Annaliza G. Pagal BSIP-IIE Mrs. Marinias

8/14/2019 Annaliza G. Pagal BSIP-IIE Mrs. Marinias

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Annaliza G. Pagal

BSIP-IIE

Mrs. Marinias



Experiment

In the scientific method, an experiment (Latin: ex-+-periri, "of (or from)trying"), is a set of actions and observations, performed in the context of solving aparticular problem or question, to support or falsify a hypothesis or research

concerning phenomena. The experiment is a cornerstone in the empirical approachto acquiring deeper knowledge about the physical world.

Scientific method

Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring newknowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.[1] A scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation andexperimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses. Although procedures vary from one fieldof inquiry to another, identifiable features distinguish scientific inquiry from other methodologies of knowledge. Scientific researchers propose hypotheses as explanations of phenomena, and designexperimental studies to test these hypotheses. These steps must be repeatable in order to dependably

predict any future results. Theories that encompass wider domains of inquiry may bind manyindependently-derived hypotheses together in a coherent, supportive structure. This in turn may help formnew hypotheses or place groups of hypotheses into context.

Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists andother social scientists. This technique involves observing subjects in their natural environment.This type of research is often utilized in situations where conducting lab research is unrealistic,cost prohibitive or would unduly affect the subject's behavior.One of the advantages of this typeof research is that it allows the researcher to directly observe the subject in a natural setting. Thedisadvantages of naturalistic observation include the fact that it can be difficult to determine theexact cause of a behavior and the experimenter cannot control for outside variables.

Experimental Observation the observation in a restricted setting.Experimental Observers make empirical observations from repeatable publicevents. In addition, Experimental Observations are made under controlledconditions where an experimental scientist manipulates the environment sothat the critical events occur at a specified time and place.

Armchair Experimentation refers to the habit of substituting reasoningalone for scientific experimentation in seeking the solution to a problem.Armchair experimentation is dangerous because all deductive proceduresbegin with the acceptance of usually two premises as being true.

Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such as sociology and psychology, physics, chemistry, biology and medicine etc.It is a collection of research designs which use

manipulation and controlled testing to understand causal processes. Generally, one or morevariables are manipulated to determine their effect on a dependent variable.

Experimental Research is often used where:

1. There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect)

2. There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect)

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3. The magnitude of the correlation is great.

Laboratory reports

Laboratory reports are written for several reasons. One reason is tocommunicate the laboratory work to management. In such situations, management

often bases company decisions on the results of the report. Another reason to writelaboratory reports is to archive the work so that the work will not have to be done inthe future. This web page presents a commonly used organization for laboratoryreports:

Abstract,Introduction,Procedures,Results and Discussion,Conclusions, andAppendices.

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They providesimple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple graphics analysis,they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data.Descriptive statistics aretypically distinguished from inferential statistics. With descriptive statistics you are simplydescribing what is or what the data shows. With inferential statistics, you are trying to reachconclusions that extend beyond the immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferentialstatistics to try to infer from the sample data what the population might think. Or, we useinferential statistics to make judgments of the probability that an observed difference between

groups is a dependable one or one that might have happened by chance in this study. Thus, weuse inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more general conditions; we usedescriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on in our data.Descriptive Statistics areused to present quantitative descriptions in a manageable form. In a research study we may havelots of measures. Or we may measure a large number of people on any measure. Descriptivestatistics help us to simply large amounts of data in a sensible way. Each descriptive statisticreduces lots of data into a simpler summary. For instance, consider a simple number used tosummarize how well a batter is performing in baseball, the batting average. This single number is simply the number of hits divided by the number of times at bat (reported to three significantdigits). A batter who is hitting .333 is getting a hit one time in every three at bats. One batting .250 is hitting one time in four. The single number describes a large number of discrete events.Or, consider the scourge of many students, the Grade Point Average (GPA). This single number

describes the general performance of a student across a potentially wide range of courseexperiences.

Hypothesis

A hypothesis (from Greek ' ) consists either of a suggested explanation for anobservable phenomenon.

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-a proposal intended to explain certain facts or observations-a tentative insight into the natural world; a concept that is not yet verified but that if true wouldexplain certain facts or phenomena; "a scientific hypothesis that survives experimental testing becomes a scientific theory"; "he proposed a fresh theory of alkalis that later was accepted in ...-guess: a message expressing an opinion based on incomplete evidence.

Null hypothesis

A null hypothesis is a hypothesis (within the context of statistical hypothesis testing) that might be falsified on the basis of observed data.[1] The null hypothesis typically proposes a general or default position, such as that there is no relationship between two quantities [2], or that there is nodifference between a treatment and the control.[3] The term was originally coined by English geneticist and statistician Ronald Fisher .

The null hypothesis (often denoted by H 0) formally describes some aspect of the statistical"behaviour" of a set of data. This description is assumed to be valid unless the actual behaviour of the data contradicts this assumption. Thus, the null hypothesis is contrasted against another or alternative hypothesis. Statistical hypothesis testing, which involves a number of steps, is used to

decide whether the data contradicts the null hypothesis. This is called significance testing. A nullhypothesis is never proven by such methods, as the absence of evidence against the nullhypothesis does not establish its truth. In other words, one may either reject , or not reject the nullhypothesis; one cannot accept it. This means that one cannot make decisions or draw conclusionsthat assume the truth of the null hypothesis. Just as failing to reject it does not "prove" the nullhypothesis, one does not conclude that the alternative hypothesis is disproven or rejected, eventhough this seems reasonable. One simply concludes that the null hypothesis is not rejected.[clarification needed ] Not rejecting the null hypothesis still allows for getting new data to test thealternative hypothesis again. On the other hand, rejecting the null hypothesis only means that thealternative hypothesis may be true, pending further testing.

Induction.

An inference in which the conclusion contains information that was notcontained in the premises.

Intuition may refer to:

• Intuition (philosophy), the act by which the mind perceives the agreement or disagreement of two ideas

• Intuition (knowledge), understanding without apparent effort.

•

Serendipity is the effect by which one accidentally stumbles upon something fortunate,especially while looking for something entirely unrelated. The word has been voted as one of theten English words that were hardest to translate in June 2004 by a British translation company.[1]

However, due to its sociological use, the word has been imported into many other languages(Portuguese serendipicidade or serendipidade; French sérendipicité or sérendipité but alsoheureux hasard , "fortunate chance"; Italian serendipità[2]; Dutch serendipiteit ; GermanSerendipität ; Swedish, Danish and Norwegian serendipitet ; Romanian serendipitate; Spanish serendipia).

Deduction may refer to: in logic:


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• Deductive reasoning, inference in which the conclusion is of no greater generality thanthe premises

• Natural deduction, an approach to proof theory that attempts to provide a formal model of logical reasoning as it "naturally" occur.

Dependent and independent variables

The terms "dependent variable" and "independent variable" are used in similar but subtlydifferent ways in mathematics and statistics as part of the standard terminology in those subjects.They are used to distinguish between two types of quantities being considered, separating theminto those available at the start of a process and those being created by it, where the latter (dependent variables) are dependent on the former (independent variables).[citation needed ]

Dependent Variable:

A dependent variable is what you measure in the experiment and what is affected during

the experiment. The dependent variable responds to the independent variable. It is calleddependent because it "depends" on the independent variable. In a scientific experiment, youcannot have a dependent variable without an independent variable.Example: You are interestedin how stress affects heart rate in humans. Your independent variable would be the stress and thedependent variable would be the heart rate. You can directly manipulate stress levels in your human subjects and measure how those stress levels change heart rate.

Independent variable

An independent variable is a variable that is manipulated to determine the value of a dependentvariable s. The dependent variable is what is being measured in an experiment or evaluated in amathematical equation and the independent variables are the inputs to that measurement.

In a simple mathematical equation, for example:a = b/c the independent variables, b and c ,

determine the value of a .Here's a simple example:A teacher wishes to compare the number of tardy students wearing black with the number of tardy students wearing pink. In this scenario, clothing color is the independent variable and thedifference in the number of students, categorized by clothing color, is the dependent variable.

Experimental psychology is a methodological approach rather than a subject and encompassesvaried fields within psychology. Experimental psychologists have traditionally conductedresearch, published articles, and taught classes on neuroscience, developmental psychology,sensation, perception, attention, consciousness, learning, memory, thinking, and language. Recently, however, the experimental approach has extended to motivation, emotion, and social psychology.

Experimental psychologists conduct research with the help of experimental methods. Theconcern of experimental psychology is discovering the processes underlying behavior andcognition.

Extraneous variables

:often classified into three types:

1. Subject variables, which are the characteristics of the individuals being studied that mightaffect their actions. These variables include age, gender, health status, mood, background,etc.

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2. Experimental variables are characteristics of the persons conducting the experimentwhich might influence how a person behaves. Gender, the presence of racialdiscrimination, language, or other factors may qualify as such variables.

3. Situational variables are features of the environment in which the study or research wasconducted, which have a bearing on the outcome of the experiment in a negative way.

Included are the air temperature, level of activity, lighting, and the time of day.Non-experimental designs

Perhaps the simplest design is the correlational design or quasi-experimental design. A studyqualifies as correlational if the data lend themselves only to interpretations about the degree towhich certain things tend to co-occur or are related to each other. For example, a social psychologist might be interested in the degree to which children who watch violent televisionshows tend to aggress at their classmates on the playground. To conduct this study, a set of children are observed for a period of one month by a set of trained observers, who record the

number of violent acts the child engages in (e.g., hitting another child). Each child�s parent isasked to answer a set of questions about which television shows the child has been exposed to inthe last month. Of interest in this part of the data collection phase is how many, and how often,

certain television shows watched by the child in the last month were classified by the Australianrating system as containing violence. At the end of the data collection, the research would haverecorded for each child a number reflecting his or her violence on the playground, and a number reflecting the amount of violence the child is exposed to on television. Of interest to theinvestigator is whether violent behaviour (high "scores" on the measure of playground violence)tends to occur more so in children with high "scores" on the measure of exposure to televisionviolence (and vice-versa with low "scores" being paired with low scores). If so, we can say thatexposure to violent television is correlated positively with actual violent behaviour.

Quasi-Experimental Design

A quasi-experimental design is one that looks a bit like an experimental design but lacks the keyingredient -- random assignment. My mentor, Don Campbell, often referred to them as "queasy"experiments because they give the experimental purists a queasy feeling. With respect to internalvalidity, they often appear to be inferior to randomized experiments. But there is somethingcompelling about these designs; taken as a group, they are easily more frequently implementedthan their randomized cousins.

I'm not going to try to cover the quasi-experimental designs comprehensively. Instead, I'll present two of the classic quasi-experimental designs in some detail and show how we analyzethem. Probably the most commonly used quasi-experimental design (and it may be the mostcommonly used of all designs) is the nonequivalent groups design. In its simplest form it requiresa pretest and posttest for a treated and comparison group. It's identical to the Analysis of

Covariance design except that the groups are not created through random assignment. You willsee that the lack of random assignment, and the potential nonequivalence between the groups,complicates the statistical analysis of the nonequivalent groups design.

Informed consent is a phrase often used in the law to indicate that the consent a person givesmeets certain minimum standards. As a literal matter, in the absence of fraud, it is redundant. Aninformed consent can be said to have been given based upon a clear appreciation andunderstanding of the facts, implications and future consequences of an action. In order to giveinformed consent, the individual concerned must have adequate reasoning faculties and be in

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possession of all relevant facts at the time consent is given. Impairments to reasoning and judgement which would make it impossible for someone to give informed consent include suchfactors as severe mental retardation, severe mental illness, intoxication, severe sleep deprivation, Alzheimer's disease, or being in a coma. This term was first used in a 1957 medical malpracticecase by Paul G. Gebhard.

Some acts cannot legally take place because of a lack of informed consent. In cases where anindividual is considered unable to give informed consent, another person is generally authorizedto give consent on his behalf, e.g., parents or legal guardians of a child and caregivers for thementally ill. However, if a severely injured person is brought to hospital in an unconscious stateand no-one is available to give informed consent, doctors will give whatever treatment isnecessary to save their life (according to the Hippocratic oath), which might involve major surgery, e.g., amputation.

In cases where an individual is provided insufficient information to form a reasoned decision,serious ethical issues arise. Such cases in a clinical trial in medical research are anticipated and prevented by an ethics committee or Institutional Review Board.

Early experimental psychology

Experimental psychology emerged as a modern academic discipline in the 19th century whenWilhelm Wundt introduced a mathematical and experimental approach to the field and founded both the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany and the structuralist school of psychology[1]. Other early experimental psychologists, including Hermann Ebbinghaus andEdward Titchener , included introspection among their experimental methods.

George Trumbull Ladd was the first to introduce (1879) the study of experimental psychologyinto America; he founded the Yale University psychological laboratory. In 1887, he publishedElements of Physiological Psychology, the first American textbook to include a substantialamount of information on the new experimental form of the discipline.

[edit] 20th Century

In the first half of the twentieth century, behaviourism became a dominant paradigm within psychology, especially in the United States. This led to some neglect of mental phenomenawithin experimental psychology. In Europe this was less the case, as European psychology wasinfluenced by psychologists such as Sir Frederic Bartlett, Kenneth Craik , W. E. Hick and DonaldBroadbent, who focused on topics such as thinking, memory and attention. This laid thefoundations for the subsequent development of cognitive psychology.

In the latter half of the twentieth century, the phrase "experimental psychology" has shifted inmeaning due to the expansion of psychology as a discipline and the growth in the size and

number of its sub-disciplines. Experimental psychologists use a range of methods and do notconfine themselves to a strictly experimental approach, partly because developments in the philosophy of science have had an impact on the exclusive prestige of experimentation. Incontrast, an experimental method is now widely used in fields such as developmental and social psychology, which were not previously part of experimental psychology. The phrase continues inuse, however, in the titles of a number of well-established, high prestige learned societies andscientific journals, as well as some university courses of study in psychology.

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Lynneth Gay Garcia

BSIP-IIE



Mrs. Marinias

Alex B. Soriano

BSIP-IIE



Mrs. Marinias

Rose Anne B. Gonzales



BSIP-IIE

Mrs. MariniasExperiment

In the scientific method, an experiment (Latin: ex-+-periri, "of (or from) trying"), is a set of

actions and observations, performed in the context of solving a particular problem or question,

to support or falsify a hypothesis or research concerning phenomena. The experiment is a

cornerstone in the empirical approach to acquiring deeper knowledge about the physical world.

Scientific method

Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiringnew knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, amethod of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.[1] A scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses.Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features distinguishscientific inquiry from other methodologies of knowledge. Scientific researchers proposehypotheses as explanations of phenomena, and design experimental studies to test thesehypotheses. These steps must be repeatable in order to dependably predict any future results.Theories that encompass wider domains of inquiry may bind many independently-derivedhypotheses together in a coherent, supportive structure. This in turn may help form newhypotheses or place groups of hypotheses into context.

Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used bypsychologists and other social scientists. This technique involves observing subjects intheir natural environment. This type of research is often utilized in situations whereconducting lab research is unrealistic, cost prohibitive or would unduly affect thesubject's behavior.One of the advantages of this type of research is that it allows theresearcher to directly observe the subject in a natural setting. The disadvantages of naturalistic observation include the fact that it can be difficult to determine the exactcause of a behavior and the experimenter cannot control for outside variables.

Experimental Observation the observation in a restricted setting.Experimental Observers make empirical observations from repeatable public events. Inaddition, Experimental Observations are made under controlled conditions where anexperimental scientist manipulates the environment so that the critical events occur at aspecified time and place.

Armchair Experimentation refers to the habit of substituting reasoningalone for scientific experimentation in seeking the solution to a problem. Armchair










































experimentation is dangerous because all deductive procedures begin with theacceptance of usually two premises as being true.

Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such as sociologyand psychology, physics, chemistry, biology and medicine etc.It is a collection of research designs which use manipulation and controlled testing to understand causal

processes. Generally, one or more variables are manipulated to determine their effecton a dependent variable.


1. There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect)

2. There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to thesame effect)


Laboratory reports

Laboratory reports are written for several reasons. One reason is to communicate the

laboratory work to management. In such situations, management often bases company

decisions on the results of the report. Another reason to write laboratory reports is to archive the

work so that the work will not have to be done in the future. This web page presents a

commonly used organization for laboratory reports:

Abstract,Introduction,Procedures,Results and Discussion,

Conclusions, andAppendices.


Descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in astudy. They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysisof data.Descriptive statistics are typically distinguished from inferential statistics. Withdescriptive statistics you are simply describing what is or what the data shows. Withinferential statistics, you are trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond theimmediate data alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to try to infer from thesample data what the population might think. Or, we use inferential statistics to make

judgments of the probability that an observed difference between groups is adependable one or one that might have happened by chance in this study. Thus, weuse inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more general conditions;we use descriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on in our data.DescriptiveStatistics are used to present quantitative descriptions in a manageable form. In aresearch study we may have lots of measures. Or we may measure a large number of people on any measure. Descriptive statistics help us to simply large amounts of data in













a sensible way. Each descriptive statistic reduces lots of data into a simpler summary.For instance, consider a simple number used to summarize how well a batter isperforming in baseball, the batting average. This single number is simply the number of hits divided by the number of times at bat (reported to three significant digits). A batter who is hitting .333 is getting a hit one time in every three at bats. One batting .250 ishitting one time in four. The single number describes a large number of discrete events.Or, consider the scourge of many students, the Grade Point Average (GPA). This singlenumber describes the general performance of a student across a potentially wide rangeof course experiences.

Hypothesis

A hypothesis (from Greek ' ) consists either of a suggested explanation for an observable

phenomenon.

-a proposal intended to explain certain facts or observations-a tentative insight into the natural world; a concept that is not yet verified but that if true

would explain certain facts or phenomena; "a scientific hypothesis that survivesexperimental testing becomes a scientific theory"; "he proposed a fresh theory of alkalisthat later was accepted in ...-guess: a message expressing an opinion based on incomplete evidence.

Null hypothesis

A null hypothesis is a hypothesis (within the context of statistical hypothesis testing)that might be falsified on the basis of observed data.[1] The null hypothesis typicallyproposes a general or default position, such as that there is no relationship between twoquantities[2], or that there is no difference between a treatment and the control. [3] Theterm was originally coined by English geneticist and statistician Ronald Fisher .

The null hypothesis (often denoted by H 0) formally describes some aspect of thestatistical "behaviour" of a set of data. This description is assumed to be valid unless theactual behaviour of the data contradicts this assumption. Thus, the null hypothesis iscontrasted against another or alternative hypothesis. Statistical hypothesis testing,which involves a number of steps, is used to decide whether the data contradicts thenull hypothesis. This is called significance testing. A null hypothesis is never proven bysuch methods, as the absence of evidence against the null hypothesis does notestablish its truth. In other words, one may either reject , or not reject the null hypothesis;one cannot accept it. This means that one cannot make decisions or draw conclusionsthat assume the truth of the null hypothesis. Just as failing to reject it does not "prove"the null hypothesis, one does not conclude that the alternative hypothesis is disproven

or rejected, even though this seems reasonable. One simply concludes that the nullhypothesis is not rejected.[clarification needed ] Not rejecting the null hypothesis still allows for getting new data to test the alternative hypothesis again. On the other hand, rejectingthe null hypothesis only means that the alternative hypothesis may be true, pendingfurther testing.

Induction.An inference in which the conclusion contains information that was not containedin the premises.






















• Intuition (philosophy), the act by which the mind perceives the agreement or disagreement of two ideas

• Intuition (knowledge), understanding without apparent effort.

•

Serendipity is the effect by which one accidentally stumbles upon somethingfortunate, especially while looking for something entirely unrelated. The word has beenvoted as one of the ten English words that were hardest to translate in June 2004 by aBritish translation company.[1] However, due to its sociological use, the word has beenimported into many other languages (Portuguese serendipicidade or serendipidade;French sérendipicité or sérendipité but also heureux hasard , "fortunate chance"; Italian serendipità[2]; Dutch serendipiteit ; German Serendipität ; Swedish, Danish andNorwegian serendipitet ; Romanian serendipitate; Spanish serendipia).


• Deductive reasoning, inference in which the conclusion is of no greater generalitythan the premises

• Natural deduction, an approach to proof theory that attempts to provide a formalmodel of logical reasoning as it "naturally" occur.


The terms "dependent variable" and "independent variable" are used in similar butsubtly different ways in mathematics and statistics as part of the standard terminology inthose subjects. They are used to distinguish between two types of quantities being

considered, separating them into those available at the start of a process and thosebeing created by it, where the latter (dependent variables) are dependent on the former (independent variables).[citation needed ]

Dependent Variable:

A dependent variable is what you measure in the experiment and what isaffected during the experiment. The dependent variable responds to the independentvariable. It is called dependent because it "depends" on the independent variable. In ascientific experiment, you cannot have a dependent variable without an independentvariable.Example: You are interested in how stress affects heart rate in humans. Your independent variable would be the stress and the dependent variable would be theheart rate. You can directly manipulate stress levels in your human subjects and

measure how those stress levels change heart rate.


An independent variable is a variable that is manipulated to determine the value of adependent variable s. The dependent variable is what is being measured in anexperiment or evaluated in a mathematical equation and the independent variables arethe inputs to that measurement.






















































In a simple mathematical equation, for example:a = b/c the independent variables, band c , determine the value of a .Here's a simple example:A teacher wishes to compare the number of tardy students wearing black with thenumber of tardy students wearing pink. In this scenario, clothing color is theindependent variable and the difference in the number of students, categorized byclothing color, is the dependent variable.

Experimental psychology is a methodological approach rather than a subject andencompasses varied fields within psychology. Experimental psychologists havetraditionally conducted research, published articles, and taught classes onneuroscience, developmental psychology, sensation, perception, attention,consciousness, learning, memory, thinking, and language. Recently, however, theexperimental approach has extended to motivation, emotion, and social psychology.

Experimental psychologists conduct research with the help of experimental methods.The concern of experimental psychology is discovering the processes underlyingbehavior and cognition.



1. Subject variables, which are the characteristics of the individuals being studiedthat might affect their actions. These variables include age, gender, health status,mood, background, etc.

2. Experimental variables are characteristics of the persons conducting theexperiment which might influence how a person behaves. Gender, the presenceof racial discrimination, language, or other factors may qualify as such variables.

3. Situational variables are features of the environment in which the study or research was conducted, which have a bearing on the outcome of theexperiment in a negative way. Included are the air temperature, level of activity,lighting, and the time of day.

Non-experimental designs

Perhaps the simplest design is the correlational design or quasi-experimentaldesign. A study qualifies as correlational if the data lend themselves only tointerpretations about the degree to which certain things tend to co-occur or are relatedto each other. For example, a social psychologist might be interested in the degree towhich children who watch violent television shows tend to aggress at their classmateson the playground. To conduct this study, a set of children are observed for a period of one month by a set of trained observers, who record the number of violent acts the childengages in (e.g., hitting another child). Each child�s parent is asked to answer a set of

questions about which television shows the child has been exposed to in the last month.Of interest in this part of the data collection phase is how many, and how often, certaintelevision shows watched by the child in the last month were classified by the Australianrating system as containing violence. At the end of the data collection, the researchwould have recorded for each child a number reflecting his or her violence on theplayground, and a number reflecting the amount of violence the child is exposed to ontelevision. Of interest to the investigator is whether violent behaviour (high "scores" onthe measure of playground violence) tends to occur more so in children with high
































"scores" on the measure of exposure to television violence (and vice-versa with low"scores" being paired with low scores). If so, we can say that exposure to violenttelevision is correlated positively with actual violent behaviour.


A quasi-experimental design is one that looks a bit like an experimental design but lacksthe key ingredient -- random assignment. My mentor, Don Campbell, often referred tothem as "queasy" experiments because they give the experimental purists a queasyfeeling. With respect to internal validity, they often appear to be inferior to randomizedexperiments. But there is something compelling about these designs; taken as a group,they are easily more frequently implemented than their randomized cousins.

I'm not going to try to cover the quasi-experimental designs comprehensively. Instead,I'll present two of the classic quasi-experimental designs in some detail and show howwe analyze them. Probably the most commonly used quasi-experimental design (and itmay be the most commonly used of all designs) is the nonequivalent groups design. In

its simplest form it requires a pretest and posttest for a treated and comparison group.It's identical to the Analysis of Covariance design except that the groups are not createdthrough random assignment. You will see that the lack of random assignment, and thepotential nonequivalence between the groups, complicates the statistical analysis of thenonequivalent groups design.

Informed consent is a phrase often used in the law to indicate that the consent aperson gives meets certain minimum standards. As a literal matter, in the absence of fraud, it is redundant. An informed consent can be said to have been given based upona clear appreciation and understanding of the facts, implications and futureconsequences of an action. In order to give informed consent, the individual concernedmust have adequate reasoning faculties and be in possession of all relevant facts at the

time consent is given. Impairments to reasoning and judgement which would make itimpossible for someone to give informed consent include such factors as severe mentalretardation, severe mental illness, intoxication, severe sleep deprivation, Alzheimer'sdisease, or being in a coma. This term was first used in a 1957 medical malpracticecase by Paul G. Gebhard.

Some acts cannot legally take place because of a lack of informed consent. In caseswhere an individual is considered unable to give informed consent, another person isgenerally authorized to give consent on his behalf, e.g., parents or legal guardians of achild and caregivers for the mentally ill. However, if a severely injured person is broughtto hospital in an unconscious state and no-one is available to give informed consent,doctors will give whatever treatment is necessary to save their life (according to the

Hippocratic oath), which might involve major surgery, e.g., amputation.In cases where an individual is provided insufficient information to form a reasoneddecision, serious ethical issues arise. Such cases in a clinical trial in medical research are anticipated and prevented by an ethics committee or Institutional Review Board.


Experimental psychology emerged as a modern academic discipline in the 19th centurywhen Wilhelm Wundt introduced a mathematical and experimental approach to the field
























































and founded both the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany and thestructuralist school of psychology[1]. Other early experimental psychologists, includingHermann Ebbinghaus and Edward Titchener , included introspection among their experimental methods.George Trumbull Ladd was the first to introduce (1879) the studyof experimental psychology into America; he founded the Yale University psychologicallaboratory. In 1887, he published Elements of Physiological Psychology, the firstAmerican textbook to include a substantial amount of information on the newexperimental form of the discipline.

20th CenturyIn the first half of the twentieth century, behaviourism became a dominant

paradigm within psychology, especially in the United States. This led to some neglect of

mental phenomena within experimental psychology. In Europe this was less the case, as

European psychology was influenced by psychologists such as Sir Frederic Bartlett,

Kenneth Craik, W. E. Hick and Donald Broadbent, who focused on topics such as

thinking, memory and attention. This laid the foundations for the subsequent

development of cognitive psychology.

In the latter half of the twentieth century, the phrase "experimental psychology" hasshifted in meaning due to the expansion of psychology as a discipline and the growth inthe size and number of its sub-disciplines. Experimental psychologists use a range of methods and do not confine themselves to a strictly experimental approach, partlybecause developments in the philosophy of science have had an impact on theexclusive prestige of experimentation. In contrast, an experimental method is nowwidely used in fields such as developmental and social psychology, which were notpreviously part of experimental psychology. The phrase continues in use, however, inthe titles of a number of well-established, high prestige learned societies and scientific

journals, as well as some university courses of study in psychology.

Experiment

In the scientific method, an experiment (Latin: ex-+-periri,"of (or from) trying"), is a set of actions and observations,performed in the context of solving a particular problem orquestion, to support or falsify a hypothesis or research concerningphenomena. The experiment is a cornerstone in the empiricalapproach to acquiring deeper knowledge about the physicalworld.

Scientific methodScientific method refers to a body of techniques for

investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correctingand integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, amethod of inquiry must be based on gathering observable,empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles










































































of reasoning.[1] A scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and theformulation and testing of hypotheses. Although procedures varyfrom one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features

distinguish scientific inquiry from other methodologies of knowledge. Scientific researchers propose hypotheses asexplanations of phenomena, and design experimental studies totest these hypotheses. These steps must be repeatable in orderto dependably predict any future results. Theories thatencompass wider domains of inquiry may bind manyindependently-derived hypotheses together in a coherent,supportive structure. This in turn may help form new hypothesesor place groups of hypotheses into context.

Naturalistic observation is a research method commonlyused by psychologists and other social scientists. This techniqueinvolves observing subjects in their natural environment. Thistype of research is often utilized in situations where conductinglab research is unrealistic, cost prohibitive or would unduly affectthe subject's behavior.One of the advantages of this type of research is that it allows the researcher to directly observe thesubject in a natural setting. The disadvantages of naturalisticobservation include the fact that it can be difficult to determinethe exact cause of a behavior and the experimenter cannot

control for outside variables.Experimental Observation the observation in a restricted

setting. Experimental Observers make empirical observationsfrom repeatable public events. In addition, ExperimentalObservations are made under controlled conditions where anexperimental scientist manipulates the environment so that thecritical events occur at a specified time and place.

Armchair Experimentation refers to the habit of substituting reasoning alone for scientific experimentation inseeking the solution to a problem. Armchair experimentation isdangerous because all deductive procedures begin with theacceptance of usually two premises as being true.

Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such associology and psychology, physics, chemistry, biology andmedicine etc.It is a collection of research designs which use























manipulation and controlled testing to understand causalprocesses. Generally, one or more variables are manipulated todetermine their effect on a dependent variable.


1. There is time priority in a causal relationship (causeprecedes effect)

2. There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause willalways lead to the same effect)


Laboratory reports

Laboratory reports are written for several reasons. Onereason is to communicate the laboratory work to management. Insuch situations, management often bases company decisions onthe results of the report. Another reason to write laboratoryreports is to archive the work so that the work will not have to bedone in the future. This web page presents a commonly usedorganization for laboratory reports:



Descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic features of

the data in a study. They provide simple summaries about thesample and the measures. Together with simple graphicsanalysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitativeanalysis of data.Descriptive statistics are typically distinguishedfrom inferential statistics. With descriptive statistics you aresimply describing what is or what the data shows. With inferentialstatistics, you are trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond













the immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferentialstatistics to try to infer from the sample data what the populationmight think. Or, we use inferential statistics to make judgments of the probability that an observed difference between groups is a

dependable one or one that might have happened by chance inthis study. Thus, we use inferential statistics to make inferencesfrom our data to more general conditions; we use descriptivestatistics simply to describe what's going on in ourdata.Descriptive Statistics are used to present quantitativedescriptions in a manageable form. In a research study we mayhave lots of measures. Or we may measure a large number of people on any measure. Descriptive statistics help us to simplylarge amounts of data in a sensible way. Each descriptive statisticreduces lots of data into a simpler summary. For instance,

consider a simple number used to summarize how well a batter isperforming in baseball, the batting average. This single number issimply the number of hits divided by the number of times at bat(reported to three significant digits). A batter who is hitting .333 isgetting a hit one time in every three at bats. One batting .250 ishitting one time in four. The single number describes a largenumber of discrete events. Or, consider the scourge of manystudents, the Grade Point Average (GPA). This single numberdescribes the general performance of a student across a

potentially wide range of course experiences.Hypothesis

A hypothesis (from Greek ' ) consists either of a suggestedexplanation for an observable phenomenon.

-a proposal intended to explain certain facts or observations-a tentative insight into the natural world; a concept that is notyet verified but that if true would explain certain facts orphenomena; "a scientific hypothesis that survives experimentaltesting becomes a scientific theory"; "he proposed a fresh theoryof alkalis that later was accepted in ...-guess: a message expressing an opinion based on incompleteevidence.



Null hypothesis

A null hypothesis is a hypothesis (within the context of statistical hypothesis testing) that might be falsified on the basisof observed data.[1] The null hypothesis typically proposes a

general or default position, such as that there is no relationshipbetween two quantities[2], or that there is no difference between atreatment and the control.[3] The term was originally coined byEnglish geneticist and statistician Ronald Fisher.

The null hypothesis (often denoted by H0) formally describessome aspect of the statistical "behaviour" of a set of data. Thisdescription is assumed to be valid unless the actual behaviour of the data contradicts this assumption. Thus, the null hypothesis iscontrasted against another or alternative hypothesis. Statistical

hypothesis testing, which involves a number of steps, is used todecide whether the data contradicts the null hypothesis. This iscalled significance testing. A null hypothesis is never proven bysuch methods, as the absence of evidence against the nullhypothesis does not establish its truth. In other words, one mayeither reject , or not reject the null hypothesis; one cannot accept it. This means that one cannot make decisions or drawconclusions that assume the truth of the null hypothesis. Just asfailing to reject it does not "prove" the null hypothesis, one doesnot conclude that the alternative hypothesis is disproven orrejected, even though this seems reasonable. One simplyconcludes that the null hypothesis is not rejected.[clarification needed] Notrejecting the null hypothesis still allows for getting new data totest the alternative hypothesis again. On the other hand, rejectingthe null hypothesis only means that the alternative hypothesismay be true, pending further testing.

Induction.An inference in which the conclusion contains informationthat was not contained in the premises.


• Intuition (philosophy), the act by which the mind perceivesthe agreement or disagreement of two ideas

• Intuition (knowledge), understanding without apparenteffort.

























•

Serendipity is the effect by which one accidentally stumblesupon something fortunate, especially while looking for somethingentirely unrelated. The word has been voted as one of the ten

English words that were hardest to translate in June 2004 by aBritish translation company.[1] However, due to its sociologicaluse, the word has been imported into many other languages(Portuguese serendipicidade or serendipidade; French sérendipicité or sérendipité but also heureux hasard, "fortunatechance"; Italian serendipità[2]; Dutch serendipiteit ; German Serendipität ; Swedish, Danish and Norwegian serendipitet ;Romanian serendipitate; Spanish serendipia).


• Deductive reasoning, inference in which the conclusion is of no greater generality than the premises

• Natural deduction, an approach to proof theory thatattempts to provide a formal model of logical reasoning as it"naturally" occur.


The terms "dependent variable" and "independent variable"are used in similar but subtly different ways in mathematics andstatistics as part of the standard terminology in those subjects.

They are used to distinguish between two types of quantitiesbeing considered, separating them into those available at thestart of a process and those being created by it, where the latter(dependent variables) are dependent on the former (independentvariables).[citation needed]

Dependent Variable:

A dependent variable is what you measure in the experimentand what is affected during the experiment. The dependentvariable responds to the independent variable. It is calleddependent because it "depends" on the independent variable. Ina scientific experiment, you cannot have a dependent variablewithout an independent variable.Example: You are interested inhow stress affects heart rate in humans. Your independent









































variable would be the stress and the dependent variable would bethe heart rate. You can directly manipulate stress levels in yourhuman subjects and measure how those stress levels changeheart rate.

Independent variableAn independent variable is a variable that is manipulated todetermine the value of a dependent variable s. The dependentvariable is what is being measured in an experiment or evaluatedin a mathematical equation and the independent variables are theinputs to that measurement.

In a simple mathematical equation, for example:a = b/c theindependent variables, b and c , determine the value of a .Here'sa simple example:

A teacher wishes to compare the number of tardy studentswearing black with the number of tardy students wearing pink. Inthis scenario, clothing color is the independent variable and thedifference in the number of students, categorized by clothingcolor, is the dependent variable.

Experimental psychology is a methodological approach ratherthan a subject and encompasses varied fields within psychology.Experimental psychologists have traditionally conductedresearch, published articles, and taught classes on neuroscience,

developmental psychology, sensation, perception, attention,consciousness, learning, memory, thinking, and language.Recently, however, the experimental approach has extended tomotivation, emotion, and social psychology.

Experimental psychologists conduct research with the help of experimental methods. The concern of experimental psychologyis discovering the processes underlying behavior and cognition.


:often classified into three types:1. Subject variables, which are the characteristics of theindividuals being studied that might affect their actions.

These variables include age, gender, health status, mood,background, etc.



































2. Experimental variables are characteristics of the personsconducting the experiment which might influence how aperson behaves. Gender, the presence of racialdiscrimination, language, or other factors may qualify as

such variables.3. Situational variables are features of the environment inwhich the study or research was conducted, which have abearing on the outcome of the experiment in a negativeway. Included are the air temperature, level of activity,lighting, and the time of day.


Perhaps the simplest design is the correlational design orquasi-experimental design. A study qualifies as correlational if

the data lend themselves only to interpretations about the degreeto which certain things tend to co-occur or are related to eachother. For example, a social psychologist might be interested inthe degree to which children who watch violent television showstend to aggress at their classmates on the playground. Toconduct this study, a set of children are observed for a period of one month by a set of trained observers, who record the numberof violent acts the child engages in (e.g., hitting another child).Each child�s parent is asked to answer a set of questions about

which television shows the child has been exposed to in the lastmonth. Of interest in this part of the data collection phase is howmany, and how often, certain television shows watched by thechild in the last month were classified by the Australian ratingsystem as containing violence. At the end of the data collection,the research would have recorded for each child a numberreflecting his or her violence on the playground, and a numberreflecting the amount of violence the child is exposed to ontelevision. Of interest to the investigator is whether violentbehaviour (high "scores" on the measure of playground violence)tends to occur more so in children with high "scores" on themeasure of exposure to television violence (and vice-versa withlow "scores" being paired with low scores). If so, we can say thatexposure to violent television is correlated positively with actualviolent behaviour.




A quasi-experimental design is one that looks a bit like anexperimental design but lacks the key ingredient -- randomassignment. My mentor, Don Campbell, often referred to them as

"queasy" experiments because they give the experimental puristsa queasy feeling. With respect to internal validity, they oftenappear to be inferior to randomized experiments. But there issomething compelling about these designs; taken as a group,they are easily more frequently implemented than theirrandomized cousins.

I'm not going to try to cover the quasi-experimental designscomprehensively. Instead, I'll present two of the classic quasi-experimental designs in some detail and show how we analyze

them. Probably the most commonly used quasi-experimentaldesign (and it may be the most commonly used of all designs) isthe nonequivalent groups design. In its simplest form it requires apretest and posttest for a treated and comparison group. It'sidentical to the Analysis of Covariance design except that thegroups are not created through random assignment. You will seethat the lack of random assignment, and the potentialnonequivalence between the groups, complicates the statisticalanalysis of the nonequivalent groups design.

Informed consent is a phrase often used in the law to indicatethat the consent a person gives meets certain minimumstandards. As a literal matter, in the absence of fraud, it isredundant. An informed consent can be said to have been givenbased upon a clear appreciation and understanding of the facts,implications and future consequences of an action. In order togive informed consent, the individual concerned must haveadequate reasoning faculties and be in possession of all relevantfacts at the time consent is given. Impairments to reasoning and

judgement which would make it impossible for someone to giveinformed consent include such factors as severe mentalretardation, severe mental illness, intoxication, severe sleepdeprivation, Alzheimer's disease, or being in a coma. This termwas first used in a 1957 medical malpractice case by Paul G.Gebhard.

































Some acts cannot legally take place because of a lack of informedconsent. In cases where an individual is considered unable to giveinformed consent, another person is generally authorized to giveconsent on his behalf, e.g., parents or legal guardians of a child

and caregivers for the mentally ill. However, if a severely injuredperson is brought to hospital in an unconscious state and no-oneis available to give informed consent, doctors will give whatevertreatment is necessary to save their life (according to theHippocratic oath), which might involve major surgery, e.g.,amputation.

In cases where an individual is provided insufficient information toform a reasoned decision, serious ethical issues arise. Such casesin a clinical trial in medical research are anticipated andprevented by an ethics committee or Institutional Review Board.


Experimental psychology emerged as a modern academicdiscipline in the 19th century when Wilhelm Wundt introduced amathematical and experimental approach to the field andfounded both the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany and the structuralist school of psychology[1]. Other earlyexperimental psychologists, including Hermann Ebbinghaus andEdward Titchener, included introspection among theirexperimental methods.

George Trumbull Ladd was the first to introduce (1879) the studyof experimental psychology into America; he founded the YaleUniversity psychological laboratory. In 1887, he publishedElements of Physiological Psychology, the first American textbookto include a substantial amount of information on the newexperimental form of the discipline.

[edit] 20th Century

In the first half of the twentieth century, behaviourism became adominant paradigm within psychology, especially in the UnitedStates. This led to some neglect of mental phenomena withinexperimental psychology. In Europe this was less the case, asEuropean psychology was influenced by psychologists such as Sir























































Frederic Bartlett, Kenneth Craik, W. E. Hick and DonaldBroadbent, who focused on topics such as thinking, memory andattention. This laid the foundations for the subsequentdevelopment of cognitive psychology.

In the latter half of the twentieth century, the phrase"experimental psychology" has shifted in meaning due to theexpansion of psychology as a discipline and the growth in the sizeand number of its sub-disciplines. Experimental psychologists usea range of methods and do not confine themselves to a strictlyexperimental approach, partly because developments in thephilosophy of science have had an impact on the exclusiveprestige of experimentation. In contrast, an experimental methodis now widely used in fields such as developmental and socialpsychology, which were not previously part of experimentalpsychology. The phrase continues in use, however, in the titles of a number of well-established, high prestige learned societies andscientific journals, as well as some university courses of study inpsychology.

Experiment

In the scientific method, an experiment (Latin: ex-+-periri,"of (or from) trying"), is a set of actions and observations,performed in the context of solving a particular problem orquestion, to support or falsify a hypothesis or research concerningphenomena. The experiment is a cornerstone in the empiricalapproach to acquiring deeper knowledge about the physicalworld.

Scientific methodScientific method refers to a body of techniques for

investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correctingand integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, amethod of inquiry must be based on gathering observable,empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles















































of reasoning.[1] A scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and theformulation and testing of hypotheses. Although procedures varyfrom one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features

distinguish scientific inquiry from other methodologies of knowledge. Scientific researchers propose hypotheses asexplanations of phenomena, and design experimental studies totest these hypotheses. These steps must be repeatable in orderto dependably predict any future results. Theories thatencompass wider domains of inquiry may bind manyindependently-derived hypotheses together in a coherent,supportive structure. This in turn may help form new hypothesesor place groups of hypotheses into context.

Naturalistic observation is a research method commonlyused by psychologists and other social scientists. This techniqueinvolves observing subjects in their natural environment. Thistype of research is often utilized in situations where conductinglab research is unrealistic, cost prohibitive or would unduly affectthe subject's behavior.One of the advantages of this type of research is that it allows the researcher to directly observe thesubject in a natural setting. The disadvantages of naturalisticobservation include the fact that it can be difficult to determinethe exact cause of a behavior and the experimenter cannot

control for outside variables.Experimental Observation the observation in a restricted

setting. Experimental Observers make empirical observationsfrom repeatable public events. In addition, ExperimentalObservations are made under controlled conditions where anexperimental scientist manipulates the environment so that thecritical events occur at a specified time and place.


Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such associology and psychology, physics, chemistry, biology andmedicine etc.It is a collection of research designs which use























manipulation and controlled testing to understand causalprocesses. Generally, one or more variables are manipulated todetermine their effect on a dependent variable.





Laboratory reports

Laboratory reports are written for several reasons. Onereason is to communicate the laboratory work to management. Insuch situations, management often bases company decisions onthe results of the report. Another reason to write laboratoryreports is to archive the work so that the work will not have to bedone in the future. This web page presents a commonly usedorganization for laboratory reports:



Descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic features of

the data in a study. They provide simple summaries about thesample and the measures. Together with simple graphicsanalysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitativeanalysis of data.Descriptive statistics are typically distinguishedfrom inferential statistics. With descriptive statistics you aresimply describing what is or what the data shows. With inferentialstatistics, you are trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond













the immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferentialstatistics to try to infer from the sample data what the populationmight think. Or, we use inferential statistics to make judgments of the probability that an observed difference between groups is a

dependable one or one that might have happened by chance inthis study. Thus, we use inferential statistics to make inferencesfrom our data to more general conditions; we use descriptivestatistics simply to describe what's going on in ourdata.Descriptive Statistics are used to present quantitativedescriptions in a manageable form. In a research study we mayhave lots of measures. Or we may measure a large number of people on any measure. Descriptive statistics help us to simplylarge amounts of data in a sensible way. Each descriptive statisticreduces lots of data into a simpler summary. For instance,

consider a simple number used to summarize how well a batter isperforming in baseball, the batting average. This single number issimply the number of hits divided by the number of times at bat(reported to three significant digits). A batter who is hitting .333 isgetting a hit one time in every three at bats. One batting .250 ishitting one time in four. The single number describes a largenumber of discrete events. Or, consider the scourge of manystudents, the Grade Point Average (GPA). This single numberdescribes the general performance of a student across a

potentially wide range of course experiences.Hypothesis





Null hypothesis



The null hypothesis (often denoted by H0) formally describessome aspect of the statistical "behaviour" of a set of data. Thisdescription is assumed to be valid unless the actual behaviour of the data contradicts this assumption. Thus, the null hypothesis iscontrasted against another or alternative hypothesis. Statistical

hypothesis testing, which involves a number of steps, is used todecide whether the data contradicts the null hypothesis. This iscalled significance testing. A null hypothesis is never proven bysuch methods, as the absence of evidence against the nullhypothesis does not establish its truth. In other words, one mayeither reject , or not reject the null hypothesis; one cannot accept it. This means that one cannot make decisions or drawconclusions that assume the truth of the null hypothesis. Just asfailing to reject it does not "prove" the null hypothesis, one doesnot conclude that the alternative hypothesis is disproven orrejected, even though this seems reasonable. One simplyconcludes that the null hypothesis is not rejected.[clarification needed] Notrejecting the null hypothesis still allows for getting new data totest the alternative hypothesis again. On the other hand, rejectingthe null hypothesis only means that the alternative hypothesismay be true, pending further testing.





























•


English words that were hardest to translate in June 2004 by aBritish translation company.[1] However, due to its sociologicaluse, the word has been imported into many other languages(Portuguese serendipicidade or serendipidade; French sérendipicité or sérendipité but also heureux hasard, "fortunatechance"; Italian serendipità[2]; Dutch serendipiteit ; German Serendipität ; Swedish, Danish and Norwegian serendipitet ;Romanian serendipitate; Spanish serendipia).



• Natural deduction, an approach to proof theory thatattempts to provide a formal model of logical reasoning as it"naturally" occur.



They are used to distinguish between two types of quantitiesbeing considered, separating them into those available at thestart of a process and those being created by it, where the latter(dependent variables) are dependent on the former (independentvariables).[citation needed]

Dependent Variable:

A dependent variable is what you measure in the experimentand what is affected during the experiment. The dependentvariable responds to the independent variable. It is calleddependent because it "depends" on the independent variable. Ina scientific experiment, you cannot have a dependent variablewithout an independent variable.Example: You are interested inhow stress affects heart rate in humans. Your independent









































variable would be the stress and the dependent variable would bethe heart rate. You can directly manipulate stress levels in yourhuman subjects and measure how those stress levels changeheart rate.

Independent variableAn independent variable is a variable that is manipulated todetermine the value of a dependent variable s. The dependentvariable is what is being measured in an experiment or evaluatedin a mathematical equation and the independent variables are theinputs to that measurement.

In a simple mathematical equation, for example:a = b/c theindependent variables, b and c , determine the value of a .Here'sa simple example:

A teacher wishes to compare the number of tardy studentswearing black with the number of tardy students wearing pink. Inthis scenario, clothing color is the independent variable and thedifference in the number of students, categorized by clothingcolor, is the dependent variable.

Experimental psychology is a methodological approach ratherthan a subject and encompasses varied fields within psychology.Experimental psychologists have traditionally conductedresearch, published articles, and taught classes on neuroscience,

developmental psychology, sensation, perception, attention,consciousness, learning, memory, thinking, and language.Recently, however, the experimental approach has extended tomotivation, emotion, and social psychology.



:often classified into three types:1. Subject variables, which are the characteristics of theindividuals being studied that might affect their actions.

These variables include age, gender, health status, mood,background, etc.



































2. Experimental variables are characteristics of the personsconducting the experiment which might influence how aperson behaves. Gender, the presence of racialdiscrimination, language, or other factors may qualify as

such variables.3. Situational variables are features of the environment inwhich the study or research was conducted, which have abearing on the outcome of the experiment in a negativeway. Included are the air temperature, level of activity,lighting, and the time of day.


Perhaps the simplest design is the correlational design orquasi-experimental design. A study qualifies as correlational if

the data lend themselves only to interpretations about the degreeto which certain things tend to co-occur or are related to eachother. For example, a social psychologist might be interested inthe degree to which children who watch violent television showstend to aggress at their classmates on the playground. Toconduct this study, a set of children are observed for a period of one month by a set of trained observers, who record the numberof violent acts the child engages in (e.g., hitting another child).Each child�s parent is asked to answer a set of questions about

which television shows the child has been exposed to in the lastmonth. Of interest in this part of the data collection phase is howmany, and how often, certain television shows watched by thechild in the last month were classified by the Australian ratingsystem as containing violence. At the end of the data collection,the research would have recorded for each child a numberreflecting his or her violence on the playground, and a numberreflecting the amount of violence the child is exposed to ontelevision. Of interest to the investigator is whether violentbehaviour (high "scores" on the measure of playground violence)tends to occur more so in children with high "scores" on themeasure of exposure to television violence (and vice-versa withlow "scores" being paired with low scores). If so, we can say thatexposure to violent television is correlated positively with actualviolent behaviour.




A quasi-experimental design is one that looks a bit like anexperimental design but lacks the key ingredient -- randomassignment. My mentor, Don Campbell, often referred to them as

"queasy" experiments because they give the experimental puristsa queasy feeling. With respect to internal validity, they oftenappear to be inferior to randomized experiments. But there issomething compelling about these designs; taken as a group,they are easily more frequently implemented than theirrandomized cousins.

I'm not going to try to cover the quasi-experimental designscomprehensively. Instead, I'll present two of the classic quasi-experimental designs in some detail and show how we analyze

them. Probably the most commonly used quasi-experimentaldesign (and it may be the most commonly used of all designs) isthe nonequivalent groups design. In its simplest form it requires apretest and posttest for a treated and comparison group. It'sidentical to the Analysis of Covariance design except that thegroups are not created through random assignment. You will seethat the lack of random assignment, and the potentialnonequivalence between the groups, complicates the statisticalanalysis of the nonequivalent groups design.



































Some acts cannot legally take place because of a lack of informedconsent. In cases where an individual is considered unable to giveinformed consent, another person is generally authorized to giveconsent on his behalf, e.g., parents or legal guardians of a child

and caregivers for the mentally ill. However, if a severely injuredperson is brought to hospital in an unconscious state and no-oneis available to give informed consent, doctors will give whatevertreatment is necessary to save their life (according to theHippocratic oath), which might involve major surgery, e.g.,amputation.In cases where an individual is provided insufficientinformation to form a reasoned decision, serious ethical issuesarise. Such cases in a clinical trial in medical research areanticipated and prevented by an ethics committee or InstitutionalReview Board.


Experimental psychology emerged as a modern academicdiscipline in the 19th century when Wilhelm Wundt introduced amathematical and experimental approach to the field andfounded both the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany and the structuralist school of psychology[1]. Other earlyexperimental psychologists, including Hermann Ebbinghaus and

Edward Titchener, included introspection among theirexperimental methods.

George Trumbull Ladd was the first to introduce (1879) the studyof experimental psychology into America; he founded the YaleUniversity psychological laboratory. In 1887, he publishedElements of Physiological Psychology, the first American textbookto include a substantial amount of information on the newexperimental form of the discipline.

[edit] 20th CenturyIn the first half of the twentieth century, behaviourism became adominant paradigm within psychology, especially in the UnitedStates. This led to some neglect of mental phenomena withinexperimental psychology. In Europe this was less the case, asEuropean psychology was influenced by psychologists such as SirFrederic Bartlett, Kenneth Craik, W. E. Hick and Donald

































































Broadbent, who focused on topics such as thinking, memory andattention. This laid the foundations for the subsequentdevelopment of cognitive psychology.

In the latter half of the twentieth century, the phrase

"experimental psychology" has shifted in meaning due to theexpansion of psychology as a discipline and the growth in the sizeand number of its sub-disciplines. Experimental psychologists usea range of methods and do not confine themselves to a strictlyexperimental approach, partly because developments in thephilosophy of science have had an impact on the exclusiveprestige of experimentation. In contrast, an experimental methodis now widely used in fields such as developmental and socialpsychology, which were not previously part of experimentalpsychology. The phrase continues in use, however, in the titles of a number of well-established, high prestige learned societies andscientific journals, as well as some university courses of study inpsychology.

Experiment

In the scientific method, an experiment (Latin: ex-+-periri,"of (or from) trying"), is a set of actions and observations,

performed in the context of solving a particular problem orquestion, to support or falsify a hypothesis or research concerningphenomena. The experiment is a cornerstone in the empiricalapproach to acquiring deeper knowledge about the physicalworld.

Scientific method

Scientific method refers to a body of techniques forinvestigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting

and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, amethod of inquiry must be based on gathering observable,empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principlesof reasoning.[1] A scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and theformulation and testing of hypotheses. Although procedures varyfrom one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features



















































distinguish scientific inquiry from other methodologies of knowledge. Scientific researchers propose hypotheses asexplanations of phenomena, and design experimental studies totest these hypotheses. These steps must be repeatable in order

to dependably predict any future results. Theories thatencompass wider domains of inquiry may bind manyindependently-derived hypotheses together in a coherent,supportive structure. This in turn may help form new hypothesesor place groups of hypotheses into context.

Naturalistic observation is a research method commonlyused by psychologists and other social scientists. This techniqueinvolves observing subjects in their natural environment. Thistype of research is often utilized in situations where conductinglab research is unrealistic, cost prohibitive or would unduly affectthe subject's behavior.One of the advantages of this type of research is that it allows the researcher to directly observe thesubject in a natural setting. The disadvantages of naturalisticobservation include the fact that it can be difficult to determinethe exact cause of a behavior and the experimenter cannotcontrol for outside variables.

Experimental Observation the observation in a restrictedsetting. Experimental Observers make empirical observationsfrom repeatable public events. In addition, ExperimentalObservations are made under controlled conditions where anexperimental scientist manipulates the environment so that thecritical events occur at a specified time and place.


Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such associology and psychology, physics, chemistry, biology andmedicine etc.It is a collection of research designs which usemanipulation and controlled testing to understand causalprocesses. Generally, one or more variables are manipulated todetermine their effect on a dependent variable.















Laboratory reports

Laboratory reports are written for several reasons. Onereason is to communicate the laboratory work to management. Insuch situations, management often bases company decisions on

the results of the report. Another reason to write laboratoryreports is to archive the work so that the work will not have to bedone in the future. This web page presents a commonly usedorganization for laboratory reports:



Descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They provide simple summaries about thesample and the measures. Together with simple graphicsanalysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitativeanalysis of data.Descriptive statistics are typically distinguished

from inferential statistics. With descriptive statistics you aresimply describing what is or what the data shows. With inferentialstatistics, you are trying to reach conclusions that extend beyondthe immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferentialstatistics to try to infer from the sample data what the populationmight think. Or, we use inferential statistics to make judgments of the probability that an observed difference between groups is a













dependable one or one that might have happened by chance inthis study. Thus, we use inferential statistics to make inferencesfrom our data to more general conditions; we use descriptivestatistics simply to describe what's going on in our

data.Descriptive Statistics are used to present quantitativedescriptions in a manageable form. In a research study we mayhave lots of measures. Or we may measure a large number of people on any measure. Descriptive statistics help us to simplylarge amounts of data in a sensible way. Each descriptive statisticreduces lots of data into a simpler summary. For instance,consider a simple number used to summarize how well a batter isperforming in baseball, the batting average. This single number issimply the number of hits divided by the number of times at bat(reported to three significant digits). A batter who is hitting .333 is

getting a hit one time in every three at bats. One batting .250 ishitting one time in four. The single number describes a largenumber of discrete events. Or, consider the scourge of manystudents, the Grade Point Average (GPA). This single numberdescribes the general performance of a student across apotentially wide range of course experiences.

Hypothesis



Null hypothesis









The null hypothesis (often denoted by H0) formally describessome aspect of the statistical "behaviour" of a set of data. Thisdescription is assumed to be valid unless the actual behaviour of the data contradicts this assumption. Thus, the null hypothesis iscontrasted against another or alternative hypothesis. Statisticalhypothesis testing, which involves a number of steps, is used todecide whether the data contradicts the null hypothesis. This iscalled significance testing. A null hypothesis is never proven bysuch methods, as the absence of evidence against the nullhypothesis does not establish its truth. In other words, one mayeither reject , or not reject the null hypothesis; one cannot accept it. This means that one cannot make decisions or drawconclusions that assume the truth of the null hypothesis. Just asfailing to reject it does not "prove" the null hypothesis, one doesnot conclude that the alternative hypothesis is disproven orrejected, even though this seems reasonable. One simplyconcludes that the null hypothesis is not rejected.[clarification needed] Notrejecting the null hypothesis still allows for getting new data totest the alternative hypothesis again. On the other hand, rejecting

the null hypothesis only means that the alternative hypothesismay be true, pending further testing.





•






















English words that were hardest to translate in June 2004 by aBritish translation company.[1] However, due to its sociologicaluse, the word has been imported into many other languages(Portuguese serendipicidade or serendipidade; French

sérendipicité or sérendipité but also heureux hasard, "fortunatechance"; Italian serendipità[2]; Dutch serendipiteit ; German Serendipität ; Swedish, Danish and Norwegian serendipitet ;Romanian serendipitate; Spanish serendipia).



• Natural deduction, an approach to proof theory thatattempts to provide a formal model of logical reasoning as it

"naturally" occur.Dependent and independent variables


They are used to distinguish between two types of quantities

being considered, separating them into those available at thestart of a process and those being created by it, where the latter(dependent variables) are dependent on the former (independentvariables).[citation needed]

Dependent Variable:

A dependent variable is what you measure in the experimentand what is affected during the experiment. The dependentvariable responds to the independent variable. It is calleddependent because it "depends" on the independent variable. In

a scientific experiment, you cannot have a dependent variablewithout an independent variable.Example: You are interested inhow stress affects heart rate in humans. Your independentvariable would be the stress and the dependent variable would bethe heart rate. You can directly manipulate stress levels in yourhuman subjects and measure how those stress levels changeheart rate.










































An independent variable is a variable that is manipulated todetermine the value of a dependent variable s. The dependentvariable is what is being measured in an experiment or evaluated

in a mathematical equation and the independent variables are theinputs to that measurement.

In a simple mathematical equation, for example:a = b/c theindependent variables, b and c , determine the value of a .Here'sa simple example:A teacher wishes to compare the number of tardy studentswearing black with the number of tardy students wearing pink. Inthis scenario, clothing color is the independent variable and thedifference in the number of students, categorized by clothing

color, is the dependent variable.Experimental psychology is a methodological approach ratherthan a subject and encompasses varied fields within psychology.Experimental psychologists have traditionally conductedresearch, published articles, and taught classes on neuroscience,developmental psychology, sensation, perception, attention,consciousness, learning, memory, thinking, and language.Recently, however, the experimental approach has extended tomotivation, emotion, and social psychology.




1. Subject variables, which are the characteristics of theindividuals being studied that might affect their actions.

These variables include age, gender, health status, mood,

background, etc.2. Experimental variables are characteristics of the personsconducting the experiment which might influence how aperson behaves. Gender, the presence of racialdiscrimination, language, or other factors may qualify assuch variables.



































3. Situational variables are features of the environment inwhich the study or research was conducted, which have abearing on the outcome of the experiment in a negativeway. Included are the air temperature, level of activity,

lighting, and the time of day.Non-experimental designs

Perhaps the simplest design is the correlational design orquasi-experimental design. A study qualifies as correlational if the data lend themselves only to interpretations about the degreeto which certain things tend to co-occur or are related to eachother. For example, a social psychologist might be interested inthe degree to which children who watch violent television showstend to aggress at their classmates on the playground. To

conduct this study, a set of children are observed for a period of one month by a set of trained observers, who record the numberof violent acts the child engages in (e.g., hitting another child).Each child�s parent is asked to answer a set of questions aboutwhich television shows the child has been exposed to in the lastmonth. Of interest in this part of the data collection phase is howmany, and how often, certain television shows watched by thechild in the last month were classified by the Australian ratingsystem as containing violence. At the end of the data collection,the research would have recorded for each child a numberreflecting his or her violence on the playground, and a numberreflecting the amount of violence the child is exposed to ontelevision. Of interest to the investigator is whether violentbehaviour (high "scores" on the measure of playground violence)tends to occur more so in children with high "scores" on themeasure of exposure to television violence (and vice-versa withlow "scores" being paired with low scores). If so, we can say thatexposure to violent television is correlated positively with actualviolent behaviour.


A quasi-experimental design is one that looks a bit like anexperimental design but lacks the key ingredient -- randomassignment. My mentor, Don Campbell, often referred to them as"queasy" experiments because they give the experimental purists



a queasy feeling. With respect to internal validity, they oftenappear to be inferior to randomized experiments. But there issomething compelling about these designs; taken as a group,they are easily more frequently implemented than their

randomized cousins.I'm not going to try to cover the quasi-experimental designscomprehensively. Instead, I'll present two of the classic quasi-experimental designs in some detail and show how we analyzethem. Probably the most commonly used quasi-experimentaldesign (and it may be the most commonly used of all designs) isthe nonequivalent groups design. In its simplest form it requires apretest and posttest for a treated and comparison group. It'sidentical to the Analysis of Covariance design except that thegroups are not created through random assignment. You will seethat the lack of random assignment, and the potentialnonequivalence between the groups, complicates the statisticalanalysis of the nonequivalent groups design.



Some acts cannot legally take place because of a lack of informedconsent. In cases where an individual is considered unable to giveinformed consent, another person is generally authorized to giveconsent on his behalf, e.g., parents or legal guardians of a child and caregivers for the mentally ill. However, if a severely injuredperson is brought to hospital in an unconscious state and no-one







































is available to give informed consent, doctors will give whatevertreatment is necessary to save their life (according to theHippocratic oath), which might involve major surgery, e.g.,amputation.

In cases where an individual is provided insufficient information toform a reasoned decision, serious ethical issues arise. Such casesin a clinical trial in medical research are anticipated andprevented by an ethics committee or Institutional Review Board.


Experimental psychology emerged as a modern academicdiscipline in the 19th century when Wilhelm Wundt introduced a

mathematical and experimental approach to the field andfounded both the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany and the structuralist school of psychology[1]. Other earlyexperimental psychologists, including Hermann Ebbinghaus andEdward Titchener, included introspection among theirexperimental methods.

George Trumbull Ladd was the first to introduce (1879) the studyof experimental psychology into America; he founded the YaleUniversity psychological laboratory. In 1887, he published

Elements of Physiological Psychology, the first American textbookto include a substantial amount of information on the newexperimental form of the discipline.

[edit] 20th Century

In the first half of the twentieth century, behaviourism became adominant paradigm within psychology, especially in the UnitedStates. This led to some neglect of mental phenomena withinexperimental psychology. In Europe this was less the case, asEuropean psychology was influenced by psychologists such as SirFrederic Bartlett, Kenneth Craik, W. E. Hick and DonaldBroadbent, who focused on topics such as thinking, memory andattention. This laid the foundations for the subsequentdevelopment of cognitive psychology.

In the latter half of the twentieth century, the phrase"experimental psychology" has shifted in meaning due to the

































































expansion of psychology as a discipline and the growth in the sizeand number of its sub-disciplines. Experimental psychologists usea range of methods and do not confine themselves to a strictlyexperimental approach, partly because developments in the

philosophy of science have had an impact on the exclusiveprestige of experimentation. In contrast, an experimental methodis now widely used in fields such as developmental and socialpsychology, which were not previously part of experimentalpsychology. The phrase continues in use, however, in the titles of a number of well-established, high prestige learned societies andscientific journals, as well as some university courses of study inpsychology.

Sheena Marie Datiles















BSIP-IIEMrs. Marinias

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Annaliza G. Pagal BSIP-IIE Mrs. Marinias