AP U.S. Government and Politics NotesI. ConstitutionA. Enlightenment philosophers influenced framersi. Thomas Hobbes: protect life through absolute monarchy (Leviathan)ii. John Locke: governments must protect life, liberty, and property (Second Treatise on Civil Government)iii. Charles de Montesquieu: separation of power into three branches of government (De lEspirit des Lois)iv. Jean Jacques Rousseau: government should be freely formed with a social contractB. Articles of Confederation (followed 1776-1781)i. Won Revolutionary War and negotiated the treaty that ended it (the Treaty of Paris)ii. Passed Northwest Ordinanceiii. Established federalismiv. Weaknesses1. Shays Rebellion2. Federal government could not draft soldiers, tax citizens, control interstate trade, or collect import or export taxes3. No Supreme Court or executive branch4. No national currency5. Legislation required approval of nine states6. Amendment of Articles of Confederation required unanimityC. Constitutional Convention (1787)i. Virginia Plan, New Jersey Plan, Connecticut Compromise1. Bicameral legislatureii. Three-fifths Compromiseiii. Executive and Judicial branches establishediv. Federalists: supported new Constitution1. Federalist Papers: newspaper articles passed by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jaya. Federalist No. 10: advocates for large republic because factions are natural but controllable through institutionsv. Anti-Federalists: Did not support ratification of Constitution, demanded Bill of RightsD. Federalismi. The national and local governments share powers1. Supremacy clause2. Evolution from dual to cooperative federalismii. Powers that belong exclusively to the federal government (delegated, expressed, or enumerated)1. Examples: printing money, regulating interstate and international trade, making treaties and conducting foreign policy, declaring wariii. Powers that belong exclusively to the states (reserved powers)1. Examples; issuing licenses, regulation of intrastate businesses, running and paying for federal elections2. Obligations: full faith and credit clause, privileges and immunities clause, extraditioniv. Powers shared by federal and state governments (concurrent powers)1. Examples: collecting taxes, building roads, operating courts of law, borrowing moneyv. Powers denied to government1. Federal government does not have the power to:a. Pass ex post facto (retroactive) laws or issue bills of attainder (which declare an individual guilty of a capital offense without a trial)b. Impose export taxesc. Grant titles of nobilityd. Suspend the writ of habeas corpuse. Use money from the treasury without the passage and approval of an appropriations bill2. The state governments do not have the power to:a. Pass ex post facto laws or issue bills of attainderb. Impose import or export dutiesc. Grant titles of nobilityd. Enter into treaties with foreign countriese. Declare warf. Maintain a standing armyg. Print moneyvi. States Rightists favor block grantsvii. Nationalists favor categorical grants (Head Start, Medicaid, the Food Stamp Program)viii. Advantages of Federalism1. Mass participation2. Regional autonomy3. Government at many levels: politicians are more in touch with the public4. Innovative methods: states can experiment with policiesix. Disadvantages of Federalism1. Lack of consistency2. Inefficiency3. Bureaucracy: too uncondensedE. Separation of Powers (Montesquieu)i. Legislative branch makes the laws; executive branch enforces the laws; judicial branch interprets the lawsii. Checks and Balances1. Nomination of federal judges, cabinet officials, and ambassadorsa. Majority of Senate present and voting and a quorum present2. Negotiation of treatiesa. President negotiates but two-thirds of the Senate must approve of it3. Enactment of Legislationa. The president can veto bill, but Congress can override it with a two-thirds majority in both housesiii. Amendment Process1. Proposal Methodsa. Proposed amendment wins 2/3 majority in both House and Senate (used for all 27 amendments)b. A constitutional convention is called by 2/3 of state legislatures2. Ratification Methodsa. of all state legislatures approve of the amendmentb. of special state ratifying conventions approve of the amendment (used for twenty-first amendment)F. Amendmentsi. Bill of Rights (December 15, 1791)1. First Amendmenta. Freedom of religion (free exercise clause, establishment clause)b. Freedom of speech and freedom of the pressc. Freedom of assembly and freedom to petition the government2. Second Amendment: protects citizens right to bear arms3. Third Amendment: forbids the quartering of soldiers and the direct public support of armed forcesa. Part of implied right to privacy, Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)4. Fourth Amendment: protects against unreasonable searches and seizuresa. Exclusionary rule5. Fifth Amendment: provides for grand jury, prohibits double jeopardy, requires just compensation in eminent domain, prohibits self-incriminationa. Due process clause6. Sixth Amendmenta. Speedy public trial, impartial juryb. Habeas corpus, right to confront witnesses, to have subpoena witnesses and a lawyer7. Seventh Amendment: trial by jury in common-law cases8. Eighth Amendment: prohibits excessive bail and cruel and unusual punishment9. Ninth Amendment: the peoples rights10. Tenth Amendment: reserved powersii. Early Amendments (1795-1804)1. Eleventh Amendment (1795):2. Twelfth Amendmentiii. Civil War Amendments (1865-1870)iv. Progressive Era Amendments (1913-1920)v. Later Amendments (1933-1992)G. Informal Amendmentsi. Changes in custom or interpretation of the Constitutionii. Achieved by legislation, presidential action, Supreme Court decisions, political party actions, and changes in customH. The Unwritten Constitutioni. Traditions deeply ingrained in government but not enumerated in the constitutionii. Judicial reviewiii. Political parties and political conventionsiv. The CabinetI. State and Local Governmentsi. Most state governments are structured after the federal governmentii. All states have a governor1. Command state National Guard and may grant pardons and reprieves2. Most have the power to appoint state judges with the advice and consent of a legislative body3. Many governors may use a line-item vetoiii. All states have bicameral legislatures modeled after the House of Representatives and the Senate except Nebraska, which has a unicameral legislature1. Power to override the gubernatorial vetoiv. All states have state judiciaries to interpret state law1. Both trial and appeals courtsII. Public Opinion and the MediaA. Characteristics of Public Opinioni. Saliency (importance to the people)ii. Intensityiii. StabilityB. Polls Measure Public Opinioni. Random samplingii. Exit polls1. Target voting districts that collectively represent the voting publiciii. Public opinion polls1. Questions are usually closed-ended and objectively phrased.iv. Accuracy measured by sampling errorv. Harris and Gallop polls most well-knownC. Where does Public Opinion Come From?i. Political Socialization1. Informal political socialization strongerii. Familyiii. Locationiv. Schoolv. Religious institutionsvi. Mass mediavii. Higher educationviii. Real-life experiencesD. Political Ideologiesi. Conservativeii. Liberaliii. Moderateiv. Americans have fewer main ideological groups and more readily vote outside of their self-professed political beliefs1. In primaries, presidential candidates must appeal to the more ideological party members, while in the general elections they must move towards the political center.E. Determining Factors in Ideological and Political Behaviori. Race/ethnicityii. Religioniii. Genderiv. Income levelv. ReligionF. Public Opinion and the Mass Mediai. The news media exposes Americans to politicians and the government1. Sets a public agenda (policy agenda?)ii. Social media has become an important tool for grassroots political movements1. Shape and indicate public opinion, mostly within the younger demographicsG. Are the News Media Biased?i. Most news organizations attempt to represent both sides of every story, but there is usually biasii. Need to immediately appeal to audienceiii. The sources that reporters use for their information may be politically biasediv. Reporters are generally more skeptical about the motives of politicians than the average American1. This may have contributed to the decline in public confidence in the government as the news media have grown more prominent.III. Political Parties, Interest Groups, PACs, and 527 groupsA. Political Partiesi. Characteristics1. Parties serve as intermediaries between people and the government2. Parties are made up of grassroots members, activist members, and leadership3. Parties are organized to raise money, present positions on policy, and get their candidates elected to office4. Parties were created outside of the Constitution they are not even mentioned in the document but were developed in the 1790s5. Since 1960, some states require parties to select candidates through state-run primary elections6. Not hierarchical: national, state, counties, and local committees are separatea. National party plans the national conventions held every four years to nominate a presidential candidate, sponsors public opinion polls, and manages issue-oriented advertising and propagandaii. Bipartisan (two-party) system reinforced by the electoral system1. Winner-takes-all system in most states2. Majority vote required to win the presidency3. The electoral count usually does not accurately reflect the popular voteiii. Third Parties1. Splinter (bolter) parties2. Doctrinal parties3. Single-issue partiesiv. Independent candidates1. Run without party affiliationB. Functions of Modern Political Partiesi. Subdivisions of political parties:1. The party among the electorate (voters identify with political parties and vote along party lines)2. The party in government (officials of one political party usually work together)3. The party organization (political professionals recruit, organize, and raise money)ii. Recruit and nominate candidatesiii. Educate and mobilize votersiv. Provide campaign funds and supportv. Organize government activityvi. Provide balance through opposition of two parties1. Minority party performs the role of loyal oppositionvii. Reduce conflict and tension in societyC. Are Parties in Decline?i. Increasing split-ticket voting rates1. Encourages party dealignmentii. More divided government1. Can create policy gridlock2. Can encourage bipartisan, moderate public policyiii. Modern candidates can appeal directly to the public through television, without party supportD. Party Coalitionsi. Parties are combinations of groups in a coalition1. 2004 and 2008 Republican coalition:a. Disaffected conservative Blue Dog Democratsb. Veterans groupsc. Relitious conservativesd. Pro-liferse. Opponents of gay rightsf. Missile-defense supportersg. Opponents of affirmative actionh. Cuban Americansi. Supporters of the development of natural resources on public lands2. 2004 and 2008 Democratic coalition:a. Disaffected moderate Republicansb. Pro-choicersc. African Americansd. labor unionse. Gay rights supportersf. Intellectualsg. People with lower incomesh. City dwellersi. Non-Cuban Latinosj. Feministsk. Jewish peoplel. Environmentalists3. Generally, the east and west coasts and the upper Midwest are more Democratic, while the South and lower Midwest are more RepublicanE. Ideological Differences Between the Partiesi. Both tend to be centristii. Party bases: conservatives in the Republican Party (economically liberal, socially conservative) and liberals in the Democratic Partyiii. Democrats:1. Less disposed to spend on defense2. Less disposed to use vouchers, or other public funds, to let students attend private schools3. More disposed to spend money to advance social-welfare programs4. More disposed to use government money for public education5. More disposed to spend money on government-run health programs6. More disposed to grant relief to targeted groups such as the lower and middle classes7. Against private ownership of assault weapons and for broader regulations on the ownership of firearmsiv. Party Realignment1. Occurs when the coalitions making up the two parties fall apart2. Signaled by critical election3. 1932: the Democratic party became the majority party with the New Deal coalition4. Dealignment: not voting anymore for a specific partyF. Interest Groups and Lobbyistsi. Organizations dedicated to a particular political goal or set of goalsii. Economic groupsiii. Public interest groupsiv. Government interest groups1. Of state and local governments, foreign governmentsv. How interest groups influence government1. Direct lobbying2. Testifying before congress3. Socializing4. Political donations5. Endorsements6. Court action (litigation, amicus curiae briefs)7. Ralying their membership8. Propagandavi. Limits on lobbying1. 1946 Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act2. Limit appearance of influence peddling: using personal friendships and inside information to get political advantagea. "revolving door"3. Buckley v. Valeo: upheld federal limits on campaign contribuons and ruled that donating money to influence elections is a form of constitutionally protected free speech4. Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission: Corporations have a First Amendment right to expressly support political candidates for Congress and the White House (struck down restrictions that had prevented corporations from spending company money directly on campaign advertising right before an electionvii. Political Action Committees (PACs and Super PACs)1. 1974 Federal Election Campaign Act2. Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (McCain-Feingold Act)