AP Euro Total Review

7/27/2019 AP Euro Total Review

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The Renaissance

The Southern Renaissance (1450-1550)

The northern Italian city states became wealthy from being middlemen of overseas trade. Florence dominated European banking. Their textile industry was strong. The Black Plague: people began to lose faith in the Church and began to appreciate life more and

live in the "now."

Political

Republicanism in Italy had no support because it was still restrictive. These movements failed andeither one ruler or oligarchies (the rule of merchant aristocracies) ruled Italy.

People in each city-state were very loyal to their own state, so unification was hindered. Venice, Milan,Florence, the Papal States, and Naples were the most powerful. Milan was ruled harshly by the Sforza family; Florence by the Medici banking family. When one city got too powerful, the others used the balance of power against them. Their lack of unity and huge wealth made them vulnerable to invasion. Charles VIII of France invaded Italy. Pope Leo X called the Spanish and Germans to defend Italy.

These were the Habsburg-Valois Wars (in which gunpowder was used), fought in Italy. TheItalian states suffered greatly especially after the sack of Rome by forces under HRE Charles V.

Cultural

Savonarola attacked the materialism and corruption of Florence. Petrarch was the father of humanism and attacked the Dark Ages. Pico Della Mirandola (Oration on the Dignity of Man) promoted humanism. Individualism and secularism. People connected with Greco-Roman culture. Lorenzo Valla: textual criticism; proved the forgery of the Donation of Constantine. Writers: Boccaccio (The Decameron which justified the enjoyment of wealth), Dante (Divine

Comedy; vernacular)

Church leaders were also worldly. They beautified Rome and were patrons of the arts. People were anti-Scholastic but they were still faithful to the basics of religion. Leonardo da Vinci (the Renaissance man), Raphael, Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, and Michelangelo

(David, St. Peters Basilica, Sistine Chapel)

Art- realism: mirroring reality rather than religious symbols; perspective; invented oil painting. There was a big preoccupation over education and moral behavior CastiglionesBook of the

Courtier, Machiavellis The Prince.

Gutenberg invented the movable type. Clocks were invented. Advancements in shipbuilding. The status of upper-class women declined. They had less political power and had less impact on

society. Before, men were supposed to make themselves pleasing to women. Now, shown by theCourtier, women were to make themselves pleasing to men. Double standards arose.

Upper-class girls received education similar to the boys , but mostly in domestic subjects. Laura Cereta was very educated prodigy but marriage was a hindrance. She was widowed and

spent her life in study, but she was heavily attacked by men who felt threatened.

Ordinary, lower-class women were not very affected. They still did tasks similar to men. Very littleeducation was available to them, so they couldnt advance their social status.

Rape was no longer considered a serious crime because it only slightly damaged a mans property. In Renaissance society, blacks and women were signs of wealth and used for display.


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The Northern Renaissance

Italian trade spread ideas and inventions to the rest of Europe. Focused more on reason, science, and technology. Created many schools of higher learning.

Political

Strong, centralized monarchy developed from Renaissance political philosophy. Rulers wereMachiavellian. Louis XI of France, Henry VII of England, and Ferdinand of Aragon werecalled new monarchs, ruling with a strong sense of authority and purpose. They ruthlessly

suppressed rebellion and emphasized their sovereignty.

France:o The Hundred Years War left France weak, but Charles VII (Valois) revived the monarch and

the country. He taxed on salt and land (taille); the main source of state income.o The Pragmatic Sanction of the Bourges; French crown over French church.o Greater control of the church and army consolidated the monarchys power. o His son, Louis XI, laid the foundations for French royal absolutism.o Francis I of France signed the Concordat of Bologna with Pope Leo X which said the

Pope could now get payments but the French king was still allowed to choose bishops.o Nationalism began to develop after Hundred Years War.

England:o The aristocracy dominated the govt. Population was in decline. The Houses of York and

Lancaster were in the War of the Roses. The monarchy was weak.o Henry VII rebuilt the monarchy, encouraged industry and trade. He created peace, a richer

country, and built the dignity of the monarchy.o Renaissance under Elizabeth I, intense nationalism.

Spain:o Reconquista expelling Muslims and Jews from the south. Focused heavily on religion.o They drove out the Moriscos; excellent farmers and craftsmen, hurting their economy.o Inquisition- a court that tried heretics.o Isabella and Ferdinand strengthened the monarchy.o 1550-1650 was Spains Golden Age. There was little nationalism.

Germany before the Reformation was very diverse, progressive, and prosperous.Cultural

They were more Christian; less focused on Greco-Roman paganism. They wanted broad social reform based on Christian ideals; wanted more morality. Reason over dogma; rejected Scholasticism, society can be improved through education. Thomas More deeply Christian, moral. Wrote Utopia; humans are naturally good but are

corrupted by society. Therefore, we need to reform society.

Erasmus Prince of Humanism.Praise of Folly; criticized worldliness, encouraged faith andgradual reform.Handbook of a Christian Knight; taught practical Christian behavior. Rabelais- French writer (Gargantua and Pantagruel)and Montaignes essays: gradual reform. Mysticism: Thomas a Kempis, the individual alone can communicate with God. Gradual reform. Copernicus and Nicholas of Cusas heliocentric theory. Low Countries: Jan van Eck, Albrecht Durer (4 Horsemen of Apocalypse), Rembrandt, Bosch England: Francis Bacon, Edmund Spenser, William Shakespeare. Spain: Cervantes (Don Quixote)


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The Protestant Reformation (1517-1648)

Started in Northern Europe because:o It focused more on reason, science, and technology during the Renaissance.o It was more far away from Rome, which housed the power and influence of the Church.o It used the Renaissance concept of individualism and applied it to religion by mysticism.

Causes of the Protestant Reformation:o The clergy was verycorrupt: worldliness, indulgences, absenteeism, and pluralism.o Impact ofhumanism, which contradicted the Churchs emphasis on salvation.o Declining prestige of the papacy from the Babylonian Captivity and Great Schismo Dissident theologians like Wycliffe and Hus who preached against parts of the Church.o Resentment ofsecular kingsover the Churchs power.o Resistance to Charles V(HRE)s power. (Protestantism for the German princes)o Invention of theprinting press, allowing dissenters to spread their ideas and making the

Bible available to the common people.

France never tried to turn Protestant because the French king controlled the Gallican church. Pope Boniface VIII issued the Unam Sanctam; every human was subject to Roman Cath. rule. When he died, Philip IV elected a pope at Avignon. Rome elects a 2nd pope at Rome. There was a

third elected at Pisa. This begins the Babylonian Captivity.

The Churchs prestige declines. People sought other ways for salvation. Dissident theologians likeWycliffe and Hus preached against the Church.

At the Council of Constance, the 3 popes are forced to resign. This is the Conciliar Movement. Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses.

o Salvation by faith alone. Good works are not necessary.o The Bible is the ultimate authority, not the Pope.o Only God gives absolution of sins. (No indulgences, pilgrimages, saints, etc.)o Baptism and Communion are the only 2 sacraments. (The Church had 7).o Consubstantiation- bread and wine are only somehow part of Christ.o Priesthood of all believers. The clergy is not superior to the laity. Marriage is permitted.o The Church is subordinate to the state. (This appealed to monarchs and German princes).

Luther is excommunicated by the Diet of Worms. German Prince takes him to safety. The Peasants Rebellion occurs in Germany, demanding the abolishment of manorialism. It

was the 1st major rebellion rallying over economic egalitarianism. Luther condemns them.

League of Schmalkalden formed by Protestant Princes; defense against the emperor. France allied with the League even though France was Catholic because of political interests

France wanted a weak HRE.

The League goes to war with the Emperor. This results in the Peace of Augsburg (1555), whichgave princes the right to choose the religion for their people. (Protestant or Catholic)

Protestantism also spread to Switzerland (and Finland) by Ulrich Zwingli; Denmark and Norway. Protestantism did not change the role of women, nor did Catholicism. Witchcraft. The Reformation in Germany:

o Protestantism was a wayfor the princes to reject the HREs authority.o The French foreign policy was to keep the HRE weak and divided so the Catholic king of

France supported the Protestant princes of Germany.


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o Finally, in 1555, Charles V signed the Peace of Augsburg.o Most of North Germany became Lutheran, while the South remained Catholic.

The English Reformation:o Henry VIII was afraid that civil war like the War of the Roses would break out if he didnt

have a male heir. He wanted divorce from Catherine of Aragon, but the pope refused becauseCatherine was related to Charles V of HRE.

o Parliament passed theAct of Supremacy, which made Henry VIII head of the Church.o Elizabeth I established the Elizabethan Settlement, where the Puritans cooperate with the

Church of England and Catholicism is banished. This was a middle path between the Catholicand Puritan extremes. Elizabeth made England Protestant.

Protestantism in France:o The monarchy grew weak and divided. When King Henry II died, there was a civil war.o Calvinism spread quickly. Queen Catherine de Medici, mother of Henry II decided to kill

Huguenots at St. Bartholomews Day Massacre. Coligny was a Huguenot.o TheWar of the Three Henrys started; fought between Henry III (successor), Henry duke

of Guise (led the Catholics), and Henry Bourbon (led the Huguenots). Bourbon won,converted to become king, and gave freedom to the Huguenots by the Edict of Nantes.

oPolitiquesdecided that religion wasnt worth fighting over. Bourbon was a politique.

o Another Politique was Jean Bodin, the developer of the modern theory of sovereignty. By 1555 most of N. Europe had broken with the Catholic Church. Calvinism:

o Started by John Calvin in Switzerland. He wrote On the institutes of Christian Religion,telling people to take a stand if theyre dissatisfied with the church.

o Bread and wine is just symbolic of Christ.o Predestination (shown by material wealth, which helped justify capitalism)o Church over state. They wanted to Christianize the state.o Calvinists were calledpuritans in England andHuguenots in France. John Knox brought

Calvinism to Scotland, wherePresbyterianism became the religion.

Results of the Protestant Reformation:o The unity of Western Christianity was shattered. Religious wars broke out for over a century.o The Protestant value of individualism encouraged democracy, science, and capitalism.

The Counter Reformation

The Council of Trent met to reform Catholicism and its abuses and to unify it. It declared:o Justification to be by both works and faith.o The seven sacraments and transubstantiationo The state of the priesthood being above the laityo Confession and absolutiono The validity of church services (not just the Bible)o Individuals could not interpret the Bible, which was to be only in Latin.o Celibacy of the clergy and monasticism upheld.

The Jesuits of Ignatius Loyola swore to oppress Protestantism. They used the Inquisition andestablished schools for indoctrination. They sent missionaries to far places to convert people.

The Index of Prohibited Books was instituted to keep out heretic literature. Protestantism at this time was still weak and not powerful compared to Catholicism. Baroque art tried to bring glory back to Catholicism through evoking intense emotion/sensation,

since most were illiterate. (incl. Rubens, Gentileschi, Rembrandt, Vermeer, Bach, Handel) The Rococo art which followed counteracted that, with elegance, pleasantness, and frivolity.


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The Wars of Catholic Spain: The Netherlands and England

Philip II was an oppressive king of Spain. The Spanish Habsburgs split with the Austrian. Heruled the Iberian Peninsula, Milan, all of America, Portuguese empires, and the Netherlands.

The Netherlands began revolting. Protestantism took root here very early. They didnt want theSpanish Inquisition in their territory because it would crush the liberty of their provinces.

Philip still sent the Inquisition. This united many in opposition, including William of Orange. They began destroying churches. The Spanish again tortured, burned, and hanged. Queen Elizabeth aided the Netherlands. She was also dealing with Mary Queen of Scots. The Spanish wanted to invade England through the Netherlands and make Mary the queen, re-

Catholicizing England. Thus, the security of Elizabethan England depended on the Netherlands.

The northern provinces of the Netherlands declared their independence from Spain by the Unionof Utrecht, calling themselves the Dutch Republic, or Holland.

William of Orange tried to clear the Spanish out from all of the Netherlands. When Spain came closer to a port by which they could attack England, Elizabeth declared war. England universally hated Spain and resentment against Mary Stuart. Philip thought the only way to reconquer the Netherlands was through England. He therefore

invaded England, but was badly defeated. Its armada never reached the English Channel. The Netherlands was still partitioned; the North became the Dutch (Protestant); the South, the

Spanish Netherlands (Catholic).

With a ruined Spanish armada, the Netherlands and England could openly sail. Amsterdambecame the financial center of N. Europe. Spains decline began.

The Thirty Years War

Religion in the HRE was divided. Germany had lost much of its glory. The Protestant states formed a union and looked to the French, English, and Dutch. The Catholic

states formed a union and looked to Spain. The states also wanted independence from the HRE.

Bohemian Phase: Bohemians were mostly Calvinist. They feared religious oppression from theirCatholic king, Matthias, so they defenestrated him. They made Calvinist Frederick V of thePalatinate their king. But Matthiass successor, Ferdinand II, became HRE and King of Bohemia.Supported by the Spanish, he defeated the Bohemian Calvinists.

Danish Phase: King Christian IV of Denmark, a Protestant, was defeated by the HRE. The HREimperial army, led by Wallenstein, scored great victories. HRE issued Edict of Restitution,

which took away Protestant lands. Wallenstein disagreed, HRE dismissed him.

Swedish Phase: Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus, a very strong leader and a Lutheran, enteredthe war to help the oppressed Protestants. Richelieu supported Adolphus, hoping to weaken theHRE. Adolphus won, but died.

French-International Phase: Richelieu declared war on Spain, assisted the Swedes, and theFrench and Swedes destroyed German agriculture and commerce. The war was over.

The Treaty of Westphalia (1684):o Peace of Augsburg reinstated with Calvinism added; Edict of Restitution revoked.o Switzerland and Holland were made independent from Hapsburgs.o France, Sweden, and Brandenburg (future Prussia) received lands.o German princes were made sovereign rulers, limiting the HRE and Habsburgs power.

National unification was thus delayed.

Germany was devastated. The age of religious wars ended; balance of power emerged. BothHabsburgs were weakened. Counter Reformations slowed. The HRE ceased to be a viable politicalstructure. Calvinism was accepted, Anabaptists were persecuted.


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Status of Women:

The husband protects the family and rules it. The wife should be subservient and faithful. Both had to have fidelity. The household was a womans first priority and she shouldnt be

distracted from it.

If a woman suffered under her husband, it was punishment from Eve. Catholics: marriage is a sacred union. Protestants: marriage is a contract, supporting each other. As shown by art, there was a great value for the human body. Sensual age.

The Growth of European Nation-States (1500s and 1600s)

England:

When Elizabeth died, the crown went to James I, Mary Stuarts son. Parliament disliked him andhis son, Charles I, who both believed in the divine right of kings and absolutism. Robert Filmer.

They both wanted England to be Catholic. Puritans opposed this. James alienated the Puritans,unlike Elizabeth, and threatened to exile them.

Parliament refused to give either of them funds. They feared the Common Law was in danger. Parliament was made up mostly of large property owners supported by merchants. It was secular

and strong in its organization and in the social interests and wealth it represented.

In 1629 Charles I attempted to rule without Parliament. He antagonized the English landlords,supported the Church of England and made enemies with Puritans. He also tried to modernizethe navy with funds raised without parliamentary consent (ship money), alarming landowners,

who didnt want to pay for policies they opposed.

They wouldnt give funds until he signed the Petition of Rightin 1628: Parliament alone leviestaxes; no martial law in peacetime; soldiers cant be quartered in private homes; habeas corpus.

The Parliament refused to give Charles I money to suppress the Scottish rebellion. Charles dissolved the parliament, called a new one, but the same members were elected back.

Charles left the parliament alone without elections for 20 years, called the Long Parliament,

who ruled that Parliament must be assembled 3x a year. In 1642 Charles tried to dissolve Parliament and they went to war. The kings army lost. During the war, Parliament asked for Scottish support by promising Presbyterianism to be the

official religion for the 3 kingdoms.

Parliament won with the efficient New Model Army, led by Oliver Cromwell, a devout Puritan. Cromwell became extremely powerful. He and the Rump Parliament had Charles I executed for

treason.

Cromwell ruled the entire British Isles, now called the Commonwealth. He had to subdue Ireland and Scotland by force, starting the Irish Question. He passed the Navigation Act of 1651 which barred Dutch ships from carrying goods to

England for other countries, attacking Dutch maritime supremacy.

As a regicide and a Puritan, he could not turn to the loyalists or former leaders of the AnglicanChurch. He also couldnt agree with Parliament, so he abolished it and tried to govern as LordProtector through representative bodies under a written constitution. Cromwell eventually putEngland under military rule and dictatorship, prohibiting theaters and popular entertainment.His rule was called the Interregnum.

Dissatisfaction caused new religions groups: Levellers (wanted more equality in propertyownership), Diggers (desired a communal society), and Quakers (preached toleration and peace)

Later, Charles II, son of Charles I, became king of England and Scotland the Restoration.


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The Church of England no longer tolerated other religious groups. Parliament passed the TestAct, banning non-Anglicans from holding offices.

The Cavalier Parliament Tories (non-religious toleration, majority) and Whigs. The Whig Parliament enacted the Habeas Corpus act, limiting royal power.

The Glorious Revolution (1688)

James II was extremely unpopular and openly Catholic. In 1688, nobles invited William ofOrange and Mary to take the English throne. James fled and the new monarchs accepted theDeclaration of Rights, the Habeas Corpus Act, the Petition of Right, and the English Constitution.

Declaration of Rights:o Only parliament can levy taxeso Laws can only be made with consent of Parliamento A standing army can be maintained only with consent of Parliamento People have the right to petition, bear arms, due process, trial by peers, reasonable bailo Parliament has the right of free speecho Parliament is freely elected and dissolved only by its own consent.

TheAct of Settlement of 1701, ruled that no Catholic could be king of England, but excludingthe descendants of James II, who were later called Pretenders

In the centuries that followed, monarchs reigned while Parliament ruled. William created the Bank of England and built up good credit.

French Absolutism:

Louis XIV (the Sun King) was advised by Cardinal Mazarin, who helped Louiss power during theWars of the Fronde (1650), by which the nobles (Frondeurs) tried to limit the monarch. Thechaos of the Fronde made people turn to a strong monarchy.

Mazarin died and Louis declared himself independent and an absolutist monarch. Bishop Bossuet justified this through the divine right theory. Jean Baptiste Colbert, the Father of French Mercantilism, revitalized trade as Louiss financeminister by abolishing internal tariffs and creating a free-trade zone. He stimulated industry

through subsidies and building up the military. He also hoped to build a large fleet so France beself-sufficient can get overseas colonies France could not afford both a powerful army and navy; itopted for the army, thus allowing Britain to gain global supremacy.

France developed Europes first modern army. Louis was constantly at war.o The War of the Devolution (1667) Unsuccessful attempt to seize the Spanish Netherlands;

blocked by the Triple Alliance (Dutch, English, and Swedes); Treaty of Nimwegen.o Invasion of the Dutch Rhineland (1672) Unsuccessful.o Seizure of Luxembourg and attempt to take Alsace-Lorraine (1681) most of Louiss

ambitions were thwarted by the League of Augsburg (Holland, Spain, HRE, England)o War of Spanish Succession (1702) Threatened the balance of power by trying to take the

Spanish throne. The Grand Alliance (England, Holland, Austria) prevented this. Treaty of Utrecht (1713) restored balance of power; no one Bourbon can have both thrones. The war caused poverty and depopulation in France. There were famines and tax increases,

provoking peasant uprisings. They stopped trying to get Belgium and didnt recognize the Stuartas king. They gave the American NW to the British. They only kept Alsace and Franche-Comt.

But France became the strongest nation on the continent; French became an intl language. He revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Catholicism mandatory. Louiss wars were expensive. The bourgeois and peasantry had to pay all the taxes.


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But the central govt was efficient, the nobles were weak, tax collection was systematized, thebourgeois was given more power, and the economy was successful.

Absolutism in Eastern Europe:

The E. Europe empires were in decline: HRE, Poland, and Ottoman. They were huge in territory but weak in central authority. They had vast diversity. E. Europe generally had no middle class, fewer towns, and was much weaker. It was primarily

agrarian, built on huge estates, and worked on by serfs.

Poland:o It elected a king, so a candidate had to make deals to be popular. Consequently, he ended up

with no power, no army, and no money. The nobility paid no taxes.o The diet could pass laws only with unanimous agreement (unlikely), and any member can

shut it down.o Because of its weakness, Poland eventually disappeared off the map in the 1750-1800s

because it was partitioned by Austria, Prussia, and Russia three times.o Poland ceased to exist til Napoleon reestablished it in 1800s as the Grand Duchy of Warsaw.

As the old 3 empires declined, Austria, Prussia, and Russia gained power. Absolutism in Russia:

o Ivan the Terrible autocrat who limited the power of the nobles (boyars), expanded Russia,and solidified the role of the tsar.

o When he died, Russia fell into a Time of Troubles civil war due to the lack of an heir. TheRomanov dynasty was established in 1613. They reinstituted serfdom and gained control overthe Orthodox Church.

o Peter the Great Built a powerful standing army and educated people in the Western ways.He imposed economic and social restrictions on the peasants to increase his power. Russia

became a major European power during his rule.o Fought the Great Northern War (1709) against Sweden for his window to the West at St.

Petersburg at the Baltic coastal areas. War ended by the Treaty of Nystadt.

Absolutism in Austria:o Apart from the HRE, the Austrian Habsburgs had their own empire in Austria, made of

Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary. It was loose and not unified.o A major problem was the vast array of ethnic groups (Germans, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, etc.)o Charles VI of Austria became the Habsburg emperor. He had no male heirs, so he spent much

of his reign making deals with other countries to sign the Pragmatic Sanction, by whichthey agreed to accept Maria Teresa as ruler of all Austrian land.

Absolutism inPrussia:o Prussia was ruled by the Hohenzollern family, split into Brandenburg and Prussia. They were

united under Brandenburg when the Prussian branch died.o The powerful Prussian landed aristocracy, the Junkers, accepted rule only if they had serfs.o The HRE was weak after the Thirty Years War, so the Hohenzollerns ascended in power.o Frederick William solidified absolutist rule over Brandenburg with a strong army and

efficient govt. He weakened the nobles and suppressed the peasants.o His son Frederickused the War of Spanish Succession to gain more authority.

Age of Exploration (1400-1600)

Spurred by God, glory, and gold; helped by the magnetic compass, the astrolabe, and better ships. Henry the Navigator Portuguese, explored the South Atlantic.


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Diaz, Vasco de Gama Portuguese, explored the coast of Africa and eventually India. Columbus Spanish, discovered the New World Ferdinand Magellan Spanish, circumnavigated the globe Cortez (a conquistador) conquered the Aztecs ; Pizarro conquered the Incas Gold flowed from the New World to the Spanish and to the Netherlands.

The Columbian Exchange brought European manufactured goods and alcohol to Africa and theAmericas; brought lumber, fur, gold, sugar, potatoes, and corn to Europe.

In 1545, large amounts of silver were discovered in the New World. Spain used this to finance theCounter-Reformation, but it also caused inflation in other places.

The Treaty of Tordesillas of 1492 divided the world between Spain and Portugal. Spain gotmost of the New World while Portugal got Brazil and other areas.

Large plantations called encomiendas were established, operating with Indian slave labor./the Dutch wars/

Englands Navigation Act in 1651 goods imported into England must be transported on Englishships or ships belonging to the country sending the goods. This caused a war with the Dutch.

The Dutch were again in a war with France in 1667 during the War of Spanish Succession becausethey didnt want Louis XIV to gain the Spanish Netherlands. The Dutch would then no longer be a power. The Spanish Netherlands went to Austria. The British gained the most form the War of Spanish Succession:

o Power in the Mediterranean through the Gibraltaro They united with Scotlando The asiento (allowed them to provide African slaves to the Spanish Americas)

France and Great Britain became the 2 powers in Europe.The 18th Century: Expansion of Europe

Food production increased dramatically with nitrogen-fixing plants and enclosure. This, morefood from the New World and a disappearance of the plague led to a huge population growth.

Mercantilism competition over coloniesSeven Years War(Fr. vs. GB)o France lost its N. American colonies; the N. American colonies grew more independent.

Mercantilism was discredited by Adam Smith.The Scientific Revolution

Caused by Renaissance individualism: the tendency to question and rebel against traditions. Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton used inductive reasoning and skepticism against the

theories of Aristotle and Ptolemy.

Rationalism human reason could uncover natural laws of the universe; Deism/secularism Thinkers were no longer swayed by superstition, miracles, or blind acceptance. Francis Bacon advocated inductive reasoning/scientific method. Rene Descartes Discourse on Method, if something is real, it must be proven. Existence is

proven by thought I think, therefore I am. Cartesian Dualism the universe is dividedbetween the spiritual and the material; the former is subject to deductive reasoning. Tried toreconcile religion and science.

Copernicus rejected Ptolemys geocentric theory with his heliocentric theory. Kepler calculated the elliptical orbits of the planets ; Tycho Brache 20 yrs observation


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Galileo used telescope to validate Copernicuss heliocentric theory; condemned by Inquisitionbecause the heliocentric view contradicted the primacy of humanity in Gods creation. He was

supported in Protestant N. Europe, where the Reformation had questioned all orthodoxy.

Isaac Newton gravity accounted for the movement of planets. These universal laws wereunchangeable so God was not actively participating.

Development of probability and calculus; Leeuwenhoek - microscope Vesalius anatomy; Harvey blood circulation; Jenner smallpox vaccination was huge. Still, medicine was very crude. (no anesthesia, belief in superstition, no knowledge of germs) The Royal Society in England (1662) and the Royal Academy of Science in France (1666) were

established. Women were generally excluded, but some female scientists worked on their own.

Science benefited navigation/sailing, the military, and by the early 1700s the steam engine wasbeginning to be developed.

Lockestabula rasahumans are influence by what theyre taught. He rejected the Churchs ideaof original sin. It was possible to make society better through education.

The concept ofnatural lawwas developed some things were inherently right or wrong. Naturalism humans were at the mercy of chance. Marked the end of theAge of Religion and the beginning of 18th centuryAge of Reason.

The Enlightenment

Newton convinced European thinkers that human reason could uncover the natural laws. Thephilosophes argued that society can be discovered in the same way and progress was inevitable.

They flooded Europe with radically optimistic ideas about how people should live and govern. These ideas destroyed the old order and built the democratic, humanistic Western World. Lockes concepts ofconsent of the governed, the social contract, and the right of revolution

spearheaded the philosophes criticism of the ancien regime.

The Philosophes:o Voltaire personified the Age of Reason. He preached against injustice and bigotry and

advocated human rights and science. He cried against rigid religion, govt abuse, andmedievalism. He visited Frederick the Great of Prussia; advocated Deism. Not democratic.

o Rousseau developed the idea of a noble savage: that civilization corrupted mankind andthat nature was better. He hated the uneven class structure of the ancien regime. Individualsshould tear away society and achieve self-determination, which fueled the Fr. Rev. Headvocated the general will, that a consensus of the majority should rule a nation. Hedistrusted civilization; in hisEmile, he wrote that children should be treated as individualsand with care. This helped change education & child-rearing practices of the 18 th C.

o Montesquieu believed the powers of govt should be separated; checks and balances.o Diderot published the philosophes ideas in hisEncyclopedia, a collection of political and

social critiques.o Francois Quesnayled thephysiocrats who embraced laissez-faireo Adam Smith expanded the laissez-faire philosophy in his Wealth of Nations, which defined

capitalism; the economy is controlled by the natural laws of supply and demand.

Literacy greatly expanded. The middle class was growing and getting more educated. Salons. Free Masons began in England; promoted faith in progress and toleration.


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Feminist ideas emerged for the first time. Women like Mary Wollstonecraft and Madame Geoffrin(salon) made it clear that women could do what men could mentally. Women graduated frommany European universities for the first time, and intellectuals discussed the idea of femaleequality. Enlightenment values of natural/just laws made people reexamine gender roles.

This also made people question how they treated slaves. England outlawed slavery in all theirland, with France and Great Britain following suit. Religious intolerance was also reduced.

In opposition, pietismdeveloped; emphasized inner experience; emotion > reason. Faded.John Wesleys Great Awakening Strict religious revival; Methodists.

Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia were considered philosophes. Joseph ofAustria was the ultimate philosophe.

Enlightened Despotism

An enlightened despot tries to improve society with education, helping the economy, andpromoting social justice.

Voltaire and most of the philosophers believed self-govt was impossible, so enlightened despotsstayed in power while promoting the good of their people.

Enlightened Despotism held most sway in the East. Prussia

o Frederick II(Frederick the Great) was the first servant of the state. He made Prussia amajor power in Europe, supported Voltaire, improved education, codified laws, fosteredindustry, invited immigration, and extended religious toleration to all except Jews.

o He improved agriculture by giving peasants tools and seeds.o He encouraged manufacturing in textiles and metals. He abolished serfdom on his own

property but didnt for the country.o 2 years after Fredericks death, Napoleons army easily conquered Prussia.

Austriao Maria Teresa inherited a weakened Hapsburg Dynasty, but she strengthened it by centralizing

the govt, limiting the nobles, and promoting commerce by limiting monopolies.

o Joseph II furthered these reforms by guaranteeing freedom of the press and of religion,reforming the judicial system, equalizing taxation, making German the official language, andabolishing serfdom.

o He promoted education and supported hospitals, which began Viennas reputation as thecenter of medicine.

o He tried to force his reforms on everyone which alienated many. The peasants disliked thelack of religion. Joseph died, and most of his reforms were repealed.

o His successor, Leopold, ignored the pleas of his sister Marie Antoinette during the Rev. Hisson, Francis II, was not as smart and soon Austria was at war with France.

Russiao Catherine tried to codify many of the laws. She tried to introduce some religious toleration

and restriction of the use of torture, but this was ended by Pugachevs Rebellion in 1773.

The Agricultural Revolution

In the 1700s in England, farmers began planting nitrogen-fixing crops. The introduction of thepotato from N. America was extremely helpful as it could be stored through the winter.

Fertilizer was used and there were better animal breeding practices. England and the Continent had common land, on which peasants could pick berries or graze

their animals. England first enclosed this land by Parliamentary degree.


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This allowed more land to be cultivated by the skilled farmers, and landless peasants now had towork as laborers on the large farmers, work at home in the cottage system, or move to cities.

This thus developed the workforce needed for factory jobs in the Industrial Revolution. Also, England produced better so they had a surplus, meaning more money to be invested in

manufacturing.

On the Continent, most farming was subsistence. In the East, the serfs didnt own their land sothey were less incentivized to increase production.

Mid-18th Century Wars

In the 18th century, soldiers were sometimes mercenaries and had little patriotism except in Eng. Frederick II became King of Prussia in 1740. Despite the Pragmatic Sanction, he invaded Silesia,

the most prosperous part of the Austrian empire. Plus it would double Prussias population.

Other countries also disregarded the Pragmatic Sanction and joined Prussia. Only the Dutch andEnglish supported Austria.

After bloody battles, Maria Teresa gave Silesia to Prussia by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle. Still, Austria was wary of Prussias growing power and still wanted Silesia back. 8 years later, in

1756, another war began. All nations switched sides. France and England fought each other in America, called the French and Indian War. GB won. The successful American Revolution made people believe enlightenment values were possible. Furthermore, the French supported the Americans, but the French were already almost bankrupt.

Change of the Family:

Most people did not marry young in the 1600s or 1700s; an average age of 27 or later, mostlybecause couples couldnt marry until they could support themselves financially. The peasant son

needed to inherit land while the peasant daughter had to accumulate a dowry.

For women, service in the household was the most common job. Daughters were often sent to be aservant for a few years. They had little independence and were preyed on by masters.

During the 1700s-1800s, there was an explosion of illegitimate children. Women married late but began bearing children rapidly, like 6+ children. Infant mortality was

high. Many children never learned to read.

Young children were of little concern to parents in the 1700s, especially since they might die.Medical care was not used on them. They were neglected and even abused with changingattitudes.

This practice came under criticism in 1750-, led by RousseausEmile. Children were given morefreedom. Parents loved their children. Came from enlightenment ideals about human potential.

Education also grew more important. Schools separated by age. Catholic vs. Protestant promoted popular literacy by pushing reading as a form of teaching more

efficiently. There was a remarkable growth in literacy.

The French Revolution

In 1789, France had a productive economy and a dominant culture. It was the center of theEnlightenment. But the govt was corrupt, inefficient, and in debt. The class structure was unjust.

With Louis XV, the nobility begin gaining a lot of power. Through parlements, they often blockedtaxes. Taxation was also a broken system.

The 3rd Estate, mainly the peasants, had many harsh taxes, like the taille (land tax), tithe, incometax, poll tax, head tax, salt tax, etc. The 1st and 2nd were tax-exempt.


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There wasnt serfdom, but the noble of a manor had much control. They had the right ofeminentproperty; lesser owners could buy and sell land but had to pay the noble to do so.

The growing bourgeoisie also had little power. They became dissatisfied. They had land, so theywere affected by the heavy land taxes, but were upset that they had hardly any influence in thissystem.

*The Revolution was so bourgeois could revolutionize property so that manorial fees, eminentproperty rights, and church tithes would be abolished.* The Revolution defined the institution ofprivate property and therefore most benefited the bourgeoisie.

Louis 16ths finance managers wanted to put an equal land tax (instead of the taille) on the nobilityand churches. However, this threatened the social hierarchy.

The Parlement of Paris declared that new taxes can only be approved by the Estates General.Louis 16th then called the Estates General.

Many people cried for the abolishment of the Estate system because it was unfair. However, theParlement ruled that the system would stay.

The nobles were okay with the taxes, but they wanted power in return. The 3rd Estate did not wantto be governed by nobles. They wanted Enlightened/American Revolutionary rule.

Abbe Sieyes wrote What is the Third Estate? promoting Third Estate rights. The Estates submitted a grievance list, called cahiers, which showed a desire for a constitutional

monarchy. People wanted freedom, better economic conditions, and free trade.

When the Estates General met, the 3rd Estate stormed out and declared itself the NationalAssembly. They wrote the Tennis Court Oath by which they swore to make a constitution.

At this time economic conditions were very bad. Wheat production was down. People werestealing and mobbing. A mob in Paris stormed the Bastille to get weapons to defend themselves.

Louis XVI accepted the National Assembly. The National Assembly abolished feudalism, manorialism, eminent property, and tax privileges. They wrote the Declaration of Rights of Man in 1789, which stated:

o Rule of law, equal citizenship, and sovereignty of the peopleo Freedom of thought and religion.o No one can be arrested except by process of lawo Equality of law for all citizens.o Taxes could be raised only with common consent.o The state could confiscate property, but only with fair compensation.o The separation of govt power into branches

The Great Fear spread through rural areas as peasants rose up against the nobility & feudalism. TheWomens March on Versailles forced the king to live in Tuileries in Paris. The National

Assembly also moved there, where it was influenced by radicalism.

Seeing this happen, even the more conservative revolutionaries emigrated. The Chapelier Lawbanned unions and strikes. The Jacobin club formed. There was a fee to join so most members were bourgeoisie. The National Assembly created an elected Legislative Assembly and gave the king executive

power. The govt decentralized the country in reaction to the old regime.

The royal family tried to flee in the Flight to Varennes and raise a counterrevolutionary army.They were stopped and made prisoners. Louis was forced to accept a constitutional monarchy.

A new French identity was born, with a new flag, clothing, monuments, and art. Economic policies favored the middle rather than the lower classes. Frances debt was mostly

owed to the bourgeois. To pay it and fund the govt, the Assembly took away all church properties.

To maintain the churches after taking away its income, the Civil Constitution of the Clergywas enacted, which abolished convents and monasteries, made all clergymen get salary from the


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state, and forbade the clergy from obeying the pope. This alienated many priests. The Popecondemned the revolution. French priests split over this issue.

The new regime took power in 1791 as a constitutional monarchy with a unicameral LegislativeAssembly.

Poland, Hungarian landlords, and Belgium praised the revolution or even rebelled themselves. Conservative Edmund Burke condemned it in his Reflections on the Revolution in France.

Swedish king Gustavus III and Catherine the Great also condemned it. migrs called for a waragainst France.

Leopold of Austria (Marie Antoinettes brother) and the King of Prussia and made a Declarationof Pillnitz (1791), which said that if Leopold took military steps to restore order in France, allother powers would join him. This was mainly done so Leopold could rid himself of the migrs.

It was an empty threat, but the French took it seriously. This gave an advantage to the Girondinswho declared that the Revolution couldnt be secure in France unless it was spread. They

encouraged war.

The Assembly declared war on Austria. Prussia joined Austria and made the Brunswick Manifesto, which said that if the king and

queen of France were harmed at all, Prussia would attack.

A wave of patriotism swept the countryLa Marseillaise Jacobin leaders like Danton, Marat, and Robespierre turned against the king because he was

associated with the countries that were fighting France.

The working class of Paris imprisoned the king. hysteria and terror took place in Paris. Theyexecuted counterrevolutionaries in the September Massacres.

A revolutionary govt was set up. It ended the constitutional monarchy and Legislative assemblyand set up a Constitutional Convention. France was proclaimed a republic, the first.

The Terror

The National Conventions army stopped the Prussian advance. The French soon occupied theAustrian Netherlands, angering the British and the Dutch. The two began working with Prussia and Austria, and the French declared war on them all. The French annexed Belgium and much of the German Rhineland. Meanwhile, Russia and Prussia took the 2nd Partition, excluding Austria, making them anxious. Britain and Holland had no land force, and Austria was now jealous of Prussia, so the Coalition

didnt really exert force against France.

The Jacobins split and a new group emerged, the radical Mountain. They worked outside of theConvention and called themselves the sans-culottes, representing workmen.

The Convention voted to execute Louis XVI. The ones who voted against it were the Girondins,the counterrevolutionaries. The Mountain now led the way.

The Coalition pushed France out of Belgium and threatened to invade. In France, prices rose, currency fell, food became rarer, and the working class grew restless. The enrags (radical working-class leaders of Paris) arrested Girondins in the National

Convention. Robespierre became the leader of the Convention.

Robespierre created the Committee of Public Safetyand launched the Reign of Terror. It wasa political police that attacked counterrevolutionaries.

It passed the levee en masse, calling all people to rally for France. The Committee of Public Safety proclaimed the Republic of Virtue, which was an attempt to

de-Christianize France. It alienated the Catholic majority of France.

In June 1794, the French set up a republic in Belgium.


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Both Danton and Robespierre were executed by the National Convention when public opinionturned against them.

The Thermidorian Reaction

The Terror subsided. The Convention reduced the Committee of Public Safety and closed theJacobin club.

Price regulations were removed and the working class suffered. The poor felt betrayed. The bourgeois were triumphant. They were still determined to establish a constitutional govt.

The Directory

Men could vote for electors, who then chose members of the new bicameral legislature. The National Assembly chose the executive branch, called the Directory. When a Paris mob tried threatened it, Napoleon Bonaparte put down the riot and was rewarded

the command of the French armies fighting the Austrians in Italy.

Women played a major role in the Revolution with the Womens March on Versailles. Women started to participate in political clubs and womens rights became a topic of discussion.

Condorcet promoted womens rights. His ideaswere supported by Mary Wollstonecraft. ; Olympe deGouges

The National Assembly had declared marriage a civil contract and legalized divorce. Women receivedthe right of equal inheritance of property.

The Assembly also restricted womens rights of petitionand closed all womens political clubs./results/

Feudalism and privileges of the nobles were completely gone. The Church lost much power.

Napoleon Bonaparte

In Italy, Napoleon drove out the Austrians and set up the Cisalpine Republic. France was supposed to have elections in 1797, but the candidates were all royalists who favored a

return of Louis XVIs brother and wanted peace with Austria and England.

The Directory turned to Napoleon, who sent military protection and cancelled the elections. France signed the Treaty of Campo Formio with Austria, keeping both Belgium and Italy. The Directory repudiated the assignats and govt debt, creating more financial chaos. Napoleon returned from Italy and invaded the British through Egypt. He was defeated, but

Napoleon still went back to France and with the help of Sieyes, seized control. Called the coup ofBrumaire, Napoleon became First Consul.

Things he did:o Created peace, but installed a secret police and censorship. Increased propaganda.o Signed a Concordat with the papacy, acknowledging France as Catholic.o The Concordat made the pope give up seized church lands, so the French peasants that

received those lands were now loyal to the govt.o Kept the metric system, awarded people based on ability, & no more tax exemptions.o Established the Napoleonic Code, declaring people equal in the law; freedom of religiono Took away all the gains that women got during the Rev; no more property rights.


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o Lowered the taxes on farmers, gave them church land. This created an independentpeasantrythat would be the backbone of French democracy.

The great artist Jacques Louis David painted Napoleon Crossing the Alps, and more.Wars:

He reinstated slavery in the French colonies (Haiti) and gave up Louisiana. Napoleon lost to England in the Battle of Trafalgar (1805). He won against Austria and Russia at the Battle ofAusterlitz (1805). He dissolved the HRE and created the Confederation of the Rhine after defeating Aus; Prus

o At first, the Germans welcomed the efficiency and unity. Alexander of Russia took back his armies, leaving Prussia alone to face Napoleon. Prussia suffered

a huge defeat at the Battles of Jena and Auerstadt.

Napoleon created Poland as the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. He signed the Treaty of Tilsit (1807)a nonaggression pact, with Russia. In the Treaty of Pressburg, he allied with Austria. Continental System:

o Napoleon was left without a navy, since it was destroyed at Trafalgar. He could not invadeEngland, so he tried to destroy it economicallyBerlin Decrees.o This required that all French allies boycott British goods.

In Spain, Napoleon tried to put his brother Joseph on the throne. This resulted in thePeninsular War. This was a drain on France.

Everywhere Napoleon conquered, he gave them: the metric system, abolition of the manorialsystem, restriction of religious authority, end to internal tariffs, and more efficient taxation.

But as time passed, France was increasingly resented as nationalism grew, especially in theGerman states.

Alexander objected to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and dropped out of the Continental System. Napoleon, furious, invaded Russia. He lost terribly at the Battle of Borodino. Napoleon rushed back and formed another army. Prussia and Russia allied and the British supported them. They defeated Napoleon at the Battle

of Leipzig (1813). Napoleon abdicated, and was exiled to Elba.

Louis XVIII was put back as a constitutional monarch. All conquered lands were given up. Buteverything else (Code Napoleon, concordat, abolition of feudalism) was kept.

Napoleon came back from Elba, raised a new army, but was finally defeated atWaterloo by theDuke of Wellington.

The Congress of Vienna

Metternich (Austria), Castlereagh (England), Alexander I (Russia), Prince Hardenberg (Prussia),and Talleyrand (France).

The rule of legitimacyreturning the rightful rulers back on their thrones. The *balance ofpower*, and peace.

The Peace Settlement:o France was surrounded by strong states to keep them from expanding:o Newly united Holland and Belgium called the Kingdom of the Netherlandso A Prussian satellite area on the Rhineo Austrian buffer states in Northern Italyo Poland was created as Congress Poland (Alexander was actually king)o (The HRE was not reestablished)


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The Concert of Europe (Quadruple Alliance) was signed by Russia, Prussia, Austria, andEngland on March 1814,

Alexander created the Holy Alliance, signed by Austria and Prussia; not England. Conservative. Its aim was to keep the status quo established by the Congress of Vienna, upholding territorial

boundaries, and protecting the monarchies from things like republicanism.

Created a long-lasting balance of power.Commercial Revolution

The inflation from silver from the New World created an inflation-stimulated production,because craftsmen, merchants, and manufacturers could get good prices for their products.

The middle class acquired much wealth by trading and manufacturing, increasing their power. Peasant farmers benefited when they had a surplus of goods cash crops. The nobility suffered a diminishing standard of living in an inflationary economy.

Capitalism and Mercantilism:

Capital was money for investment. The bourgeoisie, with more money than needed, used moneyto invest. This created prosperity, advanced science and technology, and supported the growth ofthe nation-state.

Mercantilism:o Prevailed in the 17th century because it was a way for monarchs to consolidate their authority.o Favorable balance of tradeo Colonies supply raw materials to the mother countryo Important industries were subsidized by the stateo The goal: economic self-sufficiency

Overseas colonization (Old Imperialism) was encouraged by mercantilism. 16th century power: Spain, Portugal. 17th century power: Dutch, French, English. The English had the most powerful colonial empire because many of English citizens were willing

to settle in the colonies and because many of them became powerful independent states.

The Industrial Revolution (1780-1830)

Machines, powered from coal/fossil fuels now did work rather than muscles, water, or wind.England:

Agricultural revolution increased yields dramatically. Enclosure Movement:

o Large landowners grew rich. They invested in technology (machines, breeding, betterplanting). Production soared.

o More productionmore peoplemore cities.o Small farmers moved to cities and became factory workers (industrial proletariat).

Technology:o Large-scale production in coal and textiles.o England had a fuel crisis because it depleted its forests and had no more wood. They had coal,

but it was bad for the environment.o The steam engine (Newcomen...Watt) was used and was much more efficient. Textiles.o Flying shuttle, spinning jenny, water frame, power loom, steam engine, steamship, railroad

engine, etc.


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Results of the Industrial Revolution:

Increased production and more manufactured goods material prosperity; more jobs. Factory workers lived in poverty in tenements with long hours and little wages. The Saddler Commissionand Robert Peels Factory Act helped improve conditions.

Effects on Class and Gender:

2 new classes developed: capitalists and factory workers. It wasnt until the 1850s that the standard of living improves for the average worker. Child labor laws were enacted. A gender divide emerged: men became the breadwinners; women stayed at home. Jobs available to women were low-pay. Attempts of workers to organize were thwarted. Jeremy Bentham utilitarianism caused cities to initiate public health movements and

improve urban life.

The standard of living improved from 1850s-1920s.

Disparities between classes led to political radicalism. The lesser opportunities for women led to a womens rights movement: the first wave feminism,

which wanted equality in opportunity, legal rights, and voting.

Economic Theories:

Adam Smith first economic theorist; classical liberalism; laissez-faire Thomas Malthus poverty existed b/c population increases exponentially; food, arithmetically. David Ricardo iron law of wages; when wages are high, families grow, more workers, wages

go back down, starvation. Thus, keep wages at a subsistence level.

Robert Owen Utopian socialist; humane working conditions, shorter hours, free education, etc. St. Simon Utopian socialist; advocated public ownership of property, planned economy.

Theories of Marx:

Hegelian dialectic thesis antithesis synthesis thesis, and so on. Dialectical materialism history progresses from agrarian communalism, to slaveholding, to

feudalism, to commercialism, to capitalism, to socialism, and finally Communism (a class-lesssociety in which workers own the means of production)

Inevitable Revolution when capitalists keep lowering wages to gain profits that theproletariat cant afford to buy products (surplus-value theory). The proletariat will rebel and

will establish a dictatorship of the proletariat.

1859 DarwinsOrigin of Species evolution; Nobel- dynamite; Morse telegraph.Reforms:

The early 1800s brought some reforms, many of them initiated by the Tories. (The Whigs workedmore for electoral reform.

Prime Minister Robert Peel preferred free trade. He ended the Navigation Acts and tariffs.Catholics received equal civil rights. Parliament reduced the number of crimes punishable bydeath and established professional police forces (Bobbies).

In 1833, Parliament abolished slavery.


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In 1842, by the Mines Act,women, girls, and boys under 10 were forbidden to work in mines. In 1847, the Ten Hours Act limited workers to 10-hr shifts. The Poor Laws tried to put all citizens to work, making relief more horrible than working. The

poorhouses established were horrendous.

Industrialism of the Continent:

Belgium becomes independent in 1831 and industrialized massively. It had a lot of coal. France, though more prosperous, industrialized more slowly. It had less coal for iron. The

Chapelier Laws forbidding unions remained in place until 1846.

In Germany, industry slowly emerged, especially in the Ruhr Basin, which was rich in coal andiron ore. The Zollverein of Friedrich List produced a free-trade union.

In E. and S. Europe, (Spain, S. Italy, Russia), there was little development.The Growth of Democracy

Democracy in England:

After the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, Parliament represented the wealthy aristocrats. The Corn Laws of 1815 raised prices when Europe was war-torn because the importation of

foreign grain was prohibited, helping the landowners who ran Parliament.

This led to the Peterloo Massacres. The govt responded by passing the Six Acts; censorship,restricted rights, higher taxes.

Corn Laws were repealed in 1846 by Tory PM Robert Peel in response to the Irish potato famine. By the 1820s, though, the Tories reformed by restructuring the penal code, providing a modern

police force, allowing labor unions, and granting Catholics rights.

By 1830, many boroughs that no longer existed still had representation, while new growingindustrial towns did not have any.

The Great Reform Bill (1832) abolished the rotten boroughs and empowered the industrialmiddle class.

The Chartist Movementwanted universal manhood suffrage, secret ballot, one man, onevote, and public education. It failed in its time but its goals were eventually incorporated.

In 1848, on the Continent, the working class exploded with discontent, but in England, theproletariat was able to trust the govts to make gradual reforms.

In 1866, Whig PMWilliam Gladstone tried to expand the voting base but failed. A new govt under Tory PM Benjamin Disraeli enacted the Second Reform Bill (1867),

which doubled the size of the eligible voters, many of whom were industrial workers.

Gladstone returned to power and enacted sweeping reforms.o Legalized labor unions, secret ballot, free public education.o Third Reform Bill (1885) largely granted universal manhood suffrage.

In the 10 years before WWI, Britain laid the foundations for its welfare state.o Unions could strike.o Insurance was given to those injured on the job, unemployment insurance, old-age pensiono Compulsory school attendance law.

Democracy in France:

During theAge of Metternich (period of reaction after Congress of Vienna 1815 until the 1848Revolutions), France was ruled by Bourbon reactionaries who loosened the constitution.


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Louis XVIII had a constitution but only gave power to landowners and bourgeois. Absolutism showed with his successor, Charles X, who passed the July Ordinances (censorship,

less freedom, less voting) which led to rioting in 1830. Charles X abdicated. His successor, Louis Phillippe, became the bourgeois king by agreeing to

the Constitution of 1814. He empowered the bourgeois but not the proletariat.

Corruption in his rule led to protests. He abdicated in Feb. 1848. A republic was proclaimed; violence occurred. A Legislative Assembly with a strong presidentwas estd, both to be elected by universal male

suffrage.

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte became president of the Second Republic. He was dedicated to law and order, eradication of socialism, and interests of the conservative

classes (property owners, Church, business).

With plotting, he won the next election and in 1852 proclaimed himselfEmperor Napoleon IIIof the Second French Empire.

This was an autocracy. He improved highways, canals, railroads, and subsidized industries. Thebourgeois was grateful for the general prosperity; the proletariat for employment & legal unions.

During the Liberal Empire (1860-1870), he eased censorship. But the Crimean War (1853), in which the French and English fought to prevent Russia from

taking the Black Sea, was very costly.

The Franco-Prussian War was a disaster to the French and Napoleon III. The French defeat inthis war ended the Second Empire and began the Third Republic.

Controlled by monarchists and bourgeois, the National Assembly brutally suppressed a radicalsocialist counter-government, the Paris Commune.

In 1875, the Assembly set up a Chamber of Deputies, elected by universal male suffrage, aSenate, which was indirectly elected, a weak president, and a premier.

From the establishment of the 3rd Republic (1871) -WWI, the French govt fell dozens of times. The govt was unstable because there were too many political parties in a multiparty system. None

could win a clear majority and they fell apart during crises.

The Dreyfus Affair a Jewish Army captain was falsely accused of spying by anti-republicanconservatives. This deepened the political split and paralyzed the govt.

But, by WWI, France had universal male suffrage and a social welfare system like Britains. GB &Fr. had by 1900s become 2/3 of theworlds most powerful democracies. The old liberalism oflaissez-faire was replaced by a new liberalism that supported suffrage & improving conditions.

The Suppression of Democracy

Germany through the Age of Metternich (1815-1848):

The Congress of Vienna had set up a Germanic Confederation of independent German states. Radical student organizations, Burschenschafts, wanted to create a unified Germany governed

by a constitution. In 1819, Metternich issued the Carlsbad Decrees, trying to suppress liberalism and nationalism

in the press and universities. He had a secret state police and censored speech.

The Prussian king Frederick William IV reacted to the 1848 revolutions by calling a legislativeassembly. He granted a constitution elected by universal male suffrage but ruled by the wealthy.

The Frankfurt Assemblytried unification, but only Bismarcks war could accomplish it. Resulted in the end of serfdom in Prussia.


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Austria from the Age of Metternich to WWI (1815-1914)

In Austria, the ethnic mix (Germans, Hungarians, Slavs, Czechs, Italians, Serbs, Croats, etc.)brought a revolution in 1848.

After a rebellion in Paris, Louis Kossuth, a Hungarian nationalist, aroused separatist sentiment.Riots broke out in Vienna. Metternich fled.

The Hungarians, Czechs, and N. Italian provinces declared independence. The empire collapsed.But later, the Hapsburgs regained power.

Franz Joseph became emperor. Conservative forces in the govt centralized power and suppressedall opposition.

The Revolutions of 1848 failed in Austria because the empires ethnic minorities disagreedamongst themselves instead of making a united front against the empire.

Austrias defeat in the Austro-Prussian War (1866) led to some reform. The Compromise of 1867set up a constitutional govt with some voting, granted the

Hungarians internal autonomy, and created a dual monarchy, the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

The Pan-Slavic movementemerged when the govt excluded their voice.Russia:

Alexander I modernized the govt and gave more rights to Jews. But Napoleons invasion causedhim to reverse this, start censorship, and force adherence to the Russian Orthodox Church.

When Alexander died, the Decembrist Revolt (1825) started. Nicholas I crushed the revolt and gained power. Created a secret police. Failed in Crimean War. Alexander II ended serfdom. This caused a huge explosion of ideas. Populists thought Alexander

wasnt going far enough and killed him.

The Isms

Conservatism:

The Congress of Vienna (Holy Alliance, Concert of Europe) Troppau Protocol Austria, Prussia, Russia. Collective action against liberalism/rebellions. Congress System:

o Congress of Verona A Greek uprising under Ypsilanti had arose, Metternich feared aGreek independence because Russia would have influence there. Alexander agreed not tosupport Ypsilanti, the Greek uprising was suppressed. The French asked for authorizationto send armies into Spain to stop an uprising. They agreed. The revolution was quelled.

The Congress system failed; the British no longer cooperated with Continental powers after 1818.Liberalism:

Liberalism was the product of the Enlightenment. Believed in constitutions, representative govt,freedom of expression, human rights, rights of religion, and equality before the law.

English liberals favored constitutional monarchy; on the Continent, they wanted writtenconstitutions.

They were not democrats. They didnt trust democracy and at first did not favor universal malesuffrage. They were strongly opposed to revolution.

Economic liberals preferred laissez-faire and disapproved of tariffs. Liberals were secular. They dislike the Church and war. They trusted science and education. England- Reform Bills, Chartist Movement


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Nationalism

Greece:o After Ypsilantis failure, Western writers supported the Greeks, like Percy Shelley and Lord

Byron.o The Turks killed many Greeks, a scene captured by French Romantic painter Delacroix.

The Turks then executed the Christian leader of Constantinople.o Eventually, England fought for an independent Greece and persuaded France and Russia to

join. In 1827, they signed the Treaty of London, which threatened Turkey unless it gavethe Greeks freedom.

o The Turks rejected this, so the allies sent a naval force which destroyed the Turks. TheGreeks won independence in 1832.

Belgium:o The Austrian Netherlands and Dutch Republic were now united. It was a constitutional

monarchy ruled by the House of Orange.o Economically, this was very successful. Belgium was industry; Dutch was agriculture/trade.o Politically, this was not successful. The Dutch king was an absolutist while the Belgians

were used to freedom.o The Belgians were Catholic; the Dutch were Calvinist. Belgians didnt want to speak Dutch.o Belgium asked for self-govt. The Dutch refused and fought, but later withdrew. Belgium

then proclaimed its independence.o Nicholas I strongly opposed this, but in 1831, Poland declared independence from Russia

and Nicholas invaded, quashing the revolution.o France and England conferred and agreed to set up Belgium as perpetually neutral. Thus,

Belgium was an independent constitutional monarchy. Germany

o J.G. Herder in 1784 praised thevolksgeist, a spirit of the common people. It stresseddifferences among people and cultures. Germans resisted the view that universal rulesapplied.

o J.G. Fichte declared the German volksgeist was superior to other cultures.o Grimm brothers traveled around Germany, studying different cultures and dialects.o Hegel argued the Enlightenment idea of universal, unchanging rules. He said that all

history comes from series of changes; the dialectic.o Friedrich List nationalist economics. Unified Germany economically. Zollverein.o German unification was barred because each state valued its independence and didnt want

to sacrifice power, especially Austria and Prussia (especially the Junkers of Prussia)o The Frankfurt Assembly created the Declaration of the Rights of the German

People, which emphasized rights not for all men, but just Germans.o The Assembly also asked for unification under Prussia, but Frederick William didnt want a

constitutional monarchy or to fight Austria. Plus, the Junkers didnt want it, and FrederickWilliam was mostly supported by the Junkers. Unification failed.

Italyo Carbonari; Giuseppe Mazzini; Young Italy

Romanticism

Gothics mysterious, supernatural; Mary Shelley, Emily Bronte. Writers Victor Hugo, Pushkin, George Sand, poets, etc. Art/Music action/emotion. Delacroix (Liberty Leading the People July Rev 1830), Beethoven.


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Realism literary movement replacing romanticism; belief that human nature is formed by heredityand the environment instead of free will.

o Emile Zola, George Eliot, Tolstoyo Focused on the here and now; factories, cities, slums.

Impressionism - the artist captures the image of an object as someone would see it if they just caughta glimpse of it. Bright colors but little detail. Manet, Monet, Pissaro, Degas, Renoir.

Positivism if science says its true, its true. Led to sociology. Pure science developed finding out how things worked.

o Louis Pasteur preserving food and improving medical procedureso Chemistry; medicine, dyes. Electricity; transportation and lighting.o Charles Darwin evolution.

Friedrich Nietzsche German philosopher; unconsciousness is the best state. People need to caremore about glory than about compassion.

Herbert Spencer social Darwinism

Italian Unification

The separate states:o The Kingdom of Naples (Two Sicilies)o The Papal Stateso Lombardy-Venetia, ruled by Austria.o The Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont

Sardinia was ruled by Victor Emmanuel II, and it was the only independent state in Italy. In 1854, Cavour became PM during the Revolutions of 1848. He rejected the romantic

nationalism of Giuseppe Mazzini and thought that Italy could only be united through war.

He weakened the influence of the papacy, invested in railroads and improvements, abolishedinternal tariffs, encouraging industry, ending manorialism, and instituting constitutionalism.

During the Crimean War of 1856, Cavour joined France, Britain, and Austria against Russia sothat they might help with Italian unification.

He signed the Treaty of Plombieres in 1858, asking Napoleon III to aid Italy in case of a warwith Austria. France was promised Nice & Savoy if they helped Sardinia annex N. Italy.

Austria declares war after French troops go into Sardinia. Napoleon suddenly pulled out of thewar, but Sardinia won Lombardy. Austria kept Venetia.

Giuseppe Garibaldi invaded Sicily in 1860 when encouraged by Cavour. His Red Shirts won. TheKingdom of the Two Sicilies joined Sardinia, and the Kingdom of Italywas pronounced.

In the Austro-Prussian War, Sardinia attacks Austria. When Austria is defeated, Venetia is givento Italy.

Sardinia wins Rome when French troops had to leave there during the Franco-Prussian War. There was still the irredenta.

German Unification

During this time, German wealth, population, and productivity soared. Bismarck, a conservativeJunker, trampled the Parliament and killed democracy in Prussia.

The Zollverein had opened the states to trade, and Germany became a single economic unit. Prussia had a booming industry and powerful army. It led the N. German states against Austria. The Erfurt Union proposed that Prussia leads unification without Austria. Bismarck pushes the

Treaty of Olmutz, where Prussia refused the Erfurt Union to protect Germany from Fr., Aust.


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o Following women like Mary Wollstonecraft, many women fought for equal legal rights,higher education, and professional jobs.

o In 1882, English married women could have full property rights. But progress was alwaysslow and hard won.

o In the years before 1914, middle-class feminists increasingly fought for political rights/vote.o In a different path, working-class feminists argued that the liberation of women could come

only with the liberation of the entire working force, inspired by Marx and socialism.o But also, since women stayed at home, her influence grew stronger. Many times she

managed the funds and wages of her husband. She controlled her childrens instruction.o Working at home was a full-time job for women; many did not wish for one outside it.o Married couples also developed stronger emotional ties for each other. Marriages were

based, even in the upper-classes, on attraction than earlier.

Child Rearing:o One sign of the deeper emotional ties was the growing love that mothers gave to their

infants in the 1700s and 1800s. Fewer illegitimate children were abandoned.o There was also a greater concern for older children/adolescents. Women began to have less

children to care more for the ones they had.o

Furthermore, the rigid gender roles made people believe that father-child relationshipswere more difficult.

Imperialism (1870-1914)

Old imperialismdidnt set up overseas territories as much as they set up trading stations.They respected and cooperated with local rulers in India, China, Japan, Indonesia, etc.

New imperialismcolonized Asia and Africa with military force to control local govts, exploitlocal economies, and imposing Western values.

Areas were carved up into economic spheres of influence. Causes of Imperialism:

1. Raw materials and markets2.

Missionaries (from a burst of religious revival in the 1850s)3. Military/naval bases (competition developed to acquire colonies in order to maintain the

balance of power)4. Ideologythe white mans burden.

Africa:o British Egypt (Suez Canal), helped Egypt take control of the Sudano France Algeria, Tunisia, Moroccoo Italy Libyao South Africa was terra incognita until the 1870s, when Belgian, German, and French

explorers began to lay claims.

Belgium ruled the Congo brutally, with cruel masters, whips, and threats.o The Berlin Conference (1885) set up rules to partition the entire country.

Asia China, Indochina, Korea, India, etc.The End of Colonialism

Before WWI, basically the entire non-Western world was controlled by the Western powers. Colonialism, the control of overseas colonies, was shaken by WWI and collapsed in the decades

after WWII.

Long term causes include:


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o Westernized education systems that preached democracy and awakened nationalism in thecolonies.

o The concept ofself-determination created by the Allies after WWI.o The ideals of theRussian Revolution and the anti-imperialism of Communismo The decline of Europe after WWIIo The example ofJapans resistance to Western domination

The British Empire:o India attained independence in 1948 by the nonviolence of Mahatma Gandhi, but there was

violence between the Hindu and Muslims. India was split into India (Hindu) and Pakistan(Muslim).

o When the former British territory, Palestine, was created as a Jewish State by the UN in1948, rivalries between Jews and Arabs arose.

o Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, a vital waterway for British trade, which caused a war in1956 between Egypt and Britain, France, and Israel. Area is still unstable today.

The Dutch Empire:o In WWII, Japan drove out the Dutch from the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia). The Dutch

tried to reconquer Indonesia, but Indonesia fought back and gained independence in 1954.

The French Empire:o After WWII, the French in Indochina (Vietnam) also tried to take back territory from the

Japanese, but after a costly war, Communist Ho Chi Minh won independence.o The Geneva Accords recognized the independence of Indochina and partitioned Vietnam

into a north and south. This partitioning broke down in civil war between the Communistnorth and the Western-led south.

o In N. Africa, Morocco and Tunisia were granted independence in 1956, but Algeria,considered to be very important to the French, was not. The bitter French-Algerian Warled to independence and heavily drained the French.

African Independenceo In sub-Saharan Africa, independence came in the 1950s-1960s.o The former British colonies were best prepared for self-rule since the British had gradually

transferred more power to locals. Impact of Imperialism:

o The collapse of the colonial empires was one of the modern worlds most revolutionary andsudden events. Within 20 yrs. after WWII, the European colonies disappeared.

o Still, most of the newly independent states dont have full freedom or democratic rule. Theyoften started out with democracies but poverty, ethnic conflicts, and inexperience often ledto military dictatorships or one-party rule.

The Four MAIN Causes of WWI:

1. Militarism:o European states saw that big military was necessary for survival. They kept huge armies in

times of peace.o A naval and regular arms race emerged between Britain and Germany.

2. Alliances:o No one declared war because they knew the alliances would make it too costly.

1. Dual Alliance Bismarck allies Germany with Austria-Hungary.2. Three Emperors Alliance Bismarck asks Russia to join the Dual Alliance. This

Alliance defended the 3 from Ottomans and France.


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3. Triple Alliance Bismarck allied with Austria and Italy. They were known as theCentral Powers during WWI. Italy switched sides in 1915.4. Reinsurance TreatyRussia didnt renew the Three Emperors Alliance, so Bismarckproposed this treaty. Kaiser Wilhelm II didnt like this so he refused it.

o As a result, Russia allied with France in the Franco-Russian Alliance.o England and Japan were firmly allied in theAnglo-Japanese Alliance.o After the Boer War, other countries felt threatened by British expansion and wanted to

create an alliance against Britain. England wanted to prevent this.o England and France were thus loosely allied in the Entente Cordiale. (Splendid

Isolation).o At the Algeciras Conference, Germany tried to lure France against Britain, but it failed.

Britain and France came closer together; other countries turned hostile towards Germany.o Russia, recently defeated by Japan, allied with Britain.o This created the Triple Entente with France, Britain, and Russia. They were called the

Allied powers in WWI.3. Imperialism

o The Kruger Telegram in 1902 made the British angry at the Germans for supporting theBoers against the British.

o The Moroccan Crisis of 1911 made the French angry at the Germans for supporting Moroccoagainst the French. Britain supported France and Germany backed down.

4. Nationalismo Wilhelm II of Germany was building his navy to build up Germanys influence. This forced

Britain to do the same. Germany wanted a victory to give it a spot in the sun. Thischallenged Britain and raised anxiety in France.

o In the First Balkan Crisis, Bosnia and Herzegovina rebelled against Ottoman rule, soSerbia declared war on the Ottomans. Russia, needing to support the Balkans to keephegemony, also declared war on the Ottomans. Britain supported the Ottomans. Turkey lostso Greece and Bulgaria took Macedonia.

o This led to the Second Balkan Crisis where Serbia fought Bulgaria for territory. Russiasupported Serbia, Austria-Hungary supported Bulgaria, and Germany supported Austria.This pressure ended the Three Emperors Alliance.

o In the Third Balkan Crisis, Italy fought the Ottoman Empire over land.o Serbs were enraged at Austria-Hungary for supporting Bulgaria and for continuing to

occupy Bosnia-Herzegovina. This nationalism directly led to WWI.

Events Leading Up to the War:

Germany at this time was highly industrializing. It became a rival to England and France. The French at this time were still upset about Alsace-Lorraine and the Treaty of Frankfurt. Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo, Bosnia.

Serbian officials planned this, so Austria asked Germany for support in crushing Serbia. Kaiser

Wilhelm gave them a blank check, promising to support them no matter what. Serbia turned tobig brother Slav Russia, which in turn got a similar blank check from France, who was terrified

of being caught alone in a war with Germany.

Austria gives Serbia an ultimatum that would basically put Austria in control of Serbia. Serbiarefused.

Austria declares war on Serbia. Russia mobilized. Germany declares war on Russia. Francedeclares war on Germany. Britain declares war on Germany after their Schlieffen Plan violatedBelgiums neutrality.


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World War I:

The Allies: The Central Powers:

Britain, France, Russia (1914) Italy joins (1915) United States joins (1917) Russia leaves (1918)

Germany, Austria-Hungary

This was awar of attrition, a war that wears down the resources and morale of the enemy.Germany had vast land mass, resources, and population, so it expected a quick victory.

The Schlieffen Plan:o Defeat France in 6 weeks like they did in the Franco-Prussian Waro Hold off Russia, which they assumed would take 6 months to fully mobilizeo Invade France through Belgium

The Schlieffen Plan failed because:o The Belgians protested and put up an unexpectedly stiff resistanceo Russia mobilized at great speed which made Germany split its troopso The French heroically counterattacked at the Battle of the Marne to prevent the

Germans reaching Paris.o A stalemate developed, leading into trench warfare, which caused huge casualties without

any real gain for either side.o Technological developments (machine guns, poison gas, tanks, and aircraft) were more

advanced so many more people were slaughtered, mostly in France, Belgium, and theNetherlands.

Germany won many victories on the Eastern Front against Russia. Germany invaded Russia,which was much less technologically advanced. Millions of Russians died.

The tsar was now personally responsible for continuing to fight. Nicholas II abdicated and aprovisional govt under Alexander Kerensky continued the war. The Bolsheviks seized power and

pulled Russia out, to the dismay of the Allies, since it took away Germanys 2nd front.

WWI was the first total war. Everything was geared towards war. Britain used its superior fleet to cut the Central Powers off from overseas trade. Germany used

unrestricted marine warfare to prevent the British from accessing its colonies.

Italy in 1915 joined the war against the Central Powers with the promise of getting its irredenta. Then, the U.S. joined the war, and Germany was defeated.

Results of the War:

Wilsons Fourteen Points End to secret treaties Freedom of the seas Free trade Arms reduction

Evacuation of occupied territories National self-determination Fair settlement of colonial claims Establishment of a League of Nations

The Paris Peace Conference:o Wilson of the U.S., David Lloyd George of Britain, Clemenceau of France, and Orlando of

Italy made all the decisionso The Treaty of Versailles:

Germany had to give Alsace and the mineral-rich Saar Basin to France and Schleswig toDemark

Germany had total responsibility for the war (War guilt)


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The German military was severely cut back The Rhineland (between France and Germany) was to be demilitarized and occupied Germany had to pay huge indemnities.

The German, Austrian, Russian, and Ottoman Empires ended. The Weimar Republic wasestablished in Germany, not from genuine democratic sentiment but as a result of war.

The war led to more govt involvement in society and the economy and womens liberation. Therewas a rapid development of new technology. The economy was greatly hurt by the war.

Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Hungary were given independence. There was heavy inflation in the economies.

The Russian Revolution:

Why it started:o Devastating defeats by the Central Powers, dissatisfaction with the war, no patriotism.o Corruption and ineptitude of the tsarist govt, unwillingness to reform.o Poor economic conditions (freeing of the serfs)

French Revolution Russian Revolution

Resulted in deep underlying causes Resulted in deep underlying causes

Claimed to fight against feudalism Claimed to fight against capitalism and imperialism

Gained followers in all countries Gained followers in all countries

Terror, then a small minority takes over (Jacobins) Terror, then a small minority takes over(Bolsheviks)

Strength came from the middle class Strength came from the peasants

Bourbon ended up being restored Opposition effectively wiped out

The Soviet Union, once established, faced both the West and the East. The Revolution thus notonly produced communism and fascism in Europe but also strengthened emerging anticolonialmovements.

Russia before the war industrialized, but it was still mostly rural peasants who had an extremelypoor quality of life. The French gave them loans that helped them modernize (build factories,railroads, etc.) because they were desperate for Russian support against Germany.

Witte and Stolypin were advisors to Nicholas II. Witte was pro-Western and wanted Russia toindustrialize. Stolypin was a conservative and wanted to protect the tsars power. He was involvedin the October Manifesto (a deception).

The rising business classes formed the liberal Constitutional Democratic Party (Cadets) in 1905.They were liberal progressives who wanted a nationally elected parliament and gradual reformmore than fixing the conditions of factory workers and peasants.

When serfs were freed, they sunk into deeper economic depression. Peasants paid high taxes andcarried the weight of industrialization. This made them want more land.

Russia was humiliated with

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