• Any pattern of behaviour in which parent spends time and/or energy to improve the survival, condition and future reproductive success of offspring.

• Care can be given at any stage:1. Prenatal (during pregnancy) guarding eggs, building nests, carrying broods, incubating eggs and placental nourishing.2. Post-natal (after birth) providing food, protecting offspring, teaching offspring.

Parental care

Adapted from L. Kuun 1

• Little or no parental care means a low reproductive effort.

• Reproductive energy put into producing masses of eggs.

• High mortality rate amongst eggs as well as young.

• Few individuals survive to reproductive age.• Examples: Most fish, amphibians, insects, most

reptilesAdapted from L. Kuun

Little or no parental care

2

• Few eggs or young produced.• Low mortality rate amongst eggs or young.• High reproductive effort.• Reproductive energy goes into parental care

after birth (post-natal).• Most offspring survive to reproductive age.• Examples: Mammals, birds, some reptiles,

exceptions amongst fish and Arthropods.

Adapted from L. Kuun

When parental care is given

3

Left: Midwife toad

Right: chicken laying egg, mother feeding young

Adapted from L. Kuun 4

Adapted from L. Kuun

Ovovivipary type of parental care

Left: Male seahorse with young emerging from breeding pouch

5

Adapted from L. Kuun 6