AP BiologyAP Biology Lab 1: Artificial Selection Analysis & Results: Calculate mean, median, standard deviation, range Are the 2 populations before and after selection (P and F 1)

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Lab Review

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Big Idea 1: Evolution

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Lab 1: Artificial Selection▪ Concepts:

◆ Natural selection = differential reproduction in a population

◆ Populations change over time ! evolution ◆ Natural Selection vs. Artificial Selection

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Lab 1: Artificial Selection▪ Description:

◆ Use Wisconsin Fast Plants to perform artificial selection

◆ Identify traits and variations in traits ◆ Cross-pollinate (top 10%) for selected trait ◆ Collect data for 2 generations (P and F1)

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Sample Histogram of a Population

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Lab 1: Artificial SelectionAnalysis & Results: ▪ Calculate mean, median, standard deviation, range ▪ Are the 2 populations before and after selection (P

and F1) actually different?

▪ Are the 2 sub-populations of F1 (hairy vs. non-hairy) different?

▪ Are the means statistically different? ▪ A T-test could be used to determine if 2 sets of

data are statistically different from each other

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Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg

▪ Concepts: ◆ Evolution = change in frequency of alleles in

a population from generation to generation ◆ Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium ▪ Allele Frequencies (p + q = 1) ▪ Genotypic Frequencies (p2+2pq+q2 = 1)

⬥Conditions: 1. large population 2. random mating 3. no mutations 4. no natural selection 5. no migration

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▪ Description: ◆ Generate mathematical models and

computer simulations to see how a hypothetical gene pool changes from one generation to the next

◆ Use Microsoft Excel spreadsheet ▪ p = frequency of A allele ▪ q = frequency of B allele

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▪ Setting up Excel spreadsheet

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▪ Sample Results

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Analysis & Results: ▪ Null model: in the absence of random events

that affect populations, allele frequencies (p,q) should be the same from generation to generation (H-W equilibrium)

▪ Analyze genetic drift and the effect of selection on a given population

▪ Manipulate parameters in model: ◆ Population size, selection (fitness),

mutation, migration, genetic drift

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▪ Real-life applications: ◆ Cystic fibrosis, polydactyly ◆ Heterozygote advantage (Sickle-Cell

Anemia)

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Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST ! Evolutionary Relationships

▪ Concepts: ◆ Bioinformatics: combines statistics, math

modeling, computer science to analyze biological data

◆ Genomes can be compared to detect genetic similarities and differences

◆ BLAST = Basic Local Alignment Search Tool ▪ Input gene sequence of interest ▪ Search genomic libraries for identical or

similar sequences

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▪ Description: ◆ Use BLAST to compare several genes ◆ Use information to construct a cladogram

(phylogenetic tree) ◆ Cladogram = visualization of evolutionary

relatedness of species

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▪ Use this data to construct a cladogram of the major plant groups

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▪ Fossil specimen in China ▪ DNA was extracted from preserved tissue ▪ Sequences from 4 genes were analyzed using BLAST

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▪ Analysis & Results: ◆ BLAST results: the higher the score, the

closer the alignment ◆ The more similar the genes, the more

recent their common ancestor ! located closer on the cladogram

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Big Idea 2: cellular processes: energy and communication

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Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis▪ Concepts:

◆ Selectively permeable membrane ◆ Diffusion (high ! low concentration) ◆ Osmosis (aquaporins) ◆ Water potential (ψ) ▪ ψ = pressure potential (ψP) + solute potential (ψS)

◆ Solutions: ▪ Hypertonic ▪ hypotonic ▪ isotonic

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Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis

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Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis▪ Description:

◆ Surface area and cell size vs. rate of diffusion

◆ Cell modeling: dialysis tubing + various solutions (distilled water, sucrose, salt, glucose, protein)

◆ Identify concentrations of sucrose solution and solute concentration of potato cores

◆ Observe osmosis in onion cells (effect of salt water)

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Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis

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Potato Cores in Different Concentrations of Sucrose

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Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis▪ Conclusions

◆ Water moves from high water potential (ψ ) (hypotonic=low solute) to low water potential (ψ) (hypertonic=high solute)

◆ Solute concentration & size of molecule affect movement across selectively permeable membrane

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Lab 5: Photosynthesis▪ Concepts:

◆ Photosynthesis ▪6H2O + 6CO2 + Light ! C6H12O6 + 6O2

◆ Ways to measure the rate of photosynthesis: ▪Production of oxygen (O2) ▪Consumption of carbon dioxide (CO2)

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Lab 5: Photosynthesis▪ Description:

◆ Paper chromatography to identify pigments ◆ Floating disk technique ▪ Leaf disks float in water ▪Gases can be drawn from out from leaf using

syringe ! leaf sinks ▪ Photosynthesis ! O2 produced ! bubbles form

on leaf ! leaf disk rises ◆ Measure rate of photosynthesis by O2 production ◆ Factors tested: types of plants, light intensity, colors

of leaves, pH of solutions

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Plant Pigments & Chromatography

Floating Disk Technique

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Lab 5: Photosynthesis▪ Concepts:

◆ photosynthesis ◆ Photosystems II, I ▪ H2O split, ATP, NADPH

◆ chlorophylls & other plant pigments ▪ chlorophyll a ▪ chlorophyll b ▪ xanthophylls ▪ carotenoids

◆ experimental design ▪ control vs. experimental

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Lab 6: Cellular Respiration▪ Concepts:

◆ Respiration ◆ Measure rate of respiration by: ▪O2 consumption ▪CO2 production

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Lab 6: Cellular Respiration▪ Description:

◆ Use respirometer ◆ Measure rate of respiration (O2 consumption)

in various seeds ◆ Factors tested: ▪ Non-germinating seeds ▪ Germinating seeds ▪ Effect of temperature ▪ Surface area of seeds ▪ Types of seeds ▪ Plants vs. animals

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Lab 6: Cellular Respiration

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Lab 6: Cellular Respiration▪ Conclusions:

◆ ↓temp = ↓respiration ◆ ↑germination = ↑respiration ◆ Animal respiration > plant respiration ◆ ↑ surface area = ↑ respiration

Calculate Rate

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Big Idea 3: genetics and information transfer

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Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis▪ Concepts:

◆ Cell Cycle (G1 ! S ! G2 ! M) ◆ Control of cell cycle (checkpoints) ▪ Cyclins & cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)

◆ Mitosis vs. Meiosis ◆ Crossing over ! genetic diversity

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Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis

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Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis▪ Description:

◆ Model mitosis & meiosis (pipecleaners, beads) ◆ How environment affects mitosis of plant roots ▪ Lectin - proteins secreted by fungus ▪ Root stimulating powder ▪ Count # cells in interphase, mitosis

◆ Observe karyotypes (cancer, mutations) ◆ Meiosis & crossing over in Sordaria (fungus)

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Abnormal karyotype = Cancer

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Meiosis: Crossing over in Prophase I

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Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis▪ Observed crossing over in fungus (Sordaria)

◆ Arrangement of ascospores

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Sordaria Analysis

% crossovertotal crossover

total offspring=

distance from centromere

% crossover

2=

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Lab 8: Bacterial TransformationConcepts: ▪ Transformation: uptake of foreign DNA from

surroundings ▪ Plasmid = small ring of DNA with a few genes

◆ Replicates separately from bacteria DNA ◆ Can carry genes for antibiotic resistance ◆ Genetic engineering: recombinant DNA = pGLO

plasmid

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Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation

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Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation

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Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation▪ Conclusions:

◆ Foreign DNA inserted using vector (plasmid) ◆ Ampicillin = Selecting agent ▪ No transformation = no growth on amp+ plate

◆ Regulate genes by transcription factors (araC protein)

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Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA

▪ Concepts: ◆ Restriction Enzymes ▪Cut DNA at specific locations

◆ Gel Electrophoresis ▪DNA is negatively charged ▪Smaller fragments travel faster

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▪ Description

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▪ Determine DNA fragment sizes

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▪ Conclusions: ◆ Restriction enzymes cut at specific

locations (restriction sites) ◆ DNA is negatively charged ◆ Smaller DNA fragments travel faster than

larger fragments ◆ Relative size of DNA fragments can be

determined by distance travelled ▪Use standard curve to calculate size

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Big Idea 4: interactions

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Lab 10: Energy Dynamics▪ Concepts:

◆ Energy from sunlight ! drives photosynthesis (store E in organic compounds)

◆ Gross Productivity (GPP) = energy captured ▪ But some energy is used for respiration (R) ▪Net primary productivity (NPP) = GPP – R

◆ Energy flows! (but matter cycles) ▪ Producers ! consumers

◆ Biomass = mass of dry weight

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Lab 10: Energy DynamicsPyramid of Energy Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Numbers

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Lab 10: Energy Dynamics▪ Description:

◆ Brassica (cabbage) ! cabbage white butterfly larvae (caterpillars)

Lab 10: Energy Dynamics▪ Measuring Biomass:

◆ Cabbage ! mass lost ◆ Caterpillar ! mass gained ◆ Caterpillar frass (poop) ! dry mass

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Lab 10: Energy Dynamics▪ Conclusions:

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Lab 10: Energy Dynamics▪ Conclusions:

◆ Energy is lost (respiration, waste) ◆ Conservation of Mass ◆ Input = Output

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Lab 11: Transpiration

▪ Concepts: ◆ Transpiration ▪Xylem ▪Water potential ▪Cohesion-tension hypothesis

◆ Stomata & Guard cells ◆ Leaf surface area & # stomata vs. rate of

transpiration

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Lab 11: Transpiration

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Lab 11: Transpiration▪ Description:

◆ Determine relationship between leaf surface area, # stomata, rate of transpiration ▪Nail polish ! stomatal peels

◆ Effects of environmental factors on rate of transpiration ▪Temperature, humidity, air flow (wind), light

intensity

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Analysis of Stomata

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Rates of Transpiration

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Lab 11: Transpiration▪ Conclusions:

◆ ↑transpiration: ↑ wind, ↑ light ◆ ↓transpiration: ↑ humidity ◆ Density of stomata vs. transpiration ◆ Leaf surface area vs. transpiration

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Lab 12: Animal Behavior▪ Concepts:

◆ Experimental design ▪ IV, DV, control, constants ▪ Control vs. Experimental ▪ Hypothesis

◆ innate vs. learned behavior ◆ choice chambers ▪ temperature ▪ humidity ▪ light intensity ▪ salinity ▪ other factors

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Lab 12: Animal Behavior▪ Description:

◆ Investigate relationship between environmental factors vs. behavior ▪ Betta fish agonistic behavior ▪ Drosophila (fruit fly) behavior ▪ Pillbug kinesis

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Lab 12: Animal Behavior

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Lab 12: Animal Behavior▪ Hypothesis Development

◆ Poor: I think pillbugs will move toward the wet side of a choice chamber.

◆ Better: If pillbugs are randomly placed on two sides of a wet/dry choice chamber and allowed to move about freely for 10 minutes, then more pillbugs will be found on the wet side because they prefer moist environments.

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Lab 12: Animal Behavior▪ Experimental Design sample size

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Lab 12: Animal Behavior▪ Data Analysis:

◆ Chi-Square Test ◆ Null hypothesis: there is no difference

between the conditions ◆ Degrees of Freedom = n-1 ◆ At p=0.05, if X2 < critical value ! accept null

hypothesis (any differences between observed and expected due to CHANCE)

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Lab 13: Enzyme Activity▪ Concepts:

◆ Enzyme ▪ Structure (active site, allosteric site) ▪ Lower activation energy

◆ Substrate ! product ◆ Proteins denature (structure/binding site

changes)

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Lab 13: Enzyme Activity▪ Description:

◆ Determine which factors affecting rate of enzyme reaction

◆ H2O2 ⎯⎯⎯→ H2O + O2 ◆ Measure rate of O2 production

catalase

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Turnip peroxidase ! Color change (O2 produced)

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Lab 13: Enzyme Activity▪ Conclusions:

◆ Enzyme reaction rate affected by: ▪ pH (acids, bases) ▪ Temperature ▪ Substrate concentration ▪ Enzyme concentration

Calculate Rate of Reaction

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Any Questions??

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AP BiologyAP Biology Lab 1: Artificial Selection Analysis & Results: Calculate mean, median, standard deviation, range Are the 2 populations before and after selection (P and F 1)