CHAPTER 26 CHAPTER 26 The New The New Power BalancePower Balance

1850–19001850–1900

New Technologies and the World New Technologies and the World Economy Economy

Railroads Railroads

By 1850 the first railroads had proved so By 1850 the first railroads had proved so successful that every industrializing successful that every industrializing country began to build railroad lines. country began to build railroad lines.

Railroad building in Britain, France, Railroad building in Britain, France, Germany, Canada, Russia, Japan, and Germany, Canada, Russia, Japan, and especially in the United States fueled a especially in the United States fueled a tremendous expansion in the world’s rail tremendous expansion in the world’s rail networks from 1850 to 1900.networks from 1850 to 1900.

In the non-industrialized world, railroads In the non-industrialized world, railroads were also built wherever they would be of were also built wherever they would be of value to business or to government value to business or to government

Railroads consumed huge amounts of Railroads consumed huge amounts of land and timber for ties and bridges. land and timber for ties and bridges.

Throughout the world, railroads opened Throughout the world, railroads opened new land to agriculture, mining, and other new land to agriculture, mining, and other human exploitation of natural resources. human exploitation of natural resources.

Steamships and Telegraph Cables Steamships and Telegraph Cables

In the mid-nineteenth century a number of In the mid-nineteenth century a number of technological developments in shipbuilding technological developments in shipbuilding made it possible to increase the average made it possible to increase the average size and speed of ocean-going vessels. size and speed of ocean-going vessels.

These developments included the use of These developments included the use of iron (and then steel) for hulls, propellers, iron (and then steel) for hulls, propellers, and more efficient engines and more efficient engines

Entrepreneurs developed a form of Entrepreneurs developed a form of organization known as the shipping line in organization known as the shipping line in order to make the most efficient use of order to make the most efficient use of these large and expensive new ships. these large and expensive new ships.

Shipping lines also used the growing Shipping lines also used the growing system of submarine telegraph cables in system of submarine telegraph cables in order to coordinate the movements of their order to coordinate the movements of their ships around the globe. ships around the globe.

The Steel and Chemical Industries The Steel and Chemical Industries

Steel is an especially hard and elastic form Steel is an especially hard and elastic form of iron that could be made only in small of iron that could be made only in small quantities by skilled blacksmiths before the quantities by skilled blacksmiths before the eighteenth century. eighteenth century.

A series of inventions in the eighteenth A series of inventions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries made it possible and nineteenth centuries made it possible to produce large quantities of steel at low to produce large quantities of steel at low cost. cost.

Until the late eighteenth century chemicals Until the late eighteenth century chemicals were also produced in small amounts in were also produced in small amounts in small workshops. small workshops.

The nineteenth century brought large-The nineteenth century brought large-scale manufacture of chemicals and the scale manufacture of chemicals and the invention of synthetic dyes and other new invention of synthetic dyes and other new organic chemicals organic chemicals

Nineteenth century advances in explosives Nineteenth century advances in explosives (including Alfred Nobel’s invention of (including Alfred Nobel’s invention of dynamite) had significant effects on both dynamite) had significant effects on both civil engineering and on the development civil engineering and on the development of more powerful and more accurate of more powerful and more accurate firearms firearms

The complexity of industrial chemistry made it The complexity of industrial chemistry made it one of the first fields in which science and one of the first fields in which science and technology interacted on a daily basis. technology interacted on a daily basis.

This development gave a great advantage to This development gave a great advantage to Germany, where government-funded research Germany, where government-funded research and cooperation between universities and and cooperation between universities and industries made the German chemical and industries made the German chemical and explosives industries the most advanced in the explosives industries the most advanced in the world by the end of the nineteenth century. world by the end of the nineteenth century.

ElectricityElectricity

In the 1870s inventors devised efficient In the 1870s inventors devised efficient generators that turned mechanical energy generators that turned mechanical energy into electricity that could be used to power into electricity that could be used to power arc lamps, incandescent lamps, streetcars, arc lamps, incandescent lamps, streetcars, subways, and electric motors for industry subways, and electric motors for industry Electricity helped to alleviate the urban Electricity helped to alleviate the urban pollution caused by horse-drawn vehicles. pollution caused by horse-drawn vehicles. Electricity also created a huge demand for Electricity also created a huge demand for copper, bringing Chile, Montana, and copper, bringing Chile, Montana, and southern Africa more deeply into the world southern Africa more deeply into the world economy. economy.

World Trade and Finance World Trade and Finance

Between 1850 and 1913 world trade Between 1850 and 1913 world trade expanded tenfold, while the cost of freight expanded tenfold, while the cost of freight dropped between 50 and 95 percent so dropped between 50 and 95 percent so that even cheap and heavy products such that even cheap and heavy products such as agricultural products, raw materials, as agricultural products, raw materials, and machinery were shipped around the and machinery were shipped around the world world

The growth of trade and close connections The growth of trade and close connections between the industrial economies of between the industrial economies of Western Europe and North America Western Europe and North America brought greater prosperity to these areas, brought greater prosperity to these areas, but it also made them more vulnerable to but it also made them more vulnerable to swings in the business cycle. swings in the business cycle. One of the main causes of this growing One of the main causes of this growing interdependence was the financial power interdependence was the financial power of Great Britain. of Great Britain.

Non-industrial areas were also tied to the world Non-industrial areas were also tied to the world economy. economy. The non-industrial areas were even more The non-industrial areas were even more vulnerable to swings in the business cycle vulnerable to swings in the business cycle because they depended on the export of raw because they depended on the export of raw materials that could often be replaced by materials that could often be replaced by synthetics or for which the industrial nations synthetics or for which the industrial nations could develop new sources of supply. could develop new sources of supply. Nevertheless, until World War I, the value of Nevertheless, until World War I, the value of exports from the tropical countries generally exports from the tropical countries generally remained high, and the size of their populations remained high, and the size of their populations remained moderate remained moderate

Social ChangesSocial Changes

Population and Migrations Population and Migrations

Between 1850 and 1914 Europe saw very Between 1850 and 1914 Europe saw very rapid population growthrapid population growthEmigration from Europe spurred Emigration from Europe spurred population growth in the United States, population growth in the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Argentina. Argentina. As a result, the proportion of people of As a result, the proportion of people of European ancestry in the world’s European ancestry in the world’s population rose from one-fifth to one-third.population rose from one-fifth to one-third.

Reasons for the increase in European Reasons for the increase in European population include: population include: 1. A drop in the death rate1. A drop in the death rate2. Improved crop yields2. Improved crop yields3. The provision of grain from newly 3. The provision of grain from newly opened agricultural land in North Americaopened agricultural land in North America4. And the provision of a more abundant 4. And the provision of a more abundant year-round diet as a result of canning and year-round diet as a result of canning and refrigeration refrigeration

Asians also migrated in large numbers Asians also migrated in large numbers during this period, often as indentured during this period, often as indentured laborers laborers

Urbanization and Urban Urbanization and Urban Environments Environments

In the latter half of the nineteenth century In the latter half of the nineteenth century European, North American, and Japanese European, North American, and Japanese cities grew tremendously both in terms of cities grew tremendously both in terms of population and of size. population and of size.

In areas like the English Midlands, the In areas like the English Midlands, the German Ruhr, and around Tokyo Bay, German Ruhr, and around Tokyo Bay, towns fused into one another, creating towns fused into one another, creating new cities. new cities.

Urban growth was accompanied by changes in Urban growth was accompanied by changes in the character of urban life. the character of urban life. Technologies that changed the quality of urban Technologies that changed the quality of urban life for the rich (and later for the working class as life for the rich (and later for the working class as well) included:well) included:1. Mass transportation networks1. Mass transportation networks2. Sewage and water supply systems2. Sewage and water supply systems3. Gas and electric lighting 3. Gas and electric lighting 4. Police and fire departments4. Police and fire departments5. Sanitation and garbage removal5. Sanitation and garbage removal6. Building and health inspection, schools, parks, 6. Building and health inspection, schools, parks, and other amenities. and other amenities.

New neighborhoods and cities were built New neighborhoods and cities were built (and older areas often rebuilt) on a (and older areas often rebuilt) on a rectangular grid pattern with broad rectangular grid pattern with broad boulevards and modern apartment boulevards and modern apartment buildings.buildings.Cities were divided into industrial, Cities were divided into industrial, commercial, and residential zones, with commercial, and residential zones, with the residential zones occupied by different the residential zones occupied by different social classes. social classes.

While urban environments improved in While urban environments improved in many ways, air quality worsened.many ways, air quality worsened.

Coal used as fuel polluted the air, while Coal used as fuel polluted the air, while the waste of the thousands of horses that the waste of the thousands of horses that pulled carts and carriages lay stinking in pulled carts and carriages lay stinking in the streets until horses were replaced by the streets until horses were replaced by streetcars and automobiles in the early streetcars and automobiles in the early twentieth century. twentieth century.

Middle-Class Women's “Separate Middle-Class Women's “Separate Sphere” Sphere”

The term “Victorian Age” refers not only to The term “Victorian Age” refers not only to the reign of Queen Victoria (r.1837–1901), the reign of Queen Victoria (r.1837–1901), but also to the rules of behavior and the but also to the rules of behavior and the ideology surrounding the family and ideology surrounding the family and relations between men and women. relations between men and women.

Men and women were thought to belong in Men and women were thought to belong in “separate spheres,” the men in the “separate spheres,” the men in the workplace, the women in the home.workplace, the women in the home.

Before electrical appliances, a middle-Before electrical appliances, a middle-class home demanded lots of workclass home demanded lots of workThe advent of modern technology in the The advent of modern technology in the nineteenth century eliminated some tasks nineteenth century eliminated some tasks and made others easierand made others easierBut rising standards of cleanliness meant But rising standards of cleanliness meant that technological advances did not that technological advances did not translate into a decrease in the translate into a decrease in the housewife’s total workload.housewife’s total workload.

The most important duty of middle-class The most important duty of middle-class women was to raise their children. women was to raise their children.

Victorian mothers lavished much time and Victorian mothers lavished much time and attention on their children, but girls attention on their children, but girls received an education very different from received an education very different from that of boys.that of boys.

Governments enforced legal discrimination Governments enforced legal discrimination against women throughout the nineteenth against women throughout the nineteenth centurycenturySociety frowned on careers for middle-class Society frowned on careers for middle-class women.women.Women were excluded from jobs that required Women were excluded from jobs that required higher educationhigher educationTeaching was a permissible career, but women Teaching was a permissible career, but women teachers were expected to resign when they got teachers were expected to resign when they got married. married. Some middle-class women were not satisfied Some middle-class women were not satisfied with home life and became involved in volunteer with home life and became involved in volunteer work or in the women’s suffrage movement. work or in the women’s suffrage movement.

Working-Class Women Working-Class Women

Working-class women led lives of toil and Working-class women led lives of toil and pain. pain.

Many became domestic servants, facing Many became domestic servants, facing long hours, hard physical labor, and long hours, hard physical labor, and sexual abuse from their masters or their sexual abuse from their masters or their masters’ sons masters’ sons

Many more young women worked in Many more young women worked in factories, where they were relegated to factories, where they were relegated to poorly paid work in the textiles and poorly paid work in the textiles and clothing trades.clothing trades.

Married women were expected to stay Married women were expected to stay home, raise children, do housework, and home, raise children, do housework, and contribute to the family income by taking in contribute to the family income by taking in boarders, doing sewing or other piecework boarders, doing sewing or other piecework jobs, or by washing other people’s clothes. jobs, or by washing other people’s clothes.

Socialism and Labor Movements Socialism and Labor Movements

Marx and SocialismMarx and Socialism

Socialism began as an intellectual Socialism began as an intellectual movement. movement.

The best-known socialist was Karl Marx The best-known socialist was Karl Marx (1818–1883) who, along with Friedrich (1818–1883) who, along with Friedrich Engles (1820–1895) wrote the Engles (1820–1895) wrote the Communist Communist ManifestoManifesto (1848) and (1848) and Das KapitalDas Kapital (1867). (1867).

Marx saw history as a long series of Marx saw history as a long series of clashes between social classes clashes between social classes

Marx's theories provided an intellectual Marx's theories provided an intellectual framework for general dissatisfaction with framework for general dissatisfaction with unregulated industrial capitalism unregulated industrial capitalism

Marx took steps to translate his intellectual Marx took steps to translate his intellectual efforts into political action efforts into political action

Labor Movements Labor Movements

Labor unions were organizations formed Labor unions were organizations formed by industrial workers to defend their by industrial workers to defend their interests in negotiations with employers. interests in negotiations with employers.

Labor unions developed from the workers’ Labor unions developed from the workers’ “friendly societies” of the early nineteenth “friendly societies” of the early nineteenth century and sought better wages, century and sought better wages, improved working conditions, and improved working conditions, and insurance for workers insurance for workers

During the nineteenth century workers were During the nineteenth century workers were brought into electoral politics as the right to vote brought into electoral politics as the right to vote was extended to all adult males in Europe and was extended to all adult males in Europe and North America. North America.

Instead of seeking the violent overthrow of the Instead of seeking the violent overthrow of the bourgeois class, socialists used their voting bourgeois class, socialists used their voting power in order to force concessions from the power in order to force concessions from the government and even to win electionsgovernment and even to win elections

The classic case of socialist electoral politics is The classic case of socialist electoral politics is the Social Democratic Party of Germany the Social Democratic Party of Germany

Nationalism and the Unification of Nationalism and the Unification of Germany and Italy Germany and Italy

Language and National Identity Language and National Identity Before 1871 Before 1871

Language was usually the crucial element in Language was usually the crucial element in creating a feeling of national unity, but language creating a feeling of national unity, but language and citizenship rarely coincided. and citizenship rarely coincided.

The idea of redrawing the boundaries of states The idea of redrawing the boundaries of states to accommodate linguistic, religious, and cultural to accommodate linguistic, religious, and cultural differences led to the forging of larger states differences led to the forging of larger states from the many German and Italian principalities, from the many German and Italian principalities, but it threatened to break large multiethnic but it threatened to break large multiethnic empires like Austria-Hungary into smaller states empires like Austria-Hungary into smaller states

Until the 1860s nationalism was associated with Until the 1860s nationalism was associated with liberalism, as in the case of the Italian liberal liberalism, as in the case of the Italian liberal nationalist Giuseppe Mazzini. nationalist Giuseppe Mazzini.

After 1848 conservative political leaders learned After 1848 conservative political leaders learned how to preserve the social status quo by using how to preserve the social status quo by using public education, universal military service, and public education, universal military service, and colonial conquests to build a sense of national colonial conquests to build a sense of national identity that focused loyalty on the state identity that focused loyalty on the state

The Unification of Italy, 1860–1870 The Unification of Italy, 1860–1870

By the mid-nineteenth century, popular By the mid-nineteenth century, popular sentiment favored Italian unification. sentiment favored Italian unification. Unification was opposed by Pope Pius IX Unification was opposed by Pope Pius IX and Austria and Austria Count Cavour, the prime minister of Count Cavour, the prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, used the rivalry Piedmont-Sardinia, used the rivalry between France and Austria to gain the between France and Austria to gain the help of France in pushing the Austrians help of France in pushing the Austrians out of northern Italy out of northern Italy

In the south, Giuseppe Garibaldi led a In the south, Giuseppe Garibaldi led a revolutionary army in 1860 that defeated revolutionary army in 1860 that defeated the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

A new Kingdom of Italy, headed by Victor A new Kingdom of Italy, headed by Victor Emmanuel (the former king of Piedmont-Emmanuel (the former king of Piedmont-Sardinia) was formed in 1860. Sardinia) was formed in 1860.

In time, Venetia (1866) and the Papal In time, Venetia (1866) and the Papal States (1870) were added to Italy States (1870) were added to Italy

The Unification of Germany, 1866–The Unification of Germany, 1866–1871 1871

Until the 1860s the German-speaking people Until the 1860s the German-speaking people were divided among Prussia, the western half of were divided among Prussia, the western half of the Austrian Empire, and numerous smaller the Austrian Empire, and numerous smaller states.states.

Prussia took the lead in the movement for Prussia took the lead in the movement for German unity because it had a strong industrial German unity because it had a strong industrial base in the Rhineland and an army that was base in the Rhineland and an army that was equipped with the latest military, transportation, equipped with the latest military, transportation, and communications technology and communications technology

During the reign of Wilhelm I (r. 1861–1888) the During the reign of Wilhelm I (r. 1861–1888) the Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck achieved Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck achieved the unification of Germany through a the unification of Germany through a combination of diplomacy and the Franco-combination of diplomacy and the Franco-Prussian War. Prussian War.

Victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War Victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War completed the unification of Germany, but it also completed the unification of Germany, but it also resulted in German control over the French resulted in German control over the French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine and thus in the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine and thus in the long-term enmity between France and Germany long-term enmity between France and Germany

Nationalism after 1871 Nationalism after 1871

After the Franco-Prussian War all politicians After the Franco-Prussian War all politicians tried to manipulate public opinion in order to tried to manipulate public opinion in order to bolster their governments by using the press and bolster their governments by using the press and public education in order to foster nationalistic public education in order to foster nationalistic loyalties. loyalties.

In many countries the dominant group used In many countries the dominant group used nationalism to justify the imposition of its nationalism to justify the imposition of its language, religion, or customs on minority language, religion, or customs on minority populations, as in the attempts of Russia to populations, as in the attempts of Russia to “Russify” its diverse ethnic populations “Russify” its diverse ethnic populations

Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) and others Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) and others took up Charles Darwin’s ideas of “natural took up Charles Darwin’s ideas of “natural selection” and “survival of the fittest” and selection” and “survival of the fittest” and applied them to human societies in such a applied them to human societies in such a way as to justify European conquest of way as to justify European conquest of foreign nations and the social and gender foreign nations and the social and gender hierarchies of Western society. hierarchies of Western society.

The Great Powers of Europe, The Great Powers of Europe, 1871–1900 1871–1900

Germany at the Center of Europe Germany at the Center of Europe

International relations revolved around a united International relations revolved around a united Germany, which, under Bismarck’s leadership, Germany, which, under Bismarck’s leadership, isolated France and forged a loose coalition with isolated France and forged a loose coalition with Austria-Hungary and Russia.Austria-Hungary and Russia.

At home, Bismarck used mass politics and At home, Bismarck used mass politics and social legislation to gain popular support and to social legislation to gain popular support and to develop a strong sense of national unity and develop a strong sense of national unity and pride amongst the German people pride amongst the German people

Wilhelm II (r. 1888–1918) dismissed Wilhelm II (r. 1888–1918) dismissed Bismarck and initiated a German foreign Bismarck and initiated a German foreign policy that placed emphasis on the policy that placed emphasis on the acquisition of colonies acquisition of colonies

The Liberal Powers: France and The Liberal Powers: France and Great Britain Great Britain

France was now a second-rate power in Europe, France was now a second-rate power in Europe, its population and army being smaller than those its population and army being smaller than those of Germany, and its rate of industrial growth of Germany, and its rate of industrial growth lower than that of the Germans. lower than that of the Germans. French society seemed divided between French society seemed divided between monarchist Catholics and republicans with monarchist Catholics and republicans with anticlerical views; in fact, popular participation in anticlerical views; in fact, popular participation in politics, a strong sense of nationhood, and a politics, a strong sense of nationhood, and a system of universal education gave the French system of universal education gave the French people a deeper cohesion than appeared on the people a deeper cohesion than appeared on the surface surface

In Britain, a stable government and a narrowing in the In Britain, a stable government and a narrowing in the disparity of wealth were accompanied by a number of disparity of wealth were accompanied by a number of problems. problems. Particularly notable were Irish resentment of English Particularly notable were Irish resentment of English rule, an economy that was lagging behind those of the rule, an economy that was lagging behind those of the United States and Germany, and an enormous empire United States and Germany, and an enormous empire that was very expensive to administer and to defend. that was very expensive to administer and to defend. For most of the nineteenth century Britain pursued a For most of the nineteenth century Britain pursued a policy of “splendid isolation” toward Europe; policy of “splendid isolation” toward Europe; preoccupation with India led the British to exaggerate the preoccupation with India led the British to exaggerate the Russian threat to the Ottoman Empire and to the Central Russian threat to the Ottoman Empire and to the Central Asian approaches to India while they ignored the rise of Asian approaches to India while they ignored the rise of Germany Germany

The Conservative Powers: Russia The Conservative Powers: Russia and Austria-Hungary and Austria-Hungary

The forces of nationalism weakened The forces of nationalism weakened Russia and Austria-Hungary. Russia and Austria-Hungary. Austria had alienated its Slavic-speaking Austria had alienated its Slavic-speaking minorities by renaming itself the “Austro-minorities by renaming itself the “Austro-Hungarian Empire.” Hungarian Empire.” The Empire offended Russia by attempting The Empire offended Russia by attempting to dominate the Balkans, and particularly to dominate the Balkans, and particularly by the annexation of Bosnia-Herzogovina by the annexation of Bosnia-Herzogovina in 1908 in 1908

Ethnic diversity also contributed to Ethnic diversity also contributed to instability in Russia. instability in Russia.

Attempts to foster Russian nationalism Attempts to foster Russian nationalism and to impose the Russian language on a and to impose the Russian language on a diverse population proved to be divisive diverse population proved to be divisive

In 1861 Tsar Alexander II emancipated the In 1861 Tsar Alexander II emancipated the peasants from serfdom, but did so in such peasants from serfdom, but did so in such a way that it only turned them into a way that it only turned them into communal farmers with few skills and little communal farmers with few skills and little capital.capital.

Tsars Alexander III (r. 1881–1894) and Tsars Alexander III (r. 1881–1894) and Nicholas II (r. 1894–1917) opposed all Nicholas II (r. 1894–1917) opposed all forms of social change.forms of social change.

Russian industrialization was carried out by the Russian industrialization was carried out by the state, and thus the middle-class remained small state, and thus the middle-class remained small and weak while the land-owning aristocracy and weak while the land-owning aristocracy dominated the court and administration.dominated the court and administration.

Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) and the Revolution of 1905 demonstrated 1905) and the Revolution of 1905 demonstrated Russia’s weakness and caused Tsar Nicholas to Russia’s weakness and caused Tsar Nicholas to introduce a constitution and a parliament (the introduce a constitution and a parliament (the Duma), but he soon reverted to the traditional Duma), but he soon reverted to the traditional despotism of his forefathers.despotism of his forefathers.

Japan Joins the Great Powers, Japan Joins the Great Powers, 1865–1905 1865–1905

China, Japan, and the Western China, Japan, and the Western Powers, to 1867Powers, to 1867

In the late nineteenth century China In the late nineteenth century China resisted Western influence and became resisted Western influence and became weaker; Japan transformed itself into a weaker; Japan transformed itself into a major industrial and military power. major industrial and military power.

The difference can be explained partly by The difference can be explained partly by the difference between Chinese and the difference between Chinese and Japanese elites and their attitudes toward Japanese elites and their attitudes toward foreign cultures.foreign cultures.

In the late nineteenth century China In the late nineteenth century China resisted Western influence and became resisted Western influence and became weaker; Japan transformed itself into a weaker; Japan transformed itself into a major industrial and military power.major industrial and military power.

The difference can be explained partly by The difference can be explained partly by the difference between Chinese and the difference between Chinese and Japanese elites and their attitudes toward Japanese elites and their attitudes toward foreign cultures.foreign cultures.

In China a “self-strengthening movement” tried In China a “self-strengthening movement” tried to bring about reforms, but the Empress to bring about reforms, but the Empress Dowager Cixi and other officials opposed Dowager Cixi and other officials opposed railways or other technologies that would carry railways or other technologies that would carry foreign influences into the interior. foreign influences into the interior.

They were able to slow down foreign intrusion, They were able to slow down foreign intrusion, but in doing so, they denied themselves the best but in doing so, they denied themselves the best means of defense against foreign pressure.means of defense against foreign pressure.

In the early nineteenth century, Japan was In the early nineteenth century, Japan was ruled by the Tokugawa shogunate and ruled by the Tokugawa shogunate and local lords had significant autonomy. local lords had significant autonomy.

This system made it hard for Japan to This system made it hard for Japan to coordinate its response to outside threats coordinate its response to outside threats

In 1853, the American Commodore In 1853, the American Commodore Matthew C. Perry arrived in Japan with a Matthew C. Perry arrived in Japan with a fleet of steam-powered warships and fleet of steam-powered warships and demanded that the Japanese open their demanded that the Japanese open their ports to trade and American ships ports to trade and American ships

Dissatisfaction with the shogunate's Dissatisfaction with the shogunate's capitulation to American and European capitulation to American and European demands led to a civil war and the demands led to a civil war and the overthrow of the shogunate in 1868 overthrow of the shogunate in 1868

The Meiji Restoration and the The Meiji Restoration and the Modernization of Japan, 1868–Modernization of Japan, 1868–

1894 1894 The new rulers of Japan were known as the Meiji The new rulers of Japan were known as the Meiji oligarchs oligarchs The Meiji oligarchs were willing to change their The Meiji oligarchs were willing to change their institutions and their society in order to help transform institutions and their society in order to help transform their country into a world-class industrial and military their country into a world-class industrial and military power. power. The Japanese had a long history of adopting ideas and The Japanese had a long history of adopting ideas and culture from China and Korea; in the same spirit, the culture from China and Korea; in the same spirit, the Japanese learned industrial and military technology, Japanese learned industrial and military technology, science, engineering, and even clothing styles and science, engineering, and even clothing styles and pastimes from the West. pastimes from the West.

The Japanese government encouraged The Japanese government encouraged industrialization, funding industrial industrialization, funding industrial development with tax revenue extracted development with tax revenue extracted from the rural sector and then selling from the rural sector and then selling state-owned enterprises to private state-owned enterprises to private entrepreneurs. entrepreneurs.

The Birth of Japanese ImperialismThe Birth of Japanese Imperialism

Industrialization was accompanied by the Industrialization was accompanied by the development of an authoritarian development of an authoritarian constitutional monarchy and a foreign constitutional monarchy and a foreign policy that defined Japan’s “sphere of policy that defined Japan’s “sphere of influence” to include Korea, Manchuria, influence” to include Korea, Manchuria, and part of China and part of China

Japan defeated China in a war that began in Japan defeated China in a war that began in 1894, thus precipitating an abortive Chinese 1894, thus precipitating an abortive Chinese reform effort (the Hundred Days Reform) in 1898 reform effort (the Hundred Days Reform) in 1898 and setting the stage for Japanese competition and setting the stage for Japanese competition with Russia for influence in the Chinese province with Russia for influence in the Chinese province of Manchuria. of Manchuria.

Japanese power was further demonstrated when Japanese power was further demonstrated when Japan defeated Russia in 1905 and annexed Japan defeated Russia in 1905 and annexed Korea in 1910 Korea in 1910