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U. S. NAVY
MARINE ENGINEERING LABORATORY
Annapolis, Md. k JAN 2 4 1967
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Dedicated To PROGRESS IN MARINE ENGINEERING
Distribution of this document is unlimited.
Metal Corrosion in Deep-Ocean Environments
Assignment 86 116 MEL R&D Phase Report 429/66
January 1§67
By
W. L. Wheatfall
W. L. WHEATFALL *P
Approved by:
fei %^-£/ld»H<L> W. L. WILLIAMS Naval Alloys Division
Distribution of this document is unlimited.
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ABSTRACT
Experiments were conducted in deep-ocean environments to determine whether unusual corrosion phenomena exist at great depths that are not present in water near the surface. A total of five exposures were made at various locations in the Pacific Ocean. Two exposures were at 5640 feet, and one each at 23^0, 5300, and 678O feet. In some cases, similar tests were conducted in shallow water. Results from general corrosion tests of metals representing six typical alloy classes, ar*d also from cre- vice-corrosion tests on a stainless steel and nickel alloy, revealed that, in general, there were no major differences between corrosion phenomena in deep-ocean and shallow-water environments. Variations in behavioral patterns that were observed could largely be explained on the basis of differences in oxygen content.
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MEL Report 429/66 MEL Report 429/66
ADMINISTRATIVE INFORMATION
This investigation was "supported on Sub-project z-R011 01 01, Task 0401 (in-Kouse Independent Research and Exploratory Develop- ment Program). The work was done in cooperation with the U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port Hueneme, California.
This report is issued prior to its acceptance by ASNE for publication in the Journal. Its format is that of the publication, but in the approved order for MEL technical reports to Navy sponsors.
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INTRODUCTION
This investigation was undertaken to determine whether
unusual corrosion phenomena exist at great ocean depths that are
not present in water near the surface. Knowledge of the corrosion
behavior of metals in the deep ocean is of interest to the U. S.
T Navy because of the need for constructional materials in the
conquest of hydrospace.
In this article the deep ocean is defined as a depth of
about 200 ft or more. Some of the most significant features of
deep marine environments which differ greatly from shallow water
are low water temperature, variation of oxygen content with
depth, and high hydrostatic pressure. These and other environmen-
tal factors have been described and discussed in more detail else-
where.
Studies of metal corrosion in deep-ocean environments were
approached from two aspects: (l) a corrosion survey of materials
representing various important alloy classes, and (2) an investi-
gation of crevice corrosion in selected passive metals.
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The general corrosion tests were designed to study the total
effect of all environmental parameters on the "behavior of typical
classes of alloys susceptible to various forms of attack in sur-
face water.
Changes in oxygen content with depth and crevice size were
the main variables examined in the crevice-corrosion tests.
Crevice corrosion (and pitting) in passive metals is initiated
when anodic areas form by the combined action of differential
oxygen concentration cells and the chloride ion. This situation
is established when one area of the metal is freely exposed to
the environment and the other shielded. Localized attack then
proceeds by galvanic action between active (oxygen deficient)
and passive areas on the metal surface. Other investigators have
shown^ that the extent of attack is a function of the size relation-
ship between the active and passive surfaces. The degree of attack
decreases with increasing crevice area, and vice versa. Since
crevice corrosion in passive metals is mainly an oxygen-dependent
process, it was postulated that the phenomenon could be better
characterized by studying the additional effect produced by vary-
ing the crevice size.
MATERIALS
Metals representing six alloy classes were employed in the
material survey. Type J04 stainless steel and Monel 400 (nickel
f I alloy) were the two metals used in the crevice-corrosion studies,
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The alloy types are listed in Table 1 together with their desig-
nations and nominal compositions.
THE INVESTIGATION
Exposures in deep-ocean environments were made in the Pacific
Ocean in cooperation with, and on submersible test units of, the
U. S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port Hueneme, California.
In some cases, similar experiments were also conducted in shallow
water at the Harbor Island Corrosion Laboratory, Wrightsville
| Beach, North Carolina. In the general corrosion studies, materials
— were tested at depths of 5640 ft for 125 days and 751 days, 5300 !
ft for 1064 days, and in water just below the surface for 386 days.
Crevice-corrosion experiments were made at depths of 23^-0 ft for
197 days, 678O ft for 403 days, and in shallow water for 238 days.
The test materials were not buried in nor covered by ehe bottom
sediments in the deep-ocean exposures, although the submersible
test units were placed on the ocean floor. Water chemistry,
temperature, and other environmental conditions were measured and
observed at both locations.
Corrosion of the materials was evaluated in terms of weight i
loss, pit depth, corrosion rate, and appearance. In some cases
1 microscopic examinations were conducted. In addition, cross sec-
tions of some of the copper-base alloys were fractured and examined
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macroscopically and microscopically for evidence of selective-
phase corrosion.
General Corrosion Experiments
Rectangular metal panels (12 in. x 2 in.) were used in the
three deep-marine exposures. The samples were from 1/16 to 1/4 in.
thick, A hole was drilled at each end for attachment to a rack,
and plastic sleeves and washers were used to avoid galvanic coup-
ling between metallic components. The dimensions of specimens in
the shallow-water immersion were 12 in. x 3 in. x 1/16 in. A hole
was drilled in the center for mounting purposes, and again the
samples were isolated electrically with plastic parts. In all of
these tests, a crevice of constant area existed on each specimen
due to the contact area created by the nonmetallic supporting
fixtures.
Twenty-three specimens were exposed in each experiment at
5640 ft, ten at 5300 ft and ten in shallow water. A zinc anode
was attached to a sample of 1015 steel in each deep-ocean exposure
to test effectiveness in providing cathodic protection to a more
noble material at these depths.
Crevice-Corrosion Experiments
Specimens of the 304 stainless steel were 12 in. x 2 in. x
1/8 in., and those of the Konel 400 were 12 in. x 2 in. x 1/16 in.
The test arrangement is shown in Figure 1. Each side of the rack
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contained eight samples of identical material« The crevice area
was varied from 0 to 14 sq. in» on both faces of the specimens by
means of the tree*shaped nylon strips. Also used to electrically
insulate the samples from the steel rack were nylon strips, with
a constant area, thereby introducing an additional 8 sq. in.
crevice on each face of the alloys. A zinc-base paint and zinc
anode were employed for corrosion protection of the rack.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Average environmental characteristics for six parameters in
the studies appear in Table 2. The most pronounced variations at
the different depths were the oxygen content, temperature, and
pressure. Fouling by marine organisms was quite heavy on many of
the metal panels and racks in the surface water, but was negligible
in the deep-ocean exposures.
Results of the general corrosion experiments are summarized
in Table 3, and examples of tested specimens are shown in Figures
2 and >. Data from the crevice-corrosion studies are presented
in Figures 4 and 5» Pit depths, used as a measure of crevice
attack in the general and crevice-corrosion experiments, represent
the maximum attack inside the crevice areas, or at the entrance to
the crevices formed by contact of the metalUo specimens and the
insulators or nylon strips.
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General Corrosion Experiments
The results of these experiments are discussed below in terms
of alloy types.
Carbon Steel. AISI 1015 steel (no zinc anode attached) was
more uniformly corroded in the deep-ocean exposures than in
shallow water. Corrosion was also more extensive in water just
below the surface. Comparison of the corrosion behavior of the
alloy in shallow water (Exposure 4) and in the deep ocean (Expo-
sure 5) appears in Items (a) and (b) Figure 2. Large depressions
are observed on the specimen tested in surface water, while the
alloy in the deep ocean was more evenly attacked. Zinc anodes
were effective in reducing the corrosion of the steel specimens.
Considerable differences in overall corrosion and crevice attack
can be shown by comparing the data for samples with and without
the anode in Table 3.
Stainless Steels. Severe crevice attack of these alloys
occurred in all exposures. In addition, 504 stainless steel
suffered pitting on the boldly exposed surface in all of the tests
with the exception of Exposure 1 (5640 ft, 125 days). The freely
exposed surface of AM 550 was nblemished in all experiments.
Copper Alloys. Minor attack occurred on copper and the
cupro-nickel alloys (10 and 50 percent) in both surface and deep-
ocean experiments. More pronounced attack was present on copper
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■ in shallow water than in deep water as shown in Items (c) and (d),
Figure 2. Microscopic and macroscopic examinations of the remain-
ing copper alloys revealed selective-phase corrosion only in the
j case of high-tensile brass. This attack (dezincification) extended
about 0.06 in. below the surface on each side of the specimen in
the test conducted for 751 days at 5640 ft (Exposure 2). Attack
was considerably less in the short-time experiment (Exposure 1).
No selective-phase attack (dealuminization) was found on the alu-
I minum-bronze alloy specimens, all of which were in the heat-treated
condition.
Nickel Alloys. Of the nickel-base alloys, Hastelloy C had
superior corrosion resistance in all experiments, although changes
in test conditions affected the corrosion of this material. The
corrosion rate was O.56O milligrams per square decimeter per day
(mdd) in Exposure 1 (5640 ft, 125 days) as compared to 0.022 mdd
in Exposure 2 (5640 ft, 751 days)• This was approximately an
order of magnitude decrease in the corrosion rate and was probably
caused by the increase in oxygen content from 1.19 to 2.l4 ppm.
The higher level of oxygen would function to maintain a superior
I passive film.
Titanium Alloys. Differences in corrosion rate were observed
1 for these alloys in Exposures 1 and 2. Titanium (unalloyed) and
1 alpha-beta titanium (6A1-4V) shewed a decrease of more than two
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magnitudes in corrosion rate in Exposure 2 (5640 ft# 751 days),
while the beta alloy (13V- llCr-JAl) decreased by more than one
magnitude. These changes can also probably be attributed to the
effect of variation in oxygen on the film integrity. However,
even the highest corrosion rates were of minor significance, and
no evidence of attack on any specimen was apparent in visual
examination.
Aluminum Alloys. Figure 3 is a photograph of the aluminum
alloys tested in Exposure 2 (5640 ft, 751 days)• Severe surface
and crevice corrosion can bo» observed on all specimens. Aluminum
606I-T6 had numerous perforations (0.063 in.). The intensity of
corrosion of these alloys was much greater than expected in the
deep-ocean environments, especially 54-56-H321 which normally has
shown good resistance in surface water. Microscopic examinations
showed that 7079-T6 specimens suffered severe intergranular corro-
sion in both exposures. A specimen of 606I-T6 was tested in
Exposure 3 (5300 ft, 1064 days), but it was missing at the conclu-
sion of the experiment. It probably was lost because of severe
localized corrosion in the area of the supporting fixtures. Accel-
erated corrosion of the alunimum alloys in the deep ocean may be a
function of the oxygen content. The low levels of oxygen could be
insufficient for the formation and maintenance of necessary pro-
tective surface oxide scales. Oxygen deficiencies in some of these
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resistance of such materials, whereas a metal like titanium would
be virtually unaffected.
Crevice-Corrosion Experiments
Moderate crevice corrosion occurred on 304 stainless steel
at a depth of 2}40 ft (Exposure 5), but no attack was observed on
J Monel 400 (Figures 4 and 5) . Neither material suffered any local-
ized attack on the "boldly exposed surfaces. Patches of rust were
visible on the surfaces of ?04 stainless steel, and various shades
„ of green corrosion products were present on Monel 400.
In 6780 ft of water (Exposure 6), more severe deterioration J
took place as indicated by the increased weight losses in the case
»a of both alloys. Incipient crevice corrosion was evident on Monel
400, especially at the nylon insulating strips, but no measurable
pits were present. The increase in corrosion of the samples at *
* this depth was probabJy due to an increase in oxygen content from
] 0.70 to I.60 ppm as well as the longer exposure time.
Severe crevice corrosion and overall surface corrosion were
i quite pronounced in the shallow water investigation (Exposure 7),
j although one of the deep-ocean exposures (Exposure 6) was conducted
for 165 days longer. These differences in behavior are reflected j * in the plots in Figures 4 and 5 and in the photographs of typical
I samples in Figure 6. Several of the stainless specimens were
9
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perforated at the crevices and on the surfaces remote from the
crevices. One of the nickel samples was perforated at the crevice.
Variations in oxygen content in the crevice-corrosion experi-
ments appeared to be the most important factor in the behavior of
304 stainless steel and Monel 400. Oxygen concentration was 6.77
ppm in surface water as compared to 1.70 ppm and 0.60 ppm in the
deep water. Lower oxygen contents in the deep-marine environments
tended to minimize the effect of differential oxygen concentration
cells. A great deal of the pitting in the shallow water was caused
by crevices formed by fouling of the freely exposed metal surfaces.
Differences in temperature also could have influenced the corrosion
process.
The degree of crevice corrosion as a function of area was
shown fairly well by the weight-loss measurements and visual
observations for both alloys in some instances. Depth of pitting
did not follow a predictable pattern on the stainless alloy in
Exposures 5 and 7# but the nickel alloy did show some consistency
in behavior in shallow water (Exposure 7). No measurable pits
were observed on the Monel 400 specimens tested in the deep ocean.
Maximum pit depth as a function of crevice size was not shown as
clearly as anticipated, probably because of uncertainty in crevice
geometry due to deformation of nylon components when compressed,
and localized attack outside the crevice.
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CONCLUSIONS
The purpose of this investigation was to determine if unusual
corrosion phenomena exist at great ocean depths that are not pre-
sent in water near the surface. Results from exposures of materials
representing six typcial alloy classes, and crevice-corrosion
experiments on a stainless steel and a nickel alloy» revealed that,
in general, there were no major differences between the corrosion
phenomena in deep and shallow waters« Variations in the corrosion
behavior that were observed could be explained for the most part
on the basis of differences in oxygen content, A possible excep-
tion* to this generalization is corrosion processes in the bottom
sediments on the sea floor.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author thanks Mr. W. H. Pettigrew for assistance in the
preparation and evaluation of the materials, Mr. E. F. Goddard
for the metallography, and Messrs. G. J. Danek and R. B. Niederberger
for helpful suggestions and review of the manuscript.
The author also gratefully acknowledges the cooperation of the
U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port Hueneme, California,
in exposing the materials on the submersible test units.
11
REFERENCES
1. Gray, K. 0., "Materials Testing in the Deep Ocean," Materials
protection, Vol. 3, Jul 1964, pp 46-55
2. Gray, K. 0., "Effects of the Deep-Ocean Environment on
Materials - A Progress Report," Techanical Note N-446, U.S.
Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, JO Jul 1962
3. Ellis, 0. B., and F. L. Laque, "Area Effects in Crevice Corro-
sion," Corrosion, Vol. 7# No. 11, Nov 1951, PF 362-364
4. Reinhart, F. M., "First Results - Deep Ocean Corrosion,"
Geo Marine Technology, Vol. 1, No. 9, Sep 1965, pp 15-26
12
I F Table 1
Description of Material
Alloy Type Alloy Designation Major Alloy Content, J&
Carbon Steel AISI 1015
Stainless Steel
AISI Type 304 AM 350
19C r-ION i 17Cr-4Ni-3Mo
Copper Copper (Unalloyed) Cupro-Nickel, 10# Cupro-Kickel, 30# Red Brass Naval Brass High Tensile Brass Al Bronze Al Bronze Al-Ni Bronze
10Ni-1.3Pe 30Ni-0.6Fe 15Zn 39sn-0.8sn 2lZn-5Al-4Mn-2Fe 10Al-3.5Pe 10Al-4Pe-2.5Ni 10Al-4Pe-4Ni
Nickel Monel 400(a) Monel K-500(M Ni-o-nel 825Va) Haste Hoy CV3)
30 Cu 29CU-3A1 30Fe-22Cr-3Mo-2Cu-lTi 17Mo-15Cr-5Pe-4w
Titanium Titanium (Unalloyed) Beta Alpha-Beta
13V-HCr-3Al 6A1-4V
Aluminum 6061-T6 7079-T6 5456-H321
lMg-0.6si-0.25Cu-0.25Cr 4.3Zn-3.3Mg-0.6cu-0.2Mn-0. 5Mg-0.7Mn-0.15Cu-0.15Cr
2Cr
1 Nominal percentages. »Trademark of The International Nickel Company, Inc. 3Trademark of Haynes-Stellite Company, Division of Union Carbide Corporation.
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Security Classification Unclassified DOCUMENT CONTROL DATA • R&D
(StauHly el—iflaatlon o* mi: oo«V ot abmtrmct and indexing mnaUtion auM km wlwW n*an IM ovtmli impart i» tlMttflwO I. ORIGINATING ACTIVITY (Cotpcrml* author)
U. S. Navy Marine Engineering Laboratory Annapolis, Maryland
2*. REPORT lICUDITy CLASSIFICATION
Unclassified 2ft «.HOUR
1 REPORT TITLE
Metal Corrosion .In Dco?-Cc*..s:i Env.lroüiueatc
4- DESCRIPTIVE NOTES (Typ» of »port ltd inchitlv daf) — MEL Research ?n . Development ,:har,G Report
t AUTHORfSJ (Lmml nan», flnl MM, Inlliat)
Wheatfall, W. L.
C REPORT OATE January 196?
ta. CONTRACT OR CHANT NO.
6. PROJECT NO. J£R0 11 01 01
Task 04C3.
7a. TOTAL NO. OP RACK« 7ft. NO. OR RAR«
§a. ORI«INATOR*a REPORT NUMBERfE)
4CQ/56
•ft. OTHER REPORT NOtt) f A nr otfiar nunftara
Assist 3t .13.6
EMM «Mr ft* aaaJ#>«f
10. AVAILABILITY/LIMITATION NOTICES
Distribution of this . cc.' .it ..l I.Z..X..
11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES lt. SPONSORING MILITARY ACTIVITY
ÜAVSHIPS
13. ABSTRACT
Experiments were conducted in deep-ocean environments to deter- mine whether unusual corrosion phenomena exist at great depths that are not present in water near the surface. A total of five expo- sures were made at various locations in the Pacific Ocean. Two exposures were at 5640 feet, and one each at 2J40, 5300, and 6780 feet. In some cases, similar tests were conducted in shallow water. Results from general corrosion tests of metals representing six typical alloy classes, and also from crevice-corrosion tests on a stainless steel and nickel alloy, revealed that, in general, there were no major differences between corrosion phenomena in deep-ocean and shallow-water environments. Variations in behavioral patterns that were observed could largely be explained on the basis of differences in oxygen content.
(author)
DD FORM I JAN •« 1473 Unclassified
Soctuity ClEEBjficEäon
I
7
itcwfity eiwUioti— unclassified 14.
KIV WORDS
Deep Ocean Environments Shallow Water Metal Corrosion General Corrosion Crevice Corrosion Carbon Steel Stainless Alloys Copper Alloys Nickel Alloys Titanium Alloys Aluminum Alloys
DD ,',5?„.473 (BACK> (PAGE 2)
LINK A
ROWS WT
LINK • LINK e ROUC WT ROLK WT
Unclassified Security Classification
