Monde, 1 March 1980. 3. Kabul New Times, 27 February 1980. 4. See further Nancy and Richard Newell, The Struggle for Afghanistan

(Cornell, 1981 ). 5. The Times, 13 June 1980. 6. The Times, 22 September 1980. 7. SWB, 12 September 1980. 8. The Economist, 15 August 1980. 9. The Times, November 1980.

10. Guardian, 10 October 1980. 11. New Statesman, 4 April 1980, updated by John Fullerton's article in the

Daz1y Telegraph, 29 October 1981. 12. The Sunday Times, 16 November 1980. 13. The Times, 9 January 1981. 14. The refugee problems have been studied in a series of newsletters by ARIN

(Afghan refugee information network), and a report by the International Disaster Institute, London, 1980.

15. Guardian, 19 November 1980. 16. Afghan information centre, Peshawar, special bulletin no. 1. May 1981.

Index Abdur Rahman Khan, Amir, 5, 24,

141 Afghan Doctors Society, 188, 207 Afghan Information Centre, 143 Afghan Mellat, 57-8, 63, 124 Afghan National Liberation Front,

132-4; see also S. Mujaddidi Afghanpur, Abdullah, 112 al-Afghani, Jamal ad-Din, 43 Agriculture, 9; see also land reforms Ahmadzai, General Shapur, 84 Ahmed, Feroz, 92 Aimak tribes, 140 Air Force, 151, 157 alliances of parties in Peshawar, 124,

185 Amani high school, 44 Amanullah, King, 24, 40-4, 51, 78 Amin, Abdul, 118 Amin, Asadullah, 119, 154 Amin, Hafizullah, 55, 62, 70, 76,

81, 92-4, 97-8, 101-2, 105fT, 110, 116-19, 128, 148, 152fT, 167ff, 176

Amin, M. Anwar, 124-5, 134 Amnesty International, 109, 142 Amu Darya (Oxus) river, 15, 28,

184 Andarab valley, 188 Anis, 90 Ariana Afghan Airlines, 193 Army, 27, 83, 94, aid, 29-30, 156;

losses, defections, 138, 147, 151-3, 168, 182, 198, 213fT

Aryan, Abdur Rashid, 190

BBC Radio Persian Service, 103-5, 110, 112

Babrakzai, Omar, 144-5 Bacha-i-Saqao (Habibullah Ghazi),

44, 141 Badakhshan, 59, 99, 122, 125, 137,

185, 209fT

Badakhsi, Taber, 55, 59 Badghis, 89, 104 Baes, Badruddin, 99 Baghlan, 89, 153, 210 Bagram airbase, 28, 76, 156, 179 Baig, Wali, 140 Baluch, 45, 67, 86, 135-6, 141 Bamiyan, 139 banking, 34 Baryalay, Mahmud, 81, 190 Basmachis, 121-22 Beheshti, Sayyid Ali, 140, 212 Bhutto, Z.A., 66, 67 Brezhnev, Leonid, 154-5 Britain: foreign policy, 25, 38, 40,

42-3, 103; aid, 29; wars, viii, 39-40

Bulgaria, 30, 107

CENTO (and Baghdad Pact), 29, 47 CIA, 60, 176 Caroe, Sir Olaf, 4 Carter, President, 170-1 Central Asia, 4, 39, 101, 121-2,

143, 163, 178, 184 Chaliand, Gerard, 185 Charikar, 70 Charkhi family, 44 China, 30, 49, 117, 125, 137-8,

165-6 civil service, 36-7, 78, 118, 180 Comecon, 108, 162, 163, 207-8 corruption, 36-7, 118-19 coups: 1973, 64-5; 1978, 75-8, 81,

83-4; 1979, 159, 164fT, 176 Cuba, 107, 162 Czechoslovakia, 29, 30, 82, 101,

104, 107' 159, 167-8, 202

Daoud Khan, M: political views, 26-7, 53; foreign policy, 27-31; as President, 64-6, 70, 77-8,

243

244 Index

79-80, 85, 89, 95, 113 Darra Adam Khel, 135-6 Dubs, Adolph, 99-100, 100n.1 (215) Dupree, Louis, 61, 87 Durand Line, 44-5, 220 Durrani Pushtuns, 4 Dzirkvelov, llya, 169

economy, 10-15, 19-20, 28, 30ff, 63, 71, 162-3, 199ff, 204-9

education, 18, 52, 70, 93-4, 181, 193

Egypt, 60, 71, 132, 148 Erickson, John, 159 exports, 11-13, 34-6

Faizabad, 33, 125, 185 Farah, 91, 104 Farand, M Y, 199 Farhad, Ghulam M, 57-9 Farhang, M Siddiq, 55, 194 flag, national, 101, 112 foreign aid, 27-31, 33-4; see also

unfkr individual states France, 30, 102, 162

Gahiz, 60 Gailani, Hasan, 145 Gailani, Sayyid Ahmad, 131-2, 145,

185 Gandhi, Indira, 173, 189, 191, 216 Gardez, 70, 151 gas and petroleum, 34, 162-63, 200,

208 Germany, 29, 41, 44-5; West, 30,

69, 101, 108, 162, 189, 193; East, 107-8, 193, 201, 215

Ghazni, 130, 133, 139, 184 Ghilzai Pushtuns, 95 Ghobar, Mir Ghulam, 26, 42 Gorki, Maxim, 92 Gulabzoi, S.M., 154-5, 190 Gulf states, 134, 136, 165, 174, 219

Habibullah, Amir, 24 Halliday, Fred, 138-9, 139n.11(217) Harakat-i-lnqilab-i-Islami, 133, 145,

185, 211 Hazarajat, 122, 125, 139-40

Hazaras, 8-9, 15, 21, 69, 95, 115-16, 134, 139-41, 148ff, 211-2

Hekmatyar, Gulbuddin, 67, 122, 127ff, 130

Herat, 6, 39, 70, 89, 100-1, 104, 178-9, 184, 215

Heywad, 69 Hilmand province, 89 Hilmand river, 28, 49, 100 Hizb-i-Islami: Hekmatyar, 127ff,

143, 145, 211, 219; Yunis Khalis, 122, 133, 211, 217

Housego, David, 178

Imports, 35 -·6 India, 24, 30, 71, 189, 216 industry, 19-20, 25, 35, 162-3, 203 lnqilab, 86 intelligentsia, 23-4, 37, 43, 49, 51,

57, 69-71, 111, 189 Iran, 24-5, 38, 41, 49-50, 102-3,

134-5, 140, 150, 163, 173, 189, 211, 220

Islam, 17-19, 130, 133; see also Sufism, muslim fundamentalists

Islamic Conferences, 172, 174

Jalalabad, 67, 70, 151, 155 Jama'at-i-Islami of Pakistan, 60, 134 Jamiat-i-Islami, 124-5, 134, 210 Japan, 35 Jazani, Bizhan, 95 Jowzjan, 210-11

KGB, 60-1, 159 Kabul, 20, 23-4, 61, 66-7, 71, 105,

112ff, 133, 149-50, 158, 177, 179ff, 206

Kabul Times, the, 79-80 Kabul New Times, the, 180, 204 Kakar, Hasan, 29, 54 Kalakani, Majid, 141-2, 158 Kamrany, Nake, 28, 31 Kandahar, 6, 70, 151, 178, 184, 198,

213 Karmal, Babrak, 55-7, 62, 66, 81,

84-5, 101, 114, 142, 154, 165, 176ff, 190-1, 194, 202ff; see also

Index 245

Appendix C Kerala massacre 1979, 126-7 Keshtmand, Sultan Ali, 55, 84, 116,

178, 190, 205-6 Khalis, Yunis, 122, 133 Khalq: newspaper, 57, 85; party, 64,

66, 70, 75, 82ff, 92-5, 114ff, 127, 156ff, 168, 190-1

Khomeini, Ayatollah, 140-1 Khorram, Ahmad Ali, 71 Khushal Khan school, 191 Khyber, Mir Akbar, 58, 75, 81 Khyber Pass, 39 Kunar, 69, 124ff, 151, 207, 212 Kunduz, 15, 70, 89, 122, 181, 209ff Kuwait, 71

Laghman, 68 land reforms, 65-6, 86-92, 215n.9;

see also Appendix D Lavrentsyev, A., 138 Lawrence, T.E., 43 Layek, Suleiman, 55, 58, 192 Lenin, V., 41, 61, 82, 92, 97, 112,

122 Levi, Peter, 23 Libya, 71 Literacy, 93-4 Logar, 133, 187, 212 Loyajirgas, 70, 79, 144-5

Mahmudi, Dr Abdur Rahman, 26, 59

Maimana, 33, 210 Maiwandwal, M Hashim, 57-8,

62-3, 65 Majruh, Dr Bahauddin, 143 marriage, 88, 116 Marxism, 54-5, 57-9, 61, 82, 92,

97, 116, 128 Massoud, Ahmed Shah, 198, 211 Maudoodi, maulana, 60 Mazar-i-Sharif, 70 Mazdooryar, Lt-Col. Sherjan, 154-5 medical services, 14, 188, 207 Meshed, 102 militia, 101-2, 148 Misaq, Abdul Karim, 55, 97, 116 Mohammad, Faiz, 67, 191-2

Mohammadi, M Nabi, 133, 145, 185 Mohmands (Pushtuns), 191 Mongolia, 183, 190 Moussa Shafiq, 49 Muhsini, Shaikh, 135 Mujaddidi family, 60 Mujaddidi, Sibghatullah, 131-2,

145, 185, 211 mujahidin, 135ff, 151, 197ff, 210-13 mullahs, 17-18, 61, 96, 124, 145,

183 Musahiban family, 24, 32, 44, 79,

95, 142, 214n.12 Musawat newspaper, 58, 62 muslim fundamentalists: growth,

60-1, 67, 71; as exile parties, 122-4, 127-30

Nadir Shah, King M, 24, 44, 77, 79, 105

Nairn, M, 27, 77, 79 Najibullah, Dr, 215 Naqshbandi order, 60; see also sufism National Fatherland Front, 191, 194,

199, 204 National Islamic Front (NIFA), 132;

see also Gailani, S.A. Niazi, M, 60 Nimroz, 89, 133 Ningrahar, 68, 69, 95, 126, 133 Nomads, 96 non-aligned Conferences, 71 non-alignment, 25, 47, 161 Noorani, A, 216 Nur, Nur Ahmad, 55, 81, 190 Nuristan, 5, 69, 124-5, 148

Olympic Games boycott, 1980, 171 opium, 14, 35-6

PDPA, 54-5, 58, 75-6, 81-2, 84, 189-90, 200-4; see also Khalq, Parcham

Paghman, 198-9 Pakhtya, 36, 68, 95, 126, 157 Pakistan: relations, 29, 31, 35,

45-8, 63, 67-9, 71, 86, 103, 158; resistance, 136-8, 173-4; refugees, 126, 188-9, 218-20

246 Index

Panjsher valley, 187-8, 198, 211 Panjsher, Dastigir, 55, 154, 190 Paputin, V., 169 Parcham: newspaper, 58, 61; party,

63-4, 66, 70, 81-5, 155, 190-1 parliaments, 25-6, 53-5, 62 Parwan, 69 Pavlovsky, Marshall, 159 Pazhwak, A, 218 Peshawar, 38-9, 67, 111, 122ff, 144,

218 Police, 108, 192, 215 Poullada, Leon, 42 Press, 26, 57-61, 66, 85-6, 201-2 Press Law, 1965, 57 Progressive Democrats, 63 Pukhtunwali code, 6, 128, 192 Pul-i-Charkhi: barracks, 76, 153;

prison, 108-11, 158, 180 Pul-i-Khumri, 19, 153 purdah, 51, 128 purges, 78, 81-4, 102, 109-11,

llln.14(216), 118, 149, 156, 158, 177

Pushtunistan (Pakhtunistan) issue, 27, 45-8, 68, 158, 191, 220

Pushtuns, 4-8, 15, 20-2, 43, 128, 214 ch. 4, n.4

Puzanov, A., 106, 157

Qader, Col. Abdul, 76, 81, 83 Qadiriya order, 17, 131 Qizilbash, 10, 150 Quetta, 39, 69, 139-40

Rabbani, Burhanuddin, 67, 123ff, 130

radio, 68-9, 77-81, 85, 90, 103-4, 103n.6 (216), 110, 169-70, 210

Rafi, Lt-Col. M, 84, 190-1 Ratebzad, Dr Anahita, 55, 81,

190-1 Rawlinson, Sir Henry, 5-6 Red Cross, International, 188 refugees, 126, 158, 186-9 Rishkor, 76, 157 roads, 14, 15, 33, 184 rural society, 9-15, 36, 86-92,

95-7, 191-2

SAMA, 141~2 SAVAK, 50 Safrontchuk, V., 106 Sarwari, Assadullah, 108, 154, 178,

190 Saudi Arabia, 71, 134, 136 Sayaf, Professor, 185, 217 Sazman-i-Nasr, 211-12 secret police (AGSA; KAM;

KHAD), 52, 108, 154, 157, 177-8,200,214

Setem-i-Meli, 59, 99, 125 shabnamah (night letters), 66, 179;

see also Appendix C Shafie, Bariq, 57, 61 Shah Mahmud, 26, 79 Shariat Madari, Ayatollah, 102 Shariati, Dr Ali, 116 Shi'as, 8-9, 116, 211, 220 Shindand airbase, 100 Shu'la-i-Jawed, 59, 125, 141 smuggling, 35-6, 126 Soviet Union: aid, trade, 28-30, 34,

105-9, 161ff, 207-9; Central Asia, 15, 69; policies, 15, 25, 28, 41, 46, 64, 71, 84-5, 145, 152, 155, 159, 165ff, 187, 199ff, 209; Russian influences, viii, 38

Spain,J., 6 Steele, J., 199 sufism, 17-18, 131ff Suleiman Khel (Pushtuns), 95

TV, 107 Tajiks, 8-9, 15, 21, 58-9, 95,

122-4, 141ff, 209 Takhar, 89, 209 Talun, Major, 76, 120, 155 Taraki, Nur M., 54-7, 75, 81,

85-7, 92, 95, 102, 106ff, 153-5; personality cult, 113-14, 116-17, 117n.17 (216), 128, 157

Tarzi, Mahmud, 24, 41 Thapar, Karan, 182 Turcomans, 121, 141, 209 Turkey, 24, 27, 29, 42

UNHCR, 189 USA: aid, 28-30; relations, 75-6,

Index 247

99-100, 100n.1 (215 ch.6), 105, 168, 171-2, 174

United National Front, 141 United Nations, 26, 30, 94, 103-4,

164-5, 216ff University of Kabul, 16, 26, 57, 62,

67, 92, 181, 193 urban development, 20-1 Uzbeks, 8-9, 15, 21, 121, 141-2,

209

Vietnam, 152, 166 Viratelle, Gerard, 161

Wakhan, 125, 185 W ali, General Abdul, 63-4 Wali, Dr 'shah, 55, 119

Wardak, 93, 148 Watanjar, M Aslam, 76, 81, 154-5,

190 Wikh-i-Zalmayan, 26 Woollacott, Martin, 144

Yepishev, General, 102 Yousuf, Dr M., 53 Yugoslavia, 71, 170, 172

Zabul, 133 Zadran (Pushtuns), 192 Zahir Shah, King M., 27, 53, 62-4,

69, 79, 90, 95, 113, 117, 132-3, 186, 218

Zeary, Dr Saleh M., 55, 96, 190 Zia ul-Haq, General, 137, 173-4