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1 Ann QuinlanColwell PhD, RNBC, DAAPM Author Conflict of Interest; A. QuinlanColwell, A consultant and presenter of nonbranded education for Mallinckrodt 1) Describe the challenges and barriers to providing good management of chronic pain during pregnancy 2) Explain the importance of using multimodal analgesia (MMA) when treating chronic pain during pregnancy

Ann Quinlan Colwell RNBC, DAAPM Conference Documents/Handouts/Friday... · Carpal tunnel syndrome ... therapy during pregnancy to treat lumbopelvic pain. 16 ... Elden et al study

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Page 1: Ann Quinlan Colwell RNBC, DAAPM Conference Documents/Handouts/Friday... · Carpal tunnel syndrome ... therapy during pregnancy to treat lumbopelvic pain. 16 ... Elden et al study

1

Ann Quinlan‐Colwell

PhD, RNBC, DAAPM

Author Conflict of Interest;

A. Quinlan‐Colwell,

A consultant and presenter of 

non‐branded education for Mallinckrodt

1)  Describe the challenges and barriers to providing good management of chronic pain during pregnancy

2)  Explain the importance of using multi‐modal analgesia (MMA) when treating chronic pain during pregnancy

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AQC_January_2012

AQC_12/14

Myths ‐Misinformation – Misconceptions ‐ Beliefs

Communication

Underreporting

Culture differences

Pain Behaviors

Coping styles

FearAQC_12/14

AQC_January_2012

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Effective

Stoic

Whining

Complaining

Over reliance on medications

Substance misuse ‐ abuse

AQC_12/14

Reluctant to seek treatment for pain

Unable to afford medications or procedure to manage pain

Insurance determines treatment

Depletion of reserve money

Lack of money for complementary therapies

AQC 12/14

8

Educational Limitations

Legal concerns

Concerns regarding fetal well being

Competing priorities

Concern regarding “drug seeking”

Complicated comorbidities

Time

AQC_12/14

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AQC_January_2012

Epidemiology

Prevalence  ~ 25 – 56% lumbopelvic  or  peripartum pelvic pain ~ 8% become severely incapacitated

Challenges Terminology and definitions Formal mechanism for tracking

Studies NY hospital 200 women w/ 56% w/ LBP by Fast, et al, 1987 Yale study 950 surveys w/68.5% w/LBP by Wang et al, 2004

(IASP, 2007; Wang, et al, 2004)

Back Low back Pelvic girdle pain Neck

Pelvis

Pubic area

Hip

Knee 

Thorax(Licciardone, et al, 2010; Vleeming, et al, 2013)

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Headache

Nerve entrapment Meralgia paresthetica

Degenerating fibroid

Carpal tunnel syndrome

DeQuervain’s tenosynovitis

Post herpetic neuralgia

(ACOG, 2013; IASP, 2007; Licciardone, et al, 2010)

Pain Control Safety

Maternal Concerns Neonate Concerns

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Physiological Impact of poorly controlled pain Immobility

Premature delivery

Psychological Impact of poorly controlled pain Antenatal and postnatal depression

Stress cascade resulting from unrelieved pain

Withdrawal from opioids

“the fetus is a passive recipient of any medication that may be administered”  (IASP, 2007)

Rx that are harmful to developing fetus

Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome

Intrauterine withdrawal

Neural Tube Defects  (Yazdy, et al, 2013)

All opioids are Pregnancy Class C

Prevalence 2001 Wilbourne et al reported opioid use in 7.5% of

pregnancies 2011 Kellogg et al reported steady increase from 1998‐2009

Indications for using opioids during pregnancy Chronic pain  Genitourinary pain w/ pathologic evidence Headaches Orthopedic w/ pathologic evidence Other (CA; varicosities; neurofibromatosis)

(APS, 2009; Kellogg et al, 2011)

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Increased risk of miscarriage

1st and 2nd trimesters (up to 30 weeks) probably ok

3rd trimester – NSAIDS are contraindicated NSAIDS inhibit cyclo‐oxygenase

Cyclo‐oxygenase dilates the ductus arteriosus & pulmonary resistance vessels

Inhibition could cause premature closure

(Kennedy, 2011)

Platelet inhibition

Possible maternal and fetal bleeding

Associate with increase risk of miscarriage

Associated with increased risk of vascular disruption;gastroschisis

BUT, may be Rx’d to reduce other adverse outcomes

(Babb, 2010; Kennedy, 2011)

“Women receiving opioid‐assisted therapy who are undergoing labor should receive pain relief as if they were not taking opioids because the maintenance dosage does not provide adequate analgesia.”   (ACOG, 2012)

Generally require increase opioid dosing

Avoid opioid agonist‐antagonists

Do not use buprenorphine in a pt taking methadone(ACOG, 2012)

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Epidural or spinal anesthesia

Local anesthetic

Injectable NSAID or acetaminophen

Breathing and Relaxation Techniques

40 Post Caesarean Section patients 

Group 1 – IT bupivacaine + morphine + incisional bup

and ibuprophen + acetaminophen to d/c

and prn codeine

Group 2 ‐ IT bupivacaine + IV morphine PCA weaned to

acetaminophen + codeine

Pain at Rest 0.6 vs. 2.1     (p < 0.0001)

Pain with Activity 1.9  vs.  4.1 (p < 0.0001)

(Rosaeg, et al, 1997)

533 breast feeding mothers

CNS depression rate in neonates Oxycodone  20.1% (28/139)

Codeine 16.7% (35/210)

Acetaminophen  0.5% (1/184)

Group characteristics Mothers taking codeine more likely first time mothers

Infants exposed to oxycodone were younger

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May be safe in small doses (< 30 mg/ day)

Hydrocodone metabolizes to hydromorphone

Sauberan, et al: Little to no hydromorphone excreted into breast milk

Concern is  Only one study Neonate metabolism 

Awareness, Education, Assessment still needed

(Sauberan, 2011)

CYP2D6 gene Codeine – metabolizes to morphine metabolite Oxycodone – metabolizes to oxymorphone (14 x potent)

Know: Potential Underlying mechanisms r/o in lethargic infants

Educate breast feeding mothers taking opioids be alert for signs of lethargy and sedation seek prompt medical assistance

(Kennedy, 2011; Koren et al, 2006; Timm, 2013; vandenAnker, 2012)

Non‐pharmacologic interventions

Acetaminophen

NSAIDs during pregnancy

do not seem to increase risk of adverse birth outcome

But should be avoided after 30 weeks

and are associated with increased risk of miscarriage

Opioids in pregnancy  do not cause fetal malformations

but can result in neonatal abstinence syndrome(Kennedy, 2011)

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29

Identify and address the cause of pain

Individualized plan of care

Patient education: 

‐ indications for different interventions

‐ potential side effects

Start at low dose and 

gradually titrate dose

Is the Key to Pain 

Management

AQC_12/14

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Determine Etiology Obstetric

Ectopic pregnancy Preterm labor Placental abruption Uterine rupture

Gynecologic Adnexal torsion

GI Appendicitis Intestinal obstruction

Hepatobiliar Acute fatty liver of pregnancy

GU Hydronephrosis of pregnancy Renal calculi

Vascular Gonadal vein thrombosis or syndrome Messenteric vein thrombosis Aneurysm rupture

Intervene accordingly  (Woodfield, et al, 2010)

Avoid ergots and sodium valproate 

Non‐pharm

Hydration

Diet

Acetaminophen

Propranolol generally considered safe

Combo metoclopramide & diphenhydramine (MAD) metoclopramide ‐ used to tx heartburn 2/2 reflux Diphenhydramine ‐ antihistamine  OTC allergy/sleep aids considered safe in pregnancy & reasonably priced

(ACOG, 2013; Mehta, 2011)

What is 32%

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LBP is the ____________ cause for HCP visits in US.

At least __ % of people will have LBP at some time.

Most women first experienced LBP _____  _____.

In pregnancy LBP interferes w/ ability to _____ and ___________ _______ ______.

Women who have had LBP during pregnancy are at greater risk of experiencing LBP _____  ______.

_______% of women who avoid subsequent pregnancies 2/2 fear of recurrence of LBP.

George, et al, 2013; Wang, et al, 2004

LBP is the ____________ cause for HCP visits in US.

At least __ % of people will have LBP at some time.

Most women first experienced LBP __________  _____.

In pregnancy LBP interferes w/ ability to ______ and _____________.

Women who have had LBP during pregnancy are at greater risk of experiencing LBP ______________.

____% of women who avoid subsequent pregnancies 2/2 fear ofrecurrence of LBP.

George, et al, 2013; Wang, et al, 2004

Age

h/o LBP

h/o LBP during menstruation

h/o LBP during prior pregnancies

(Wang, et al, 2004)

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Use of birth control pills

Hormonal therapy 2/2 infertility

Caffeine

Cigarette smoking

Physical exercise

Previous epidural or spinal procedures

Repetitive daily activities

Body weight pre‐pregnancy (others disagree)

Number of pregnancies(Wang, et al, 2004)

Stretching  Exercise Frequent rest Cold or hot compresses Supportive belt Acetaminophen Complementary therapies

Acupuncture Massage Chiropractic Osteopathy Aromatherapy Relaxation Herbs Yoga Energy work (Reiki, Therapeutic Touch)

(Wang, et al, 2002, 2004)          

Patient Education from 1st trimester Posture Body mechanics

Mechanical supporter information

Physical Therapy

(Wang, et al, 2004)

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STOB = Standard of Obstetric Care

MOM = Multimodal musculoskeletal & obstetric management with weekly chiropractic specialist based on biopsychosocial model

Education

Reassurance

Manual therapy

Stabilization exercises

(George, et al, 2013)

STOB group at 33 weeks Significant  increase in pain in 5 indices

MOM group at 33 weeks Statistically significantly  less pain in 7 indices Significantly less sleep difficulty Improved ROM Stability Less lumbar and pelvic joint irritation NO  ADE

Conclusion

MMA is beneficialGeorge, et al, 2013

Prevention Shoes with good arch support Firm mattress Good body mechanics Chairs w/ good back support Small pillow to support lower back Lumbar supports Side sleeping w/ pillow/s between legs or under abdomen

Treatment Regular exercises to strengthen & stretch muscles Good posture Heat and/or cold

Page 15: Ann Quinlan Colwell RNBC, DAAPM Conference Documents/Handouts/Friday... · Carpal tunnel syndrome ... therapy during pregnancy to treat lumbopelvic pain. 16 ... Elden et al study

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OMT – a form of manual therapy by DO

Licciardone, et al study 144 subjects

3 groups UOBC increase in NRS most disability rise

UOBC + SUT no change in NRS mod disability rise

UOBC + OMT decrease in NRS minimal disability rise

Goal:   achieve functional physical restoration

Role:    prescribe, facilitate, pace therapeutic interventions 

PT influence pain by:

Resolving inflammation

Assisting with tissue repair

Stimulating temporary pain relief

Moving nerve conduction’

Providing counterirritant

Modifying muscle tone

Reducing chance of maladaptive neuropathic changes

(Allen, et al, 2006)

Systematic Review 1992‐2013

22 RCT studies Dx – lumbopelvic pain Interventions

Combination (education, relaxation) “helpful” Exercise therapy moderate evidence

Manual therapy limited evidence

Material support limited evidence

Conclusion Evidence based recommendation for use of exercise therapy during pregnancy to treat lumbopelvic pain

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Ee, et al Systematic Review (2008) Limited evidence supports Ac

for pregnancy related pelvic/back pain Additional study needed

Elden et al study (2008) 351 women w/ pelvic girdle pain 3 groups

standard of care 22% good or very good help SOC + stabilising exercises 81% good or very good help SOC + acupuncture 83% good or very good help

minor ADE reports 

but no severe ADE effect on pregnancy, deliver, fetus

Wang et al Study   (2010) 152 Pregnant women w/ posterior pelvic/LBP 

Control, sham acupuncture, acupuncture

Decrease in pain Control group 18%

Sham acupuncture group 32%

Acupuncture group 68%

Significance between groups

Significant improvement in functional status 

ADEs No adverse pregnancy outcomes

One in each group bed rest post study

Ear tenderness 1/54 Ac group and 3/50 Sham Ac group

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AQC 12/14

Environmental Modification

Education

Cognitive Behavioral Interventions

Healing Arts

Physical 

Energy Based Interventions

Exercise

Spirituality & Prayer

Devices

Other Complementary Interventions

AQC_

Lighting

Sounds

Temperature

Odors

Position

Patient PositionHead

Neck

Limbs

Pillows

Side rails

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AQC_11_11

Include family and caregivers

Focus on: Etiology

Interventions to alleviate pain

Pharmacological preparations

Side effect management

Comfort measures

Nonpharmacological interventions

Muscle relaxation

Dietary needs and measures

Rest and relaxation

Usual bio‐rhythms

Patient priorities

Pre‐medicate

Pace activities

Educate re: benefits

Schedule activities rest

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Cognitive Behavioral Therapies

Rationale for using CBT“altering patterns of negative thoughts and dysfunctional

attitudes leads to more positive thoughts, emotions, and  

behavior changes, including improved self‐

management.”

Underlying assumption is that:perceptions and evaluations influence emotional and 

behavioral reactions to painful conditions

(Menzies, Taylor & Bourguignon, 2006, p.24)

AQC_11_11

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AQC_11_11

Involves increased mental focus and concentration with expanded awareness, diminishing perception and interest in peripheral sensations, thoughts, and feelings of the external environment.

Used since early 1800’s

Generally safe and effective

Caution with people with h/o mental illness

Effective for: Osteoarthritis Fibromyalgia Cancer Headaches Sickle cell disease

( Anselmo, 2009; Fass, 2008).

AQC_11_11

With significant attention required for activity,

pain scores decreased

(Berman, Iris, Bode, & Drengenberg, 2009; Ersek, Turner, & Kemp, 2006; Veldhuijzen, Kenemans, De Bruin, Olivier, & Volkerts, 2006).

Specific Techniques  Imagery

Focal point attention

Music

Counting

Pleasurable leisure activities

AQC_11_11

Imagery is “a dynamic, psychophysiologic process in which a person imagines, and experiences, aninternal reality in the absence of external stimuli.”(Menzies, Taylor & Bourguignon, 2006, p.24)

Imagery is  “the spontaneous flow of thoughts originating from the unconscious mind” (Seaward, 2004, p. 381)

Free flow of thoughts 

May include: Day dreaming

Reminiscing/14

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AQC_12_14

A deliberate process of imagining

“A conscious choice with intentional instructions”

(Seaward, 2004, p. 381)

AQC_11_11

A coach/guide is added to deliberate process of visualization

Generally begins with relaxation

Research

Studies small

Generally effective when used 2 – 3 times daily 

Cautions:

Always have the person choose the location

Select a comfortable and SAFE location

Not indicated with  psychotic disorders

Cognitive impairment

AQC_11_11

“Person may experience an affective, behavioral or physiologic response without a real stimulus event.”

(Menzies, Taylor & Bourguignon, 2006, p.24)

Improved: function, self‐efficacy and reduced pain;reduced emotional distress

Beneficial with: Fibromyalgia (improvement in tender point measures)

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AQC_11_11

Behavioral Interventions

AQC_11_11

Combine psychological and physical responses

Involve parasympathetic system, visceral and somatic organs

Cerebral, physical and

tensions are released

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AQC_11_11

Diaphragmatic

Square

Conscious

Lamaze

Yoga

AQC_11_11

Also called “soft belly breathing”

Process:

Slowly inhale

Focus bringing inhaled air down into abdomen

Watching abdomen fill with air

Exhale

Focus on watching air leave abdomen

Analogous to watching an imaginary balloon

Benefits:

Easy to learn

Helps relaxation process

No known negative consequences

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AQC_11_11

AQC_11_11

Developed to help people relax muscles that become tense because of anxiety, stress, or pain

Benefits

Reduced muscle tension

Reduced stress

Alters patterns of muscle activities that cause increased pain

Alters the emotional response to pain

AQC_11_11

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AQC_11_11

No tensing

Images

Color

Guided PMR

Mindfulness PMR

AQC_11_11

the use of “music to address physical,

emotional, cognitive, and social needs of 

individuals of all ages” (AMTA, 2004).

Used to promote wellness and improve health including managing stress and pain during activities,at rest, and while preparing for sleep (Herr et al., 2006).

Suggested that beneficial effects of music therapy are related to arousal of emotional responses anddistract from the pain experience, thus interrupting

pain perception (Kinney & Faunce, 2004).

AQC_11_11

Pet Visitation

Animal Assisted Therapy

Pet ownership

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Superficial heat Heating pads, hot water bottles, poultices, hot compresses, heat wraps, infrared heat lamps

Soothe musculoskeletal pain &/or muscle spasms Some evidence of relief of short term relief of  low back pain

Cryotherapy Ice, cold cloths, cold gel packs, ice massage No research to support effectiveness or guidetreatment

AQC_11_11

Limit time 

Limit temperature extremes

NEVER use heat over transdermal fentanyl patches

AVOID using heat with capsaicin cream

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AQC_11_11

“The practice of skilled touch for the purposes of reducing pain brought about by injury disease or prolonged stress”(Calenda & Weinstein, 2008, p. 144).

Effective: Low back pain

Dementia (hand massage)

Generally considered safe

Cautions: Some discomfort 

Reactions to oils

AQC_11_11

a contemporary interpretation of ancient healingpractices developed in 1973 by Dolores Krieger, andDora Kunz

It is the conscious and intentional use of hands to direct human energies with the intent of helping or healing someone through modulation of their energy field  (Krieger, 1979; Krieger, 2002)

AQC_11_11

a technique using focused pressure on the hands or feet with the intent of stimulating certain reflex areas or zones that correspond to the various body organs.

It is believed that stimulation can facilitate animproved flow of energy, promoting healing or achieving homeostasis.

Rare and mild adverse effects include 

fatigue, headache, nausea,

perspiration, and diarrhea.

(Bisson, 2008)

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Central to maintaining function

Reconditioning exercises

Stretching

Cardiovascular

Strengthening

Individualized programs

Various locations

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AQC_11_11

“ philosophy of living” “unites physical, mental, andspiritual health” involves breathing & stretchingexercises  (Anselmo, 2009) 

Not necessary to adopt philosophy of yoga 

Postures & breathing exercises designed to quiet &“cleanse” mind & body  (Cashwell, Bentley, & Yarborough, 2007)

Exercises can be started very gently 

Good to recondition muscles and joints 

It is reported to be effective in

reducing pain in older adults.

may be modified to  meet particular needs  (Morone & Greco, 2007

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Meditative practice in the Christian tradition

Focuses on words or sounds 

Considered to be nondenominational & appropriate for people of all faiths. 

Contemplative journey is the vehicle 

in a process of letting go 

(Keating, 1999)

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Type of meditation from the Buddhist tradition

Intent is to release negative emotion and embrace a sense of love

Begins with evolving positive feelings & love toward:loved ones

then toward self

then toward a person who did harm to person meditating

Relationship between pain & anger

Carson et al study

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Introduced by Jon Kabat‐Zinn as a clinical intervention for chronic pain

“moment to‐moment awareness” that “is cultivated by purposefully paying attention to things we ordinarily never give a thought to” (Kabat‐Zinn, 1990, p. 2)

Can be integrated with daily activities, such as breathing, sitting, walking, washing dishes, or driving

Incorporated with learning and practicing

mindfulness are patient, nonjudgmental, 

accepting, and nonstriving attitudes.

AQC_11_11

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Pain is reduced through surface electrodes, whichemit high or low frequency pulsed electrical currents that selectively stimulate particular sensory or motor nerve fibers through a portable device (Dreeben, 2007; Somers & 

Clemente, 2006)

Research shows inconsistent findings

A study using rats indicated that TENS

is effective for allodynia and complex

regional pain syndrome(Somers & Clemente, 2006). 

AQC_11_11

Use of volatile & essential oils of aromatic plants that have been extracted for therapeutic use when inhaled through the olfactory system 

Long considered an established portion of health care in the UK, Japan, and Australia, where the majority of research has been done. 

More research is needed in the area of aromatherapy with pain, but early work is promising  (Barde, Reichow & Halm, 2009)

Certification for nurses interested in aromatherapy (Buckle Associates, 2010)

Cautions include: All essential oils can cause skin irritation & some are toxic.

Caution with pregnancy

Topical use of essential oils should be done only

by practitioners trained in their use (Cook & Burkhardt, 2004)

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Facilitates person, as active participant, to self‐regulate physiological processes  gain control over the body

Trained biofeedback technicians use concepts ofoperant conditioning and specially designedequipment that mirrors the autonomic physiologicalprocesses to help control those processes to: reduce tension and stress retrain muscles when muscle tone needs to improve train brain waves to improve attention & concentration

(Goldenberg, Burckhardt, & Crofford, 2004; Jensen, Bergstrom, 

Ljungquist, & Bodin, 2005; McGrady, 2008; Turner, Mancl, & Aaron, 2006)

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