Anejom Grammar Sketch

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O INRODUCION

Anejom

ANEJOM GRAMMAR SKETCH

ohn Lynch

Anej om, or Anei tyume se , is the only language o Aneity , the southernmosto the isl ands o Vanuatu ormerly the New Hebride s) In the early eriod oresearch into the languages o Oceania , Anejom wa s comaratively wel l-known thelanguage had been studied by the early resbyterian mis sionaries , and a dictionaryand graatical sketch was ubl ished exactly a century ago Ing lis 8 82 ) thewhole bible was translated; and an abridged Pilgim' s Pogess and other religiousmaterial were rinted in the language These mis sionary materi als ormed thebasi s or later studies o the language Gabelent 86 73 , Codrington 88 , ern906 Ray 926)

However , with the drastic reduction in the oulation o the is land , A nejomlost any restige it might otherwise have had , an d little li nguistic study hasbeen undertaken this century Hewitt ' s 966) honological and lexica study isthe only recent ubli shed work on the laguage At the same time , considerablechange honological , graatical , and lexical has clearly taken lace in thelanguage since Inglis ublication

For thes e reasons , it is imortant that what is known o the language bemade available This is erhas even truer o Anejom than o other Melanesianlanguages in a similar state o inguis tic neglect Anej om has a comlex

his torical honology , but erha o even greater interest to Oceanic linguist si s the act that Anejom is one o the very ew Melanesian languages to avour asentence order verb object subject

Data

My original intention was to edit an unblished manuscrit graar sketcho Anej om , written by Arthur Cael l in the early 96 0s , and entitled A ReStudyo the anguage o Aneityum , New Hebrides ' Caell ' s graar sketch was basedlargely, though not by any means entirely , on the rinted Bible translation ,while the honemic sketch was "based on the language as soken at the resentday Caell MS: 2) However , since the ublication o Hewitt 966) , and o a

ew notes on the honology and graar based on my own initial contact with thelanguage ynch 976 ) , it is clear that Cael l ' s honology is not whol lyaccurate At the same time , Cael l uses or his graatica l descrition aramework , d elib erat ely exerimental , which or those who do not already knowsomething about the language is uite hard to ollow Since I was able to

Papers in Linguistics of Melanesia , No. 4 : 93-154

Pacific Linguistics , A-64 , 1982

© John ynch93

Anejom Grammar Sketch". In Lynch, J. and Dodenhoff, D. editors, Papers in Linguistics of Melanesia No. 4.

154. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-A64.93 cific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.



9

eicit a cetain amount of Anejom data whie woking on othe anguages ofSouthen Vanuatu, I fet it was wothwhie to ty to wite a gaa sketchbased on moden Anejom , a though I have added infomation fom ae ' s MS wheenecessay Thee ae a age numbe of gas in this sketch , but my inten tionhas simy been to make acce ssibe what is cuent y known about the anguage

rgan sa on and abbrva ons

The sections which foow examine the honoogy, the mohoogica stuctueof bases o majo mohemes , and the stuctue of hases , causes , and sentences Section 6 ovides a text eicited in 1981 fom a young Anej omseake Wheeuoting diect y fom ae s MS , I use odinay uotations but souce themsimy with the ette fo owed by the age numbe ( s ) In addition , I havee-honemicised some of ae s exame s accoding to the honoogica anay sisesented in section no secifi c note is made when ae s exames havebeen e-honemici sed , even in diect uotations fom his MS

The fo owing abbeviations ae used 1 2 ,

ABOT

AV

AOR

ASSERT

AS

OM

ONONS

AT

EI

ES

EX

FAR

FT

FT/HOR

HM

IN

INS

k o

fist, second, thid eson

efeentia eosition

advebia atice

aoist

assetive atice

ae (MS)

causative

comitative

conditionaconstuct suffix

dative

deictic

dua

echo-subject efix

excusive

fa deictic

futue

futue/hotative/subjunctive atice

han

incusive

instumenta

kind of

L ocative

O STM ocative subj ect/tense/mood atice

MI mid deictic

NEG negative

NEG IM negative imeative

NOM nominaise

NR nea deitic

NSG nonsingua

F efective

ua

OSS ossessive

OSS RIN dink osses sion make

OSS EAT eat os se ss ion make

REF evious efeence

SEQ seuentia action

SG singua

SM subectmakeSTM subject/tense/mood

SBJ

TEM

TR

TRANS

atice

sbjunctive

temoa atice

tia

tansitive



PHNOLOGY AND ORHOGRAPHY

ANEJOM GRAMMAR SKETCH 95

This analyss of Anejom honology i s base largely on Hewitt s (966)ublishe stuy an on my own analysis (largely unublishe, though see ynch1976 ) The honemes of Anej om, as es tablishe by both Hewitt an mysel f , areas follows :

Consonants

Stos

Fricatives , voicel ess

Fricatives , voice

Nasals

ateral

Fla

Semivowels

Vowels

High

Mi

ow

M

b P

f

V

f m

W

Front

e

M

Q

t j k

d

c

Y

Central ack

u

o

a

The orthograhy use is that of the mi ss ion transl atio ns which is the systemcurrently use toay with the aition of the three honemes Ib �I notrecognise by mi ssion translators A fuller iscus sion of the orthograhy maybe foun in 1 4 be low for the moment , note that b reresents Ipw/ c reresentsI, d reresents /, 9 reresents I, an m reresents Imw/

C on so na nt s

Anej om has twenty consonant honemes , which are iscu sse accoring to mannerof articulation below

Stops Stos "voice comlet ely when flanke by vowel s , an at least artial lywhen fol lowing a voice consonant" (Hewitt 966 : 4 ) In other environments , thestos are voicel es s , but leni s The alatal sto in fact occurs stronglyaffricate ( [ e ) , J ) in most environments , retaining it s sto character ( tY ,[ dY only when followe by the nasals m an g Velarise an simle bilabialstos are in contrast ( as they are in other languages of the regi on)



6

( /bar/ [ w

r ] 'ad the, aso '

/an/ [n ] 'eay '

/ n b a / [ ?1nbwa ] ' k o fish '

/ n a / [ n a ] 'tee s,

Hewi ( 1 6 6 1 ) menions he aaren neuralisaion of he velarised/simleconras efore he back rounded vowel //, bu his in fac seems o be anincorrec inerreaion, as examles like he following show:

( 2 ) /abo/ [ ?abW:s ] 'earry '

/ao/ [b] 'stee a boat '

Frcaves Fricaives show a vo�c�ng disincion only in he labilseries , voicele ss labiodenal /f/ conrasing wih voiced labiodenal /v/:

) / ne fa t m / [ n E fa

m ] 'od ma '/ n e v a m / [nvam ] 'hih ? '

The voiceless inerdenal fricaive / / [ ] conrass wih he voicelessaicodenal fricaive // :

( 4 ) /agan/ [a ] 'put o head '

/aga/ [ Sa ] 'a '

/ e e / [ e ] 'he '

/eej/ [e ] ' thee '

The rema�n�ng fricaives are he voiced velar fricaive // [ ] and hevoiceless gloal fricaive // , realised as a gloal so in reconsonanalosiion

N a s a s The nasals show a five-way conras similar o ha found in hesos Conras beween velari sed and simle bilab ial nasa ls is clear , andagain his conras is found before // as well (conra Hewi 1 66 1 )

( 5 ) /a/ [mw

] 'be ky, uea '

/ma/

/ n oo/

/nmooc/

[ n mw&]

[nm&]

'be ipe, of fruit '

'fog '

'moo 'Conras beween he alveolar , alaal , and velar nasals is al so clear , andcarri es a relaively high funcional load :

( 6 ) /anag/

/aa/

/agag/

[ ?na]

[ ? i fak]

[a]

'may '

'I'

'sim '



L qu ds The two liid ,fla Ir, are i clear cotrat

( 7 ) aou

a o e i

voiced detal

[ o u ]

[ a u e i ]

7

lateral I I ad voiced alveolar

'vomit '

'tie up '

Semvowels . There are two emivowel hoeme Iw ad I y / Their tata cooat hoeme ideedet of the high vowel will be diced iectio 1 ad 1 3 below

Vowe s

Aejom ha a five-vowel ytem imilar to that fod i may other Oceaiclagage . The coditioed al lohoe of the vowel are lax ] , ] , € ] , ] , ad [ a ] The coditioed allohoe are diced below

The high frot vowel I i i tee [ ] i a mber of evirome t adjacet to a vowe l ; fial ly ; or before a alatal cooat Similarly , thehigh back vowel u i tee ] adj acet to a vowel . Both high vowel arelog ad tee whe gemiate i.e i i = [ ] ad uu = [ u ] )

The mid vowel e ad 0 occr tee e ] ad ] whe before I i , ad0 i alo tee before u Th mid frot vowel e ha a cetral allohoe[ ] whe before the velar frica tive Both mid vowel , ad al o the low vowel a / , have a alatal offglide whe they occr before the alatal cooat Ijad I/

Some examle of the vario allohoe of the vowe hoeme are givebelow:

8 i t a I a i a t

i j i i

Ia ato

a i i

i t j u u

Iao

Iaoj

e te

eejaa

Iuu

[ a ][ a t ]

[ i S ]

[ a g ]

[ a ]

[ j ]

o ]

i ]ao

[]

e ] i a]

[b]

'taro ''y ytime '

'up above

'outrigger-boom '

'iside '

'a '

'turte '

'k o beteut '

'be stay '

'three 'I'

'tho '

the reet day oke lagage there i a trog tedecy to lowermay of the I i . to e ] i . e . t o €] J ] . The 0 o the other hadi tedig toward [ ] ( : 3 additio to thee tedecie , c lear alo iHewitt li t ad i my data , there i alo coiderable cofio, eve i



98

the seech of a sinle in foant , between a i and e i and between ando At the moment, however , in suffic ient data are available to coentfurther on th ese develoments

o other oints require mentionin in connection with the Anejom vowel s

The first is that word-initial vowels are receded by a non-honemic lottalsto (which also occurs intervocalic ally in the interjection o [ ] 'no ' ) there are a number of examles of this in ( 8 ) above The other oint concernsthe contrast between the hih vowels I i and and the corresondin semivowelsIy and In ewitts (1966) honoloica l study ,

the major unresolved roblem involves the c las si fication of lides Phonetically some hih vocoids seem as likely to be unstressedvowels as semivowel s This is further comlicated by variantronunciation isyllabic Iaya ytime is as accetable andas likely to occur as trisyllabic I a i a ( 1966 1 )

On the basis of the behaviour of eminate clusters as oosed toclusters of I y i and , however , ewitt concludes that it is referabl e toosit Iy and as semivowel honemes in contrast with I i and

3 . P honoacics

Althouh no detailed s tudy of Anej om honotactics has been carried out ,some ener al statements can be made Noall y , words may bein ei ther with avowel or a consonant , and may end with either a vowel or a consonant owever ,not more than one consonant may aear in it ia lly or fin all y , and not more thantwo consonants may cluste r medially Within a syll able , two vowels may occuras a dihthon ( involvin either hih vowel nonhih vowel , low vowel + nonlow vowe l , or mid vowel + hih vowel No obvious rohibited combinations ofvowels across syllable-boundaries have been observed, nor does the data show

any clear rohibitions on consonant + consonant or consonant+

vowelsequences ; some of ewitt s statements in thi s reard have been shown , by thcoll ection of further data , to be invalid

The sinificance of emination in Anejom remains uncertainThe ictionary [ i e Inlis 1882] ives a number of words withor without eminated consonants , such as I eo or e o sugarcae At the resen t day it does not seem to occur

Forms such as e , e , thus are listed but the former is moreenerally heard It is ossible that such variations wereoriina l ly resent , but dialectal ( from the viewoint of themiss ionaries ' chosen headquarters There are , however , norecords of dialectal variation on any lare scale" ( 5 )

ewitt and I both recorded the lottal sto allohone of I in

reconsonantal osit ion , and ewitt ' s only other remarks on consonantemination are that "no eminate consonants have yet been verified" (ewitt1 96 6 1 2 ) On a number of occas ions , however , I found myse l f writin now aeminate consonant , now consonant, and as my research continued I leanedmore and more to the eminate consonant interretation Thus what I oriina llyheard as aaj [ a i ] they tia I later felt was a a j a i ] ,and simil arl y with some , but by no means a ll , examle s of I + consonant inthe data This roblem of consonant emination is one which requires furtherinvestiation



GRR 99

Gemnaon n vowels , however , s much more cle arcu seems ha allvowel s may occur gemnae , hough i s by ar he mos reuen Gemnaevowel s end o be longer ad, n he case o nonlow vowels , enser han herungemnaed euvalen

Fn all y , honoac c evdence gves suor o he nerreaon o

and w ] as searae semvowel honemes raher han as allohones o I i and uHew noes , or examle , ha

orons o Aneom words aear o have nomnal s ng uncon Many nouns wh n al I n i n - I are derved rom verbs or adecves by means o hese rexes [and c 2 2 below Her examles demonsrae ha In-I occurs beore vowel , and i n - I beore consonans ernenly , glde n al orms do showhe consonanall y sele ced al lomorh o he rex (Hew 9 6 6 : )

e g I u b a tell a stoy ' i n u b a 'stoy '

4 rhoraphy

The orhograhy used n hs graar skech s based largely on hadeveloed by he resbyeran mss on n he las cenury , and used n mss onand oher ublcaons on he language . The orhograhy s smlar , a leasn basc rnces , o ha develoed around he same me or F an : onesymbol or one s gn c an sound , wh ohese unused Roman le ers bengused or sngl e consonan honemes ( c F an c , g , q ec )

The ve vowels occason no real roblem, wh each o he symbolshavng her execed r eal saon The roblem or hose unamlar whAne om, however , le s n he consonans O hese , hree do o aear aall n he mss on leraure : he velar sed bl abal so Ib/, he velarsedblabal nasal I/, and he alaal nasal I/ O he oher consonan symbo s ,/ t f v m n 1 w / cal l or l le coen The remanng our

symbol s , however , should be brel y coened on The symbol j s used or he alveoalaal arcae (Caell uses c or

hs n hs MS) The symbol s used or he nerdenal rcave (Caelluses ) ; have reaned he old msson symbol , a le as arly because hemos log cal ale rnave , he dgrah t, s sasacory, seuences o It I I beng ermssble (e g intaeta/ [ nag£ta ] 'oman ') The symbol g ,as n so many languages o Oceana, reresens he voced velar nasal Cael l sMS shows Fnally, he symbol c reresens he voced velar rcave( C a e l l s )

5 . S re ss

Neher Cael l nor Hew reas sres s a all , and have only been ableo make small headway wh he analyss o sress (ynch 97 6 : 2 ) Generally,rmary sress n Ane om aears o al l on he enulmae syllable , whgemnae vowels counng as wo syllables

9 ) ee [£] suck '

Inefa a

incowoj

[n ai ]

[nwo i ]

'oad '

'hook '



100

/ecj /

/ n g j a /

[ ]

n a ]

'to omb '

'sandalodtree '

There is some evidence , however , that rimary stres s all s on theanteenultimate syllable i the anteenultimate and enultimate syllables o a

word contain the same vocali c elements and are searated by a single consonant ( 1 0 ) / y / y ] negative article

/ e e e / ] 'blo, of ind '

/ n a / n 1 a ] 'bush '

/nmunuka/ nmnga] 'thunder '

Stres s i s , however , one more area o Anej om honology that requires considerablymore attention

BASS

Fiv e tyes o maj or morhemes or base s may be dis tinguished in Anej om ronouns , nouns , verbs , adjectives , and adjuncts These are brie ly established ,and their morhology discussed, in this section Their wider graatical eatures ,however , are let until later sections

ronons

ronouns are bases which distinguish erson and number (and al so case c2 and 2 below) Four numbers are marked in Anej om ronouns : singular , dual ,tria l , and lural In the non-singular numbers , the coon Oceanic dis tinctionbetween inclusive and exclusive ir st ersons is al so ound Thus in each o the

cases iteen ronominal orms can be distinguishedThe three cas es are ( i ) ocal , which occur as sub j ect noun hrase s and

disj unctively; ( ii ) objective , which occur as suixes to verbs and wil l betreated in 2 . below; and ( ii i) ossessive , which occur as suies to nounsor to os se ss ive morhemes and wi ll be treated in 2 below The graar othe various case s o ronouns wil l al so be examined in subsequent sections

The Anejom ocal ronouns are listed below:

( 1 1) Singular ual Trial lural

1st inc akajau akaaj akaja

st exc aak ajamrau ajamaj ajama

2nd aek aak aourau ajouaj ajoward aen aan aarau aaj aara

There are a number o oints to note about these ocal ronoun orms

Fir st , the ocal ronouns are al l init ial Anejom sentences are almostall o the om VS or vas , with the subject noun hrase usually being marked bythe article a ; or examle

( 1 2 ) e c wameec a kaSG AOR eat seetpotato SM pig'he pig ateis eating seet potato '



ANEJOM GRAMMAR SKTCH

Since he mos freuen osiion of occurrence of he focal ronouns is assubec noun hrase s , and since in his osii on hey ar e no hemselves furhermarked by he subec-marking aricle e g

) et c wametec aen3SG AOR eat seetpotato he

'He ateis eating eet potato '*et c wametec a aen

3SGAOR eat eetpotato SM he

hen i seems likely ha he iniial in he focal ronouns is a fusedsub ec-marker

Second , he second and hird erson sing ular forms each show wo varian s The former e , e are he older forms , which include he relaivelyin freuen vowel seuence e h e laer forms , aear o be akingover from he former , and may even be being furher reduced o , an

Third, he nonsingular focal ronoun forms sugges a combinaion ofronoun roo + number suffix Alhough neiher he roos nor he suffixes

occur alone as free forms, i is useful o lis he underlying forms here : ) Roos

a-jam

a-jou

a - a r -

s inc

s exc

2nd

3rd

Suffixes

-rau dua

-taj rial

lural

The number su ffix es bear no synchronic rela ion o he numerals , alhough hereaears o be some hisori cal re aionshi There are also a number ofmorhohonemic changes involved in he combinaion of roo suffix a followingconsonan is los afer ' firs nclusive degeminaion akes lace n

a-ar-rau ; and ajoua becomes o hrough a rocess of desyllabificaionFourh , he hird erson rial , underlying a - a r t a j , roduces a geminae

consonan Where recorded a t t a j oher sources give his form as ataje Hewi 966, nglis 882 )

Fina lly , here aears o be variaion in he final syllab le of he dualforms beween - ( r a u and o Boh erminaions are found in my daa and inall he sources exce nglis 88 2 ) , who has - ( r a u only n his skech, will consisenly give he forms in , since hese are boh hisoricallyrior and, I bel ieve , more coon such forms , however , should be aken oinclude he forms in - ( r o u as acceable alernaives

The focal ronouns are furher exemlified below

5 ) aam aaPAST come ce '

e awo ur e t t a an3SGAOR hit g big 3SGAOR one he'He hit aone big dog '

era ag aarouNSG AOR dine they D'ey to ae eating '



JOHN LYNCH

N o u n s

The ateoy o noun inlude [ s wods whih untion as ato o oal in an utteane Thee is no omal distintion to indiate the atiulauntion , e thee ae no ase distintions 2 7 ) Howeve , numbe isusually indiated in the noun (unl ike many othe Oeani lanuaes o Mel anes ia )

Sin e a eat at o the moholoy o nouns involves a eix , n - � i n - one owhose untions is to deive nouns om vebs , it wi ll be onvenient to i stexamine this deivational eix , and then look at othe asets o nounmoholoy

D er va o n

Ane om does not ossess a eula seies o deivational aixes whihdeive nouns om othe bases;

suh deivations have usually to be exes sed in syntati hase s Examles nat im i atge i atma , 'mudee , lit. 'eson kill siits'

n a t i m i a i e k mu a isheman ' , lit 'eson seek ish . . . Theloation o an atin may be indiated by inwoen lae ' inworena j a i j g a � i r a n , maket ' , lit ' lae ollet theeat ' 8 ) .

In addition to these oms , the use o the e ix i n t a - to oinstental nouns should also be noted

( 16 ) i n ta-am i i

i n t a - a r e

(Ndink)

(NS-seep)

'something to dink '

'boom '

Whethe this is a eix , o whethe the oms above ae omound nouns withi n t a - bein a o o n t a i 'thing ' is a matte o uthe analysis

Thee i s , howeve , one vey odutive deivational oess onouns om vebs and adjetive s , and this involves the eixation oAlthouh thee a e some exetions , the eneal ule seems to be thateixed to vowel-initial oots and i n to onsonantinitia l oots 5examles ae iven below

7 ) Veb Root eived Noun

aaaen 'pay ' n-a aaen 'paye '

eua 'hunt ' n-eua 'a '

deivinn o i n - n - isSome

omrag ' be ol d' n-omrag 0ld peson '

umuu 'moisten ' n-umuu 'ness '

ag 'dine, eat ' i n -ag 'food 'j a 'bleed ' i n - j a 'blood'

meet 'nt ' i n-meret 'pefeence '

ta 'speak ' i n t a 'od message '

Most, thouh not all , nouns in Aneom bein with n- o i n

This eixed n � i n has usually been desibed as an atileAlthouh this may be tue om the viewoint o histoiallinisti s , i t is not synhonially tue It is bette to



EO GRR SKECH 0

treat it secifically as a noun-marker As such , it is nei therdefinite nor indefinite and in no sense an article; deictics areused where needed to add definiteness to the exres sion (C 27 a)

There are in fact cases of what aear to be rimarily nouns droingthe initial n - or i n - and becoming verbs Caell gives the examle of n i e c

stick i ec be or become a stick and similar airs will be given in 2 below

Generally , however , it aears as i f n � i n - was added to noun bases atsome stage in the his toy of Ane jom as some kin d of noun-marker ; and it i s trueto say that this refix normally remains attached to the noun There seem tobe only three contexts in which this nounmarker may be droed the verbalsense discussed above , in certain comounds ( see 2 2 below) , and in thelural , to which we now turn

l u r a s a t i o n

Most Anejom nouns are caable of showing a distinction between singularand non-singula , although there is no distinction in nouns between dual , trial ,and lural The excetions to this general statement are (a ) nouns which,semanti call y , do not allow of a lural , and (b ) most nouns which do not beginwith n � i n -

General ly , inanimate nouns exress the lural by simly deleting the n- ori n marker Examle

( 8 ) e t a t t i i i n ca a anSGAOR fell tree heHe cut the tree

et att i ca i aanSG : AOR fell trees he

He cut the trees

On the other hand, human nouns not only del ete n- � i n - , but relace this with u - (sometimes e u ) as a marker of han lurality Examle

( 9 ) e t a j i i i n ma n a n a ta a SGAOR shoot bird SM manhe man shot a bird

ea aS man a i l uaaaNSG AOR shoot birds SM UM P-manhe men shot birds

Inanimate nouns which do not begin with n- � n do not formally distinguishsigular and lural Number is deduced from subject-marking refixes (if the

noun is subj ect) , as in (2 0) , or from seci fic numeral or uantifying verbs ,as in (2 1) Note , however , that u i in ( 2 2 ) is ambiguous as to number

(2 0 ) et hag a ku iSGAOR dine SM doghe dog ateis eating

ea hag a u iNSG AOR dine SM ghe dogs ateare eating



104 JOHN NH

( 2 1 et c i ur i et aag a ataMa3SG AOR eat dog 3SG AOR many SM manhe man ateis eating many dogs

( 2 2 et c i u i a ataMa3SG AOR eat dog SM man

he man ateis eating a dogdogs Human nouns whch do no begn wh - � i smy refx i l u -

( 2 et Ma aam a Mao-

Exame

3SG AOR PF come SM gandchi ld gandchil d has come

era Ma aam a i l u-Mabo-NSG AOR PF come SM UM Pgandchi ld gandchilden have come

A dffcuy arses n descrbng he ura forms of nouns referrng ohe arger anma s . aears ha boh sme deeon of - � i - andreacemen of � i - wh i l u - are boh ossb e . Thus boh ecev and

i l u -e ce v are graaca uras of ecev shak and u i and i l u - u iare graaca uras o f u r i dog The forms wh i l u - seem o be essacceabe , or a eas es s coon. Wheher here s any semancdsncon am unabe o say

Two oher forms , boh reae n ynch (1976 bu ony one found nCae s MS need o be menoned bref y here . Boh Cae and soaed aura refx i j i (Cae aso gves he form i j i ) whch s added onanmae nouns afer - � i has been deeed i h a t stone hat and i j i - h a t stones Cae says ha he refxaon of i j i - � i j i - "doesno add anyhng o he meanng of he exresson (C 57 , and smary was unabe o dscover any dfference beween , for exame , hat and i j i h a tas ura forms of i h a t stone The smary of i j i - � i j i - o varousdeccs (c f 2 5 beow , however , eads me o sugges ha hs refx

may denoe a more def n e ura han sme deeon of he nounmarker However , furher research s necess ary o es hs

aso soaed a form uu whchwas occaso nay used as a ura marker u u - u r i dogs Ths may ossby marksmary o i l u - shoud aso be noed.s needed

. 3 . Compond nons

does no aear n Cae s MS whchon nonhuman anmae nouns e g a more defne ura , and s

Agan , however , furher nvesgaon

Comound nouns end o be of he form Head modfer and o have he

srucure noun

verb, noun

adj ecve , or noun

noun n he case ofcomounds wh he srucure noun verb or noun adecve , here s eo be sa d regardng he r morhoogy , as he fo owng exame s w show :

(24 Noun Verb

i t o h o u - a l a i

ad iat-atumo

auata

iom-amya

shellblo

yest

knifecut

housemenstuate

conch tet

uny sabbath

cicumcision knife

menstual hut



Noun + Adectve

amjegace

e d o u - i j i i

sleeppoisonos

behaviourhigh

ANEJOM GAM SKECH 05

nightmare

matter o pride

Noun noun comounds show reat er morhoo ca comex ty There areno cear cases of noun + noun wthout some chane n some case s , the nounmarker � i s droed from the second noun

( 25 ) ecev i i g i ha ecev i g hashark shoulder ehead shark

i a i iom i a iyomsite house housesite

i a acred ea i aacredeathing scrape coconut coconut gate scaper

u m r i - ema- umr iema-hair eye eyebros eyelashes

Other cases are ess cearcut, ke those shown beow n ( 26 ) . n these exames ,the fr st noun s na enab e , and the root ends n a vowe the second noun neach comound bens wth - eary , the i of i s ost and snce Aneomdoes have a ossessve construct suffx - i suest that these forms n factshow reducton of i - to - n these comounds c f 3 2 2 2 beow Exames

( 6 ) arae- i ca i > aaecaiskin tree bark

eduo- i r i i e d u o r i i bone chest rib

eeya + hade- eeyahade-nipple breast nipple

nte rroatve comoundn shoud aso be bre fy mentoned here nterroatve fo whch s bascay eve does not aear to occur aone butoccur s as the f r st member of a comound wth nouns

( 2 ) ei awod eveuri aa2SGAOR hit hichg you:SGich dog did you (SG) hit ?

However , nouns wth an n t a noun-marker show some morhohonemc reducton The noun-marker - s ost , and eve becomes ev before the foown vowe thenoun-marker i s ost, but eve remans eve before the foown consonant Exame s

( 28 ) eve a i m i person e v a i m i hich person? ho ?

eve oua time evoua hich time? hen?

eve i a i thing e v i a i hich thing? hat?

eve e cau canoe evelcau hich canoe ?

eve aaa man evaaa hich man?

eve i aeha oman eveaeha hich oman?



106 OHN LNH

3 Verbs

Verbs in Anejom "include numerals and uaniaive words in general aswel l as verbs as undersood in Euroean languages They are dis inguishableormally as a class by he resence iediaely beore hem o cerainsulemens e . aricles which mark subjec ense nd asec : 33 ) Unlike he oher languages o Souhern Vanuau hese aricles are no reixeso verbs and a disc ussion o he verbal morhology o Anej om is hus simlerhan ha o is relaive s

3 C asses o verbs

Verbs may be divided ino a number o cla sse s accoring o semanic synacic and morhological criria whch will bcome obvous ler in hisskech.

Quafers

Quaniiers orm a class o verbs which are used generally wih reosedverbal aric les bu may al so be used wih he mlili caive rei x e Wihin hi s clas s he numerals orm a large subcla ss and hey are urhercharacerised by he abiliy o occur alone in serial couning or in answerso uesions

The

9 )

The rue Anejom nerals arenumerals have been augh romal l numbers above ive in heand ford r or ourh '

no ully reserved because Englishhe earlies days o Mission work orBible ranslaion for is used or our

3 9 )

ive numerals which recorded are

i t i 'one '

eou 'to '

eej 'thee '

mi jma 'fou '

meed 'five '

The origi nal sysem was aarenly uinary wih comounds used or orms aboveive : 39- 40) The irs hree nerals given by aell corresond o hosegiven above however he gives maohwa 'fou ' and i j m a 'five ' - noe hesimilariy o he aer o he modern orm or our ' The comounds or

numerals above ive were aarenly ormed wih a mrheme e ed, whih isag ai n similar o he modern orm o r ive Some o hese comounds are romaell ' s skech

3 0 ) i j ma e e e i h i i 'six '

jma e e e eou 'seven '

i j ma e e e eej 'eight '

i jma e e e maowa 'nine '

i jma e i jma 'ten '



ANEJOM GRAM SKECH 0

The form for twenty given by Caell eo eo makes reference tohands and feet eo robably eo . However , these forms haveall died out

The mltilicative refix e may be affixed to any of the numerals

e 'once ' eee 'thee time ' etc It may also be affixed to otheruantifiers , such as 'many ' ee 'ho many ' and s o on e g e 'many times ' eee 'ho many times '

Inransiive verbs

ntransitive verbs never take obect s Some examle s

1 'eat , dine '

'die '

'alk, go, tavel '

ee 'stay 'e 'sleep '

Transiive verbs

Transiti ve verbs reuire an ob ect , an d have no transitie s uffix .Examles

'eat '

o 'kno '

o 'hit '

'spea '

o 'tist, ing '

her Verbs

As will be seen in 2 . 3 . 5 below, there are roblems regarding theidentification of the transitive suffix in Ane om , and asses sing its role .There are a number of airs like 'eat ( i nt ra ns it ive ) , 'eat( transitive) , where the relation of transitivity is not exressed

morhologically but lexically there are other airs like 'smell( i nt ran sit ive ) , 'smell ( transitive ) where , al though the verb forms

are similar , there is no clear derivational rocess by which one is derivedfrom the other The cl as s of other verbs thus comri ses verbs which mayfunction transitively , and which aear to have a tran sitive suf fix , , , o , - P , but whose root does not aaren tly occur alone



108 JOHN LYNCH

2 3 . 2 . Verb roots

In coon wih oher anguages of he region , Aneom shows evidence of aroces s in which an iniia vowe , usuay a , was added o consonan-iniiaroos . The foowing inheried forms from Proo-Oceanic (PO ) show hisrocess ceary

( 3 3 ) P Aneom

*a i acj i dig '

at i ace 'bite

l uaq aou 'vomit '

mataut emtac fea '

ao aa 'go '

* t o l u eej 'thee '

No a verbs , however , are vowe ini ia ae gives a abe showing heoccurrence of iniia honemes in verbs in ngis dicionary ( : 6) The abeshows abou 90% of Aneom verbs are vowe -ini ia , wih abou 10% beingconsonanini ia . Of he vowe- inii a verbs , neary 56% begin wih a andamos 20% begin wih e The funcion of his refi x is no cea r . ae ,in discussing ern ' s ( 1906 sudy of Ane om , saes ha ern idenified averba refix a

redominany a marker of he ins ransiive . There areinsances in which ransiive forms begin wih a - , and comarisonshows ha he - is a refix and no ar of he roo . Thesudy of [Ane om is coninuay made comex by he er ifiedsae of i s words , of which no cear anay sis can be given aarfrom diachronic comarisons ( : 34 ) .

Synchronica y , i is imossibe o assig n any funcion o his

refixed a- ahough a few cases discussed in he nex secion sugges hai may have been a verbmarker or verb-formaive .

Verba roos are "invariabe exce for hose comaraivey few whichare modif ied o indicae uraiy of goa The foowing is of such uraobec verbs does no caim o be exhausive ( 37 ) ae ' s is ( 37 39)is given be ow, ogeher wih correcions and addiions from Hewi 196 6 .

Singuar

a c a d e i

aca

a t a c a i

a t a c

ajuimo

avatec

awalec

Pura

ata

eca ececa

etuoca i

e i t i tac atauwud

eju imoi ju i mo

evetec

i w o e c o e c i w i o l e c auwooecoec

'ut '

'bu sou

'split ood '

'fo llo

'substitute '

be lame '

'beak in to '



Singula

athunwai

a t i i

a t i n a ua t i a n i

awonemtan

c i

ehcoho

eev

ee

ej i i d

etha

etojejhg

he i a

i je i gmo

e ( e h ?

ma

ohiomod

ta

umoh

lual

a t h o i w a i

i j g i i

t i n a ui j g i a n i

awoemtan

e c i

ahcaho

eheev

eee

aj i i d

eeha

atujejejhega

e l i a

aje igmo

lecei

emema

auhiomod

ehtata

umumoh

NEJOM GRMR SKETCH 109

' ate

place, put, choose

cease to cy emove

buy

eat ans )

appea

stink

be lean thin

geat

lose, tho aay

bust

eat in )

feeble

add to

take, get, eceive

die

ene

cy, eep

lie

Ceain o hese vebs ae clealy inansiive ma , umoh o examle) , and iis no cl ea i in hese cases he lual om ee s o a lual sub ec Manyo he lual oms involve aial edulica ion , and many involve a change inhe ini ial vowel howeve , hee ae a numbe o suleive oms , and nogeneal ule on omaion can be saed My own obsevaions ae ha hehenomenon is elai vely ae in moden) Aneom, and ha he lis given byCaell may be aken as an indicaion o he numbe o vebs which have lualoms

3 3 orma on

Geneally , vebs and adjecives ) seem o be ' basic in all he SouhenVanuau languages ha i s , cases o nouns deived om vebs ae exemelycommon, wheeas cases o vebs deived om ohe as o seech ae exemelyae We have , howeve , menioned one oces s o vebal deivaion which ,hough no common , is ound in a ew cases This is he deleion o he nounmake n � i n - om nouns :

3 4 ) n i e c stick i ec be 0 become a stick

nataa man ataa be male; be caeful

natahe oman atahe be femal e

i n h a a v child ha lav be childish



110 JOHN LYNH

There are also one or two cases which involve the refixation of a - to otherforms

3 5 ua

naba

3 4 re xes

'dink ossession

'dakness '

a u a

ana ba

give to dink '

'be ancient '

Caell li st s a number of refixes to verbs , but these

derivational refixes are so interwoven honetical ly with the base s ,and so few o f them are actively roductive , that i t i s often dif ficultto define which are simle and which are derived bases . n fact , it issafe to say that the distinction can hardly be made on the evidence of[Anej om alone , but needs comarison with the corresonding forms in

other languages [These derived stems are not used, as a ule ,without their refixes , and the refxes may not be added at wil l to

any stem to give any secia l nuance or meaning That is why it wassaid that these refixes are for the most art not roductive in themoden language C 3 2- 33

n fact , the only aarently roductive refix to a verb in the modernlanguage is the mltilicative refix ec- , already discussed in 2 3 1 above

3 . 5 S u x e s

Various kinds of suf fixes may be added to Anejom verbs n this secti on brie fly discuss ronoun obj ect suffixes , suffixes of direction or location, and

the transitive suffixes

ronoun objec suxes

When the object noun hrase i s a ronoun , the focal forms discuss ed aboveare not used nstead , shorter but related forms are laced after the verbt is not absolutely clear from the available data whether these forms are infact suffixe s , or whether they are ostosed , but free , object ronouns Giventhe kinds of morhohonemic changes which take lace esecially in the singularforms , susect that they are suffixes The forms are

3 6 Singular ual Trial lural

1st inc -cajau -caaj -caja

1st exc -a -camau camaj -cama

2nd - y i c -c couau -couaj -cowa

3d - y n -n -au -eaj -a

The same remarks regarding the final syllable of the dual foms aly here asal ied to the focal ronouns 2 1 There are some morhohonemic changesto the second and third erson singular fos , aarently involving loss of y after a vowelfinal root



ANEJOM GR SKETCH 11

While there are some difference s , the forms of the obj ective pronouns are

c learly related to the focal pronouns The non-singular forms consist of a root

and a number suff ix neither of which ay occur without the other The numbersuffixe s are the same as identified for the focal pronouns : dual rau trial

t a j and plural -a. The pronominal roots are first inclusive - c a j , first

exclusive -cam- , second -cou- , and third - r - ; coinations of root and suffixinvolve similar morphophonemic changes to those discussed in for the focal

pronouns .

These obj ective pronominal forms are exempl if ied below :

( 3 7 ) et awod-yic aan3SG AOR hit-you : SG he'He hit/hits you ( sg ) '

i s e ge -f ak a k u r iPAST hearme SM dog'he d� heard me '

ek an a tg i -ra aakSG:AOR PF killthem:PL II have just killed them (pI ) '

Direction/location suffixes

A number of suffixes marking the direction or location of the action maybe attached to verbs These bear some rela tion to the deicti cs , di scusse d in

2 . 5 3 . ; partly for that reason , and partly because they are not wel l understood,

only mention them briefly here. Those isolated so far are :

( 3 8 ) -pank i

-pan

-pam

j a i

- se

s j i pe

'movement away '

'movement there '

'movement here '

'up, on top of, eas tward '

'down, westward? '

'back and forth, about '

Some exampl es of verbs i th these suffixes :

( 3 9 ) at i 'put '

a t i - p a n k i 'take ay '

a t i - j a i 'put on top of'

a t i - s e 'put down '

yet 'arrive ' apparently not a free

yt-pam 'arrive here '

yet-pan 'arrive there '

ahtag 'approach '

ahtag-pan 'approach there '

atag-pam 'approach here '

form)



JOHN LYNH

atec 'sit '

atece 'sit '

a t e c - j a 'sit on '

e l a d - ' look in a cetain diection ' (no a ree orm

e a d - j a 'look to the east '

e a d a n ' look tods '

atga 'lk '

a t g a j e 'l k about, lk back and foth '

ansve suffx(es )

Ths s a oorly unersoo area o Anejom graar When he obj ec s anonronomnal noun hrase , ronoun objec su xes are no use nsea , a

rans ve verb wh an aarenly use ran sve su x s use The roblemn enyng ransve suxes , however , s ha , as has alreay beenmenone ( 3 l ) , ew nransve verbs may ake a sux makng hemrans ve The cleares way o enyng he suxes s o look a verb +

objec sux, an verb wh noun objec eg

( 4 0 ) ecet-Fak a detoPAST seeme SM eto eto sa me '

e c t - a u a d e t oPAST seeTS dog SM eto'eto sa a dog '

Neher Caell s MS nor my own aa , however , conan la rge number s o verbs n

boh envronmens , rom whch boh he ransve sux es an her cononngenvronmens can be exrace There o aear o be wo ses o su xes : onehas he basc orm oen wh a receng vowel whch s n ac hehsorcal nal vowel o he roo whch s roe n ceran envronmens(c ecet ect-a ecta- < OC "'k i t 'see ' ) The oher sux seems o be F

or vowel F oun n verbs lk e he ol lowng adeaF ' hide ' adgaF 'put onhead' a a c F F 'aaken ' aodaF 'ask ' a a F ' cal l to ' amoF 'dink ' a F 'soften ' etaF ' lose ' evaF ' sho' an s o n However, lle more can be sa a hssage , an ransvemarkng n nejom remans a subjec or urher suy

4 Adec ves

Cael l reas ajec ves as a cla ss o verbs , an n some ways hs makesgoo sense : hey show he same ormaon oss bles ( 3 3 ) an, as heao a reca e , hey may be recee by he same subj ec , ense , an asecmarkers as verbs ( 3 below) For examle :

( 4 l ) e t a a a k u 3SG:AOR big SM doghe dog is big '

However , here are wo moran e rence s beween ajec v es an verbs whchsugges ha he wo belong o eren class es One s ha ajecve s never



ANEJOM GR R SKETCH 3

take verbal suffixes of any kind, and the other is that adjectives may also beused non-predicatively In this non-predicative use , the adj ective followsthe head noun of a noun phrase or the head verb of a verb phr ase , and does nottake a preverbal particle :

( 42 ) et awd kur i a bas aen

3SG : AOR hit dog big he'He hit/hits the big dog '

2 5 Adjuncts

Adjuncts are similar to adjectives in that thy follow the head of anoun phrase or verb phrase and " serve to delimit it in some way to describe ,to point out, to modify " ( 4 1 ) . They differ from adjectives , however , inthat they may never occur preceded by preverbal particles Three types ofadjunct will be brief ly discussed here indefin ite adjuncts , modifiers , anddeictics

2 5 . 1 . I ndefinite adjuncts

ndefinite adjunc ts usual ly precede the noun in a noun phrase . Someindefini adjuncts are :

( 43 )

tah

tak , i ntak

Example :

'some any '

'any either '

'oher '

(44) ek man atg i i a l p i kad afak

lSG :AOR PF kill ome i 'I have ki lled some pigs

2 . 5 2 M o d i f i e r s

There appears to be another class of d escriptive words which may not takepreverbal particles but which fol low the head of a noun or verb phrase . I havecalled these adjuncts modifier s Some , like asga 'all ' follow the head , wh ileothers , like e 'very ' , fol low another adjunct or an adj ective Theavailable data are so limited, however , that litt le further can be said aboutthis cla ss at this stage

2 5 3 D e c t i c s

A complex series of adjuncts serves to indicate emphas is , location , andmovement in various ways and directions . Each [ apparently] consistsof a root , combined with prefi xial and/or suffixial supplementsThe relationships of these [ roots and af fixe s ] are compl icated andphonetically somewhat irregular , so that they do not lend themselvesto diagraation These forms are demonstratives and deict ics ,whether used alone pronominally or with a [noun] base adjectival ly ( C : 42-43 )



11

or a verb base adverbay There aear to be at east orty suchdeictics in Anej om a number are ound in Cae s MS , some others in Hewitt966 and st i others coected by me This is another area where considerabeurther investigation is reuired ; however , attemt beow an anaysi s basedat east in art on that given by Cae (C 424 7)

Cae divides the deictics into three casses emhasis , ocation , andmovement Those reating to movement aear to be directiona su ix es to verbs ,and have been treated above ( 2 5 ) The remaining two casses corresondoosey with nomina deictics (demonstratives) and verba or sententia deictics( ocationa adverbs ) resectivey , athough there aears to be some overa in

usage and considerabe simiarity in ormation

Nomna deccs

The demonstratives are urther anaysabe into three grous One o thesegrous has to do with the reerence system, and contains demonstratives marking

revious reerence ( 45 ) i y i i y i i revious reerence , singuar

i k i revious reerence , auca

i j i i j i i k i revious reerence , ura

ki ' the one ho '

Exac ty what the semantic ranges o the auca and ura orms are is not cea r ;simi ar constra sts exis t in the other demonstrative sets , and Hewitt 1966)merey gosses them 'of a fe ' and 'of many '

The other sets o demonstratives seem to be artiay identica , excetthat one set has a reix i The avaiabe evidence suggests that the setwith i - is adjectiva and the set without i - is ronomina however , the dataare insu icient to a ow a secure statement on this matter Again , thedistin ction between singuar , auca and ura is resent , as i s a distinctionbetween near seaker , mid/near addressee , and ar/near third erson There areone or two gas in the data , but the extraoated orms are incuded in suarebrackets in the oowing tabe

(46) Near

Singuar n i ki n i

i n i k i

i n i i ne

i n i

Pauca rki

i k i

Pura j i k i

i j k i

i j i i

Mid

nn i n n e i

i n n i n n e i

i n i

in

[ n i

[ i r n i

[j i kn i 1

i j i kn i

n

Far

[ n ikou

i n i k o u

kou

i kou

j i k n i k o u

i j i k n i k o u



ANEOM GR SETCH 115

Al though as Cape ll suggested , considerable morphophonemic changes havetaken place , the elements of the system seem to be reconstructible

Number - / i s ingular , - paucal , j ( i -/j i k - plural Roots - k i n ear , i mid ' , kou/- i -kou far

Capell a lso gives an inclusive plural form in j i - ( e g j i k i j i i k i ) but

he does not give full paradigms

Locative dei ct ics

The locative deict ics are al so complex The basic loca tives show asimilar formation to the nominal deictic s , with a nearmid/far d istinction , andalso a separate set marking previous reference

(47 )

Simple

Previousreference

Awarenessof thingsought

Near

i kek

ike

ik

ikk i i k k i

b i k i ( s g

j i k i (pl

Mid

ke

Far

oupkou

ekou

e

eki

i kou

More specific locations are encoded by using these bases or demonstrativebases and the irectional suffixes discussed in 2 3 5 . Rather than attemptingto diagram these other locational deicti cs , it is easi er to li st those so farrecorded under a number of headings ; because of various cobinations , someappear more than once

(48) Upwards

Downwards

Seawards

andwards

j i p m r e j i p i k j i

j i pkou

j i p i k o u

upou

ep

dep

epkou

epmki

i ke

pokou

ikpok

ik i

ikpi

'uprds '

'up here '

'up there '

'up inland '

, downrds '

, downwards '

, downrds '

'down from speaker '

' here '

'wn here '

'seards '

'seawards '

, landrds '

'on landrd side '



6 JOHN LNCH

nland

Easards

Wesards

Side

3 HRASE STRUCTUR

p ikou

ph ikou

j i p i k o u

i toou

j i k o u

n k j i

ohkou

epn

nke

inkpm

inkpn

'inland '

'inland 'u inland '

' fa in land '

' eastads '

' eas tads '

' e s ads

'estads '

'estads '

'on this side '

'on that side '

Tis secion examines in urn e srucure of verb prases , noun prases ,and oer kinds of prases in Aneom

3 V erb p hr as es

Verb prase s ave as ead eier a verb roo (i appropriae af fix es )or an adj ec ive roo Various adjunc s or adec ives may foll o e ead ofe verb prase , and a number of se s of paricle s may precede e ead n

is secion e fir s examine ese paricles , and en look a e srucureof e verb prase in more deail

3 Subec/ense/mood pari c es

Tense and mood are indicaed by a number of supplemens [ i e paricl es , no doub oriina lly independen paricle s , bu nodisuised by various derees of compoundin i elemens of apronominal naure (C 60

Wile a cerain amoun of isorical analysis can probably be carriedou , e forms are basically unsemenable Considerable reducion in eseparicles as also aken place over e las cenury, ic presens somecompl icaion in presenaion

Tee basic ses of subjec/ense/mood STM paricles are found, andese may be used in combinaion i oer aspec paricles o ive a raneof ense /aspec combinaions Te ree ses are aoris indicaive , pasindicaive , and subj uncive e semanics of ese ses ill become clearin is and succeedin secions

Capel l ' s MS liss e ree ses of STM paricles , providin correcionsere ible ranslaio ns so deparures from nl is (188) raar skec il l compare Capell s forms i ose a el ic ied sould poin ou ,



ANEJM GRR SKECH 7

however , ha no ony do he forms ha I e c ed dff er from hose gven byCae due o whoes a e reducon of he sysem bu he wo Anej omseakerswho worked wh me dffered sghy among hemseves In hese aer case s he earer daa coeced from an oder seaker aears on he ef and ssearaed by a semcoon from he more recen daa coeced from a youngerseaker

Aorst ndcatve

Cae shows searae forms for a ersons and numbers :

(49) Snguar ua Tra ura

s nc. i n t u i n t j i n t

s exc. e e etj e t i j e

2nd n e tj e

rd e eru etj e Before he asec markers fuure and horave a number of assmaorychanges were noed : he second erson dua form e becomes before and before whe he ura forms occur as e , , and e

Modern daa shows a breakdown of he sys em :

( 5 0 ) Snguar Non-snguar

s nc er er

s exc. e er e ' r i -

2nd nei n- e e r i -

rd et ' t - e er ' r i -

Before he fuure marker ne > n e > e er > eru and r > ru-

ast ndcatve

The forms gven by Cae are : 1

( 5 ) Snguar ua Tra ura

s nc n t i i n t j i ] i mj i

s exc . i e r u e t i j i e r i

2nd i t i j i

rd i eru e t i j i e r i

Agan, he forms eced show consderabe breakdown of he orgna sysem:

( 5 2 ) Snguar Non-snguar

s nc i

s exc. i i i

2nd i e r i i

rd i e r i i



118 JOHN LYNCH

Subjunctve

The forms given by Capell an d Inglis are :

( 5 2 ) Singular

1st inc 1 s t exc i n k i . k i

2nd an

3rd i n y i . y i

Dual

tu

ecru

eru

eru

Trial Plural

t i j it i

t i j i ec r i

t i j i a k

t i j i e r i

By contrast , the fos I eli c ited are :

(54) Singular Non-singular

1st inc

1st exc

2nd

3rd

Segmentaton

k

n i

i l i y i ' y i

r

i

r i ; ra

r i ; ra

The data given by Capell suggests that the forms can probably be analysed,

at least historical ly , as follows :

( 55 ) Person

ek 1st sg

nei 2nd sg

et 3rd s g

i n t 1st inc. nsg

ecr 1st exc nsg

ek 2nd nsg

e r 3rd nsg

Devel opments i n the system

Number

au dual

t a j / t i j trial

a plural

Tense/Mood

i 5 past

-� aorist

i / u subunctive

It is clear from an examination of the data given above that there have

been signifiant changes in the system of STM particles in Aneom Firstly,the disti nction between dual , trial , and plural has been lost , with modern

Anej om-speakers now marking only a singular/non-singular distincti on Second ,

a dis tinction between the persons has been lost in the aorist nonsingularand is being lost in the past and subunctive non-singular and the past

singular There is evidence , in the aorist indicative at leas t , that whatwere once free partic les are becoming prefix es to verbs . Further fie ldwork ,

however , wil l be nece ssary to show precisel y what changes have taken place

and are taking place



3 1 Tense and aspect

ANEJM GRAMMAR SKECH 119

A number of different tenses and aspects are marked by the STM markers

alone or in combination with some other particle which follows them

Aorist

The aorist tense is marked by the aorist indicative markers with no

following tense/aspect particle The tense indicates a present or recent past

action or state

( 5 6 ) ek g �kISG : AOR eat a eating , eat , 'I just ate

et f numu en3SG : AOR want fish heHe wants a fish , He recently wanted a fish

Past

Past tense is marked by the past indicative markers with no following

tense/aspect particl e This tense indicates an action or state in the past ,

but not the very recent past .

5 7 ) g k

Future

PAST eat I

ate

i � n umu e nPAST want fish heHe wanted a fish

The future marker is pu which fol lows the STM par tic les A simpe future

is marked by aorist indicative particles plus pU :

(58) ek pu g kISG AOR FUT eat I will eat

e pu i f numu en3SG AOR FUT want fish heHe wi l l want a fish

A futurein-the-past sense is conveyed by past indicative particles plus pU :

(59) i k en i pu pm i mfPAST say he PAST FUT come tomorrowHe said that he would come tomorrow

i k en i pu pm �k i mfPAST say he PAST FUT come tomorrowHe said that I would come tomorrow



20 JOHN LYNCH

Anothe aticl e , mu,

is not used as a ue futue , but in sentences which contain ageneal escition , an exhotation , a stimulus Theefoe , itembaces the imeative in the st and 3d esons and even in the2nd eson in a euest , aye , o uging (C : 62 uoting en 906 : 57

t al so aeas to have a subjunct ive o vague futue sense Examle s :

(60 i n tou en m i k mu uerAST F kno he that FUT/HOR leave-themHe kne that he ould leave them '

e mu hg en3SG : AOR FUTHOR eat he'He il l eat ! ', 'et him eat ! '

erfecve

The efective o asse tive aticle , n , may follow eithe the aoist othe ast STM aticles The fome combination indic ates ecent comlet ion ,while the lat te indicates comletion not so ecent :

(6 ek n g klSGAOR F eat I'I have just eaten '

n g kAST F eat I' have eaten '

Temporal/condona

The makes used in conditions o in temoal hases ae t and u t ;t is used in the ast , ut in the futue oth may be eceded by aoistSTM makes , with t also having the otential of being eceded by ast STMmakes Examles of the use of these ati cles wil l be given in the discussio non comlex sentences in section 5 2 2

Asserve

The assetive make i m comes between the STM makes and the head

(6 2 e t i m u pn 3SG : AOR ASSERT good'It is good indeed '

ek pu i m pn m-jlSG AOR FUT ASSERT go ES-fish'I i ll suely go fishing '



3 . 1 3 Nega t i on

AEJOM GR SKETCH 12

The negative marker i t i y i foows the markers of aspect 1 1

Some example s :

6 3) e t i t i y i ha g a en 3SG:AOR NEG eat he

'He is not eating '� 'He didn 't (just eat 'i s i t i y i a v i n umu a akPAST NEG want fish I

'I didn 't nt a fish '

na pu t y i apam aek2SG AOR FUT NEG come you SG'You (sg) wil l not come '

The perfective partice an , however , may not be used with the negative i t i y i ;instead , a negative perfective partic le f i is used , and this functions as an

adverbia partice (cf 3 . 1 . 4 . ) in that it foows rather than precedes the

negative

( 64 ) *et an i t i y i hag aen

3SG:AOR PF NEG eat he

et i t i y i f i h ag a en3SG AOR NEG not yet e at he'He hasn 't eaten yet '

3 4 Adverbi a parti c les

A number of adverbial particles may occur between the negative particle

and the verb root Those idenified so far are li sted below

(65) lep 'also� again '

i c i 'thus ' also uce , uco, ucco)

top 'merely� just '

f 'not yet '

bar 'next� then '

upc i i 'first '

am sequentia action

These partic es are best exempl if ied in continuous text , and reference shoud

be made to the text at the end of this graar sketch . Some exampe s , however ,

are given beow

( 66 ) i s an upc i i apam aen jae i s ar amjeg aak

PAST PF first come he then PAST next sleep I'fter he ce� I slept '

i s ecet deto a tosei i s am l av aenPAST see Deto SM osei PAST SEQ laugh she'osei saw Deto and then she (Deto laughed '

i s Man l ep ege-y i n attajPAST PF again hear-him they TR'he three of them heard him again '



22

Moe than one such atice may be used in a singe veb hase

( 6 ) i twuae i s wat top am i j a i a a l aae i aejom long:ago AST TEM meely SEQ aive SM eligion neityum'ong ago, hen eligion fist aived in neityum . '

3 1 5 Verb phrase srucure

The Anejom veb hase has the fo owing stuctue

STM + As ect + N eg + Adv + + Adjunct /Adjective

Exames of veb hases containing vaious eosed atices have been givenabove In addition, a veb hase may contain a ostosed adjunct o adj ective

(68) i s l e p a me u p i i a a t m AST also stay good SM people'he people lived e ll '

i s o m ag u p i i a eAST old good he'He as ve old '

i s a i a a s ga aeAST go ay all he'He died ' it , 'He ent aay al togethe ' )

A s wi be cea fom the Anejom text in section 6 the STM atices maybe omitted in discous e , when both the tense i s ecoveabe fom context andwhen the subj ect is ovety maked In what might be temed co oquia Anej om , the STM atic es may a so be omitted in individua sentences , unde thesame conditions I wi etun to this in the disc ussion of cause andsentence stuctue cf section 5 3 beow

3 Noun phrases

n this secion , I wi examine two tyes of noun hase s in Anej om thesime noun hase , which may incude an adj ect ive o nea eceded by anSTM make , and the osse ssive hase The stuctue of the noun hase issuaised in section 3 3 , as i s the syntax of coodinate noun hases

3 1 S mpe noun phrases

S ime noun hases minima y contain , as head , a noun o a onoun

ndefin ite a dju ncts may ecede the head and the head may be foowed by anadju nct o an adj ective , which its e f may be foowed by a deicti c Someexames ae given beow

(69) et Ma i wamete ae3SGAOR F eat seet :potato he'He has eaten seet potato '

et awo u i a lbas ae3SGAOR hit dog big he'He hitis hitting a big dog '



et epjedepjed nyuba l i n i3SG:AOR shot stoy this'his stoy is shot '

i n yuba l i nv i j i c i n istoy tue this

'his tue stoy 'hal p ikadsome pigome pigs '

ANEOM G SKETCH 23

Noun hrases ike those discussed above may be exanded by adding anadje ctive or nera , receded by a STM marker , after the head noun Thisis the ony way in which neras can be incororated into a noun hrase , andthe coonest way of exressing adj ectives Some exame s :

(0) i s l ep amen nomrag i s echeiAST also stay oldman AST diffeent'hee as al so anothe man '

i s amen a nomrag i s i th i ahajomAST stay SM oldman AST one hajom'ee s an o ld man living at hajom '

et awod kur i a lbas et erou aen3SG:AOR hit dog big 3SG:AOR two he'He hitis hitting t big dogs '

s e ct -a i ku r i a l ba s e ape� a�akPAST seeTS dog big 3SG:AOR black I sa a big black dog '

3 ossessve phrases

t wi be convenient to divide this discussion of the ossessive hraseinto two arts ronomina sses sion (ossession by a ronoun) , and nominaossession

3 ronomna possess on . As in most Oceanic anguages , Anej omshows a forma distinction between inaienabe or direct ossession, andaienabe or active ossess ion irect ossession invoves suffixation ofronomina forms to nouns referring to kinshi tes or arts of the body orof things active os ses sion invoves other tyes of nouns , and in theseconstructions the ronomina forms are uffixed to secia ossessivemorhemes

na enab e (d rec) consrucons

The inaienabe or direct construction reuires that ronomina fosbe suf fixed directy to the osses sed nouns The ronomina suff ixes are :



24 JOHN LYNCH

( 71 )

1st inc

1st exc

2nd

rd

Snguar

k

m

n

Dua Tra ura

jau taj j a

mau mtaj ma

m i r au m i t aj m i a

rau ttaj ra

The sm arity of th ese forms to other ronomina forms , eseci ay n the

nonsinguar numbers , wi be obvious . The varation between au and ou in the

dua ronouns , d scussed above n 2 . 1 , occurs aso in the suffixed osses sve

forms of the ronouns .

These suffixes are ustrated in aradigm form beow; the root noun

to which they are suffixed is i i 'mother ' :

( 7 2 ) Singuar Dua Tra ura

1st nc . r i s i j a u r i s i taj r i s i j a

1st exc. r i s i r i i m r au r i s m t a j r i s i m a2nd r i s i m r i s i m i rau r i s i m i t a j r i s i m i a

rd r i s i n r i s i r a u r i s i t t a j r i 5 i ra

Alenable (active) constructions

Aenabe or active ossession reuires suffixation of ronomina forms to

a osses sive morheme , whch fo ows the osse ssed noun There are three such

ossessve morhemes n Anejom i n c a used with things for eatn g ; ua used

wth things for drinking; and U- , used with other ossess ions The ossess vemorhemes i n c a and l ua take the suffixes sted above in ( 7 ) , as the

foowng exames show

( 7 ) i n ta l i nca rataro POSS : EAT-their : P'heir () taro (for eating) ,

wametec i ncaksweet potato POSS : EAT'M sweet potato (to eat) '

i nwa 1 ua nwater POSS : DRINK-his'His water (to drink) '

The genera ossessive morheme U however , shows a number of morhohonemic

variations to the base and to ce rtain of the ossess ve suffixes ; the fuaradgm s sted beow

( 74 ) Singuar Dua Tria ura

1st nc ujau utaj u j a

1st exc. uFa uF imrau uf mtaj u i ma

2nd uum u F i m i au u F i m i t a j u F i m i a

rd uwun urau uwotta ura



ANEJOM GRAMMAR SKETCH 125

Some variation has been observed in these forms the third person trial also

occurs as uettaj , while the second'person non-singular forms also show u after

� - i e . , u�um i rau , u�um i taj , and u � u m i a as well as t he forms given above

Thus the general alienable possessive morpheme has the allomorphs u , uV and

uwV ; u has been chosen as the base form sinc e , as wil l be seen in 3 2 2 2

below , that is the form that is used in nominal pos ses sion The use of the general alienable poss es sive morpheme is exempl ifie d below

( 75 ) n i om ufakhouse :'M house '

p kad uwunpig : his'His pig '

i n t a l u r ataro : their PL'Their (pI) taro not speifial ly viewed as food ,

3 . 2 2 2 . Nomnal possession This discussion of possession of a noun by a

noun is again divided into inal ienable and al ienable sections

Inal enabl e constructons

When a noun is poss ess ed by another noun , the construct suffix i appears

on the possessed noun

( 76 ) etma-i etofathercN Deto

'Deto 's father '

n i j m a i r i s i mhand-ONS mother-his'His mother 's hand '

When the possessed noun already ends in i this i plus the construct suffix

merge as i : thus r i s i i e t o 'Deto 's mother ' surfaces as r i s i e t o .

From the l imited data avail able , i t appears tht when a noun beginn ing

with the noun marker i n - is preceded by the construct suffix i , bth

occurrences of I i are deleted :

( 7 7 ) i n ranca i (underlying i n r a i i n c a i )branhtree branh-cONS tree

'Branh of a tree '

n ijmantakethahand-won

(underlying n i jma i i n taketha )handCONS woman

'The woman 's hand '



16 JOHN LYNH

Aenabe constructions

When a noun is oss essed al ienably by anoher noun, he oss ess ivemorhemes discussed above are used The general oss es sive morheme has heform u The secifi c ossessi ve morhemes reuire he consruc suff i , andaear as i n c a - i (eaing ossession) and l uMa- i (drinking ossession) Eamles :

7B) n om u i ntaktahouse POSS omanhe oman s house

i nman-a l awowa u i nwa holebubble up POSS aterource of a river

i n t a l i n ca i i n t a k t ataro POSS EATCONS omanhe oman s taro to eat

i nwa i 1 uMa - i d i ?

ater POSS DNKCONS hoWhose er to drink ?

3 . 3 . Noun phrase structure

The Anej om noun hrase hus has he following srucure :

(ndef) + EAD + (Adjunc ) + (eicic) (oss hr)Adjecive

Only indefinie adjuncs recede he head l oher modifiers follow he head ,in he order given above One eamle from he ex in secion 6 shows haosses sive consiuens follow deicics :

7 9 ) t M an i n i i i n yu ba l i n i u j ou3SG : AO PF finish story this POSS our NC DUhis story of ous (incdu) is finished

Noun hrases are coordinaed by he conjuncion i m Caell gives heeamle nouatag m nopotan heaven and earth (C : 66) Noe also hefollowing :

B) r i i k n a i m d t omothermy EC : and etoeto s and my mother

r i - i dto i m i i - kmotherCON eto and mothermy

eto s mother and my mother

3 . 3 . ther phrases

arious oher yes of hrase s , some of which are inroduced byreosi ions , wil l be discus sed in his secion There is a considerable amounof maerial available on locaive and emoral hrases , bu raher le ss onoher yes of hrases , which have been discusse d only briefly



3 . 3 . 1 . Locatve phrases

ANEJOM G SKECH 1 2 7

Locative phrases i n Anej om fa ll into a nuer of subtypes some areintroduced by preposi tions , some use locational inal ienable poss es sed nouns ,and some are unmarked

When the head of the locative phrase is a placename or an interrogative ,the phrase is unmarked

( 8 1 ) i s amn a n-omrag i s i th i i aajomPAST live SM NOMold PAST one hajom'ere s a old n l iving at hajom '

i s a pa n an v i l aPAST go he Vila'He went to Vila '

t hs an anlcauhat3SG AOR omefrom he nelauhatHe ame from ne lauhat '

na amn ak da?2SG AOR lie you : SG where'Where you (sg) live? '

t apan an da?3SG:AOR go he where'ere is he going/did he go ? '

In one case ( see the text in section 6) , the form e e precedes a placename

(8 2 ) i s a mn a n i t i anouyacPAST live he ? nouy, He lived at nouya '

If indeed i t i is a locative-marker , I have no evidence as to its nature

The basic locative prepositions are a and u and a large number of locativephrases whose heads are not placenaes or interrogatives are introduced by oneor other of these two prepos itions , ei ther alone or in combination with someother element ( see below) . The dif ference in meaning between a and u is notclear ; the following example s show that , while they behave similarly , theyare not totally interchangeable :

( 8 3 ) t hs an u i nca i3SG AOR ome from she OC treehe is oming from the tree '

t h s a n a n au r i t a i3SGAOR ome from she OC garden'he is oming from the garden '

* t s an u naur i ta i3SG AOR ome from she OC garden

The exampl es in ( 8 3 ) suggest that ei ther there is some slight semantic differencebetween a and u , or their use i s conditioned by the following noun it is c learthat they can be used with the same verbs It also appears that u is less coonthan a although the evidence avail able is not wholly clear on this

Each o f th ese prepositions undergoes and/or causes a number o f morphophonemic changes Nouns beginning with the noun-marker i n drop the / / when preceded bya : thus a i n l i l i t a i 'LOC bush ' becomes a n l ; forms like this will be



128 OHN LYNH

wrien wih a hyphen ( a l i l i t a i o indicae his Before a pronoun a isreplaced by i ra , and his form akes posse ssive suff ixes Before plural nouns ,he form r a , wih he consruc suffix , is used ; i ra i is also used beforea l eas some borrowed nouns Examples :

84) e k a pa a � a k a a r i t a iSGAOR go I garden'I going to the garden '

e t e he s ae a l i l i t a i3SG AOR ome from she LO-bush'he is oming from the bush '

et atecse ae rak3SG AOR si t-don he LOmy'He sat don on me '

cf. i I i I i ta 'bush ')

e ra ame i ra om c f iom 'house ')NSG AOR stay LOONS houses'hey are staying in their houses '

i s ap a a e i ra t a PAST go he ONS to'He has gone to ton '

Regarding he preposiion , Cape l l ' s MS shows he forms r a before pronounswhich occur as possessive suffixes) and ra before plural nouns ; i e . he

paern seems o be he same as for a However have no examples of heseallomorphs of

have idenified wo locaive inalienably possessed nouns exclus iveof he forms i r a and ra discussed above) One is e h e e which in islocaive sense , ha s he meaning 'to ' or 'toards ' ; i also has a daive sense c f 3 3 . 3 ) The oher locaive noun is etha 'under ' Examples

85) et apam ae ehelek

3SG AOR ome he toards'He ame tords me '

e t a pa a e v i l a ehe l e ha l w 3S G AOR go he Vila toardONS son his'He ent to Vila to his son '

et atec a kr e thaca3SG AOR Bit S g undertree'he og iB Bi tting under the tree '

Oher lcaive senses are conveyed b ' comound reosiions ' i e nounscompounds wih eiher a or . Those so fa idenified are given below

86) a o a 'on top of'

a ahaje 'beside

a ep a 'beteen '

a l 'inside '

jho a 'outside '

i j i � i s a 'on top of '

tac a 'behind '

hp a 'in front of '



i tac acen pan u 'fa fom '

opotpotet u 'nea ' (with nouns)

opotpotet ehele- 'nea ' (with pronouns)

Some example s

( 87 ) et amen a i n t a et h a a - n l i i - i n i om3SG : AOR stay SM woman LinsideCONS house'he woman is inside the house '

et apam a p i ad opotpotet ehel e-3SG : AOR come S M pig nea towads-'he pg ce nea me '

et amen a ur i i tac a n i om3SG : AOR stay SM dog behind LOC house'he dog is behind the house '

3 3 2 . T e mporal phrases

NEJO KETH 129

Unmarked temporal phrases consist o temporal nouns li ke the fo llowing

(88 i n p i 'toy '

imra ' tomoow '

iyenev 'yestey '

i twuacen ' long ago '

ou 'now '

For example

(89) et pu apam a r i s i imra�

3SGAOR FU come SM mothe tomoow' mothe is coming tomoow '

ther temporal phrases are marked by the prepositon a , whose use inlocative phrases was discussed in 3 3 1 . above Exples

(90) et apam aen a nouban?3SGAOR come he LOC time'When did he come ? '

et apam aen a nev-ouban?3SG : AOR come he LOC whichtime 'Wht time did he come ? '

i s i t i y h a g a en a n uy a l eg

PAST NEG eat he LOC moing'He didn ' t eat in the moing/this moing '

i s hag ae i yenev a nepe� a a 'o ?PAST eat you : SG yestey LOC night o no'Did you (sg eat last night? '

i s hag a�a anjupuaPAST eat I LOevening'I ate in the evening '



30

3 3 3 h ppos onal phass

A nme f e pepsnl pses e efl ssse n ssen

Dav/bnacv

e m veenefve pepsn s ima- , kes pnmnlsffes e ns sff:

9 e as i ma- i osei aen3SG AOR speak DATCONS osei he'He spoke to osei '

ek u yua 1 ma-mSG AOR FT te ll story DATyour GI wi te you s) a sto

As s ne ve , e lve nlenl pssesse nn ee e s ls se

ve sense :

92 ) ek mere aak m i ka k i asa yua l eel omSGAOR nt I that SGSJ tell sto DATourSGI want to tell you (s) a story '

pell ls lss e pepsn i m i , ve nl ee ne se f sse:

( 93 ) i s a p a n a e n am a s i m i os e iPAST go he SEQ speak DA osei'He wi l l go and speak to i e have words with osei '

Insumnale qs a fnns ls s n nsenl-mke :

94 ) e a g i i p i ka d a e n a - np a s3SGAOR kill pig he Ne'He ki l led the pig with an e '

ek pu ag i i p kad aak a nev i a i SGAOR FT kill pig I NS what'What wil l I kil l the pig with? '

Rnal

An a s se:

(95) i s a pan aen m-ameg mamegacen a nesg iPAST go he Esleep Edre AOT school'He went to s leep and dret about school '

i nyual a n-a aaen istory AOT NOMprayA story about religionhristianity '



Comat ve

J K 31

Comitative phrases are introduced by pan followed by the locatve

preposition a :

(96) . . am e p u de i - y i n p an i r a - i a t i m i s amen m- ame n i n a i n

. SEQ again leavehim COM L-CONS persons PAST stay ESlookafter him'nd again they left him with the people who were looking after him '

i s ba c i � aen pan a nabun i ranPAST then eat he COM LOC crust LOC-its'He then ate it with the crust on it '

Causative/purposive

Causative phrases are introduced by v a , whose other uses will be discussed

in section 5 on sentence structure

( 97 ) e t me e t a e n va - i s i ka r e t

3SG : AOR want he CAUS-CONS cigarette'He wants a cigarette

e t a d a v a n h e ?3SG : AOR go away CAUSwhat Why did he go away ? '

4 CLAUSE STRUCURE

Anej om claus es contain at most only one verb (a lthough noun phrases which

contain a neral or an adjective preceded by STM particles will not be treated

here as containing a clause ) . In this section we examine firstly verblessclauses Following thi s , the basic arrangement of subject , verb, and obectin intransitive and transitive clauses is discussed This in turn is followedby a bri ef discu ssion of the syntax of other phrase types

4 1 . Verbl ess c l ases

I have not elicited any verbles s clauses (unles s the la st clause of thetext in section 6 qualifies as a verbless clause) Equational clauses are

basically intransitive verbal clauses , and use STM or tense/aspect particles :

(98) et uak i nta 3SG : AOR taro'he taro is mine ', 'It 's m taro '

i s a t i m a a a e n i a e nPAST person-pray he'He was a pastor/preacher '

. j a top i n l a u a tu a

. . . but just light pass god' . but it was just the light of od '

wat nepe� . • .

TEMP night'When it was night,



3 JON LYNC

Cae , howeve , saes ha

hee is one euaiona senence ye which can disense wih heedicae This eveses he noma ode edicae-subje c , soha i is saisfacoy o ea i as a subjec wih a eo edicaebefoe i Thee is aso a sigh diffeence in sess and inonaionaen n such an ueance as a t i ma r e i y i k i , his chief , hedemonsaive fo ows he noun as usua oweve , a t i m a r e i y i k imay aso be his is he chief , bu hen he sess on ma- issonge han in he desciive hase , and he one ( on i y k ifa s ahe moe shay o senence-f ina . Whi e , heefoe , hisye of ueance is gammaicay ony a hase , synacica y i isa comee ueance , and mus be egaded as he one exceiona yein he anguage . Thee is anohe ambiguous insance aso , i . e .a ek i a k ' who ae you' , i

aek ak iyou who his : one

ee hee is he same evesa of noa ode , bu he ye aeas

o be imied o he ineogaive euaiona senence ye (C : 8

4 . Basi c verba c ause structure

n his secion we examine he odeing of subj ec , veb , and obj ec ininans iive and ansiive causes .

4 I ntrans t ve c lauses

The efeed ode in inansiive causes is veb subjec Nominasubjecs ae eceded by he subjec-make a onomina subjecs aeadyhave his a acceed o he onomina sem cf . Exames

99) et a apam a kur iSG:AOR F come SM dog'he dog has come '

ek p ag aakSG : AOR FT eat I' ill eat '

e t a l ba s a p i k a3SG:AOR big SM pig'he pig is big ' 'he pig is getting big '

The ode veb subjec is found in viuay evey inansiive causeeicied so fa Ony a vey few cases of subjec veb have been eicied,and even one of hese shows eeiion of a onomina subjec in osvebaosiion:

) e j e i s p i i a s g atoothhis AST good all'His teeth ee al l good '



n om ra g I y I S i t i y i i meh e a enNOM-old PREF PAST NEG sick he'is old man sn 't sick '

4 . 2 2 Transit i ve c l auses

ANEJOM SKETCH 133

I n transitive clauses , the preferred order is verb + object + suject

Again , a marks the subject noun phrase , and - initi al focal pronouns are used

as subject Object pronouns are suffixed to verbs Example s

( 1 0 1 ) et an c i wametec a p i kad3SG : AOR PF eat sweet potato SM pig'he pig has eaten the 8weet potato '

et awod kur i aen3SG : AOR hit dog heHe is hitting the dog '

et egei �ak a deto

3SG:AOR hear-me SM Deto'Deto ·heard me '

et acan numu a nat i m i na3SG AOR spear fi8h SM man DEICSG:MID

'hat man speared a fi8h '

The order object + verb + subj ect , as a variant of the normal order , has

been found in some ques tions when the obj ect i s the focus of the question

Compare the following pairs of sente nces below :

( 1 0 2 ) na ecet nev-at imi aek?2SG :AOR 8e e hich-man you : SG

nev-at im y i na ecta-a i aek?

hichman PREF 2SG : AOR seeTRANS you : SG'ich man did you sg) see? '

( 1 0 3 ) et awod neve -ku r i aen ?3SG : AOR hit which-dog he

neve-ku r i y et awod aen?which-do PRE 3SG : AOR hit he

'Which dog did he hit ? '

Capell also notes that the order verb + subject + object is possible i f the

object is lengthy , and gives the following example (C 17 )

(104) na asa� aek i ntas i t i y i ahajeg i ne?

2SG : AOR speak you: SG word NEG understand thi8Did you (sg) speak thi8 incorehen8ible word? '

The only examples so far elicited of ditransitive clauses are with the verb

' give and pronoun indirect obje cts In these cases , the pronoun is suffixed to

the verb and the direct obje ct fol lows in normal positi on

( 1 0 5 ) ek pu al ba-c nawutoga a�akSGAOR FUT give-you G knife

'I will give you (sg) a knife '

I have no data on the behaviour of nominal ind irect obj ect s .



134 J

4 3 Epanded cl auses

Geera y , oher kds of hrases foow erb + obec rasecauses , ad erb + obec + sub ec rase causes . Exames :

( 106) i s w at a a u h u a a a a n uy a l eg , • . .

PAST TE go out they : PL C moing, 'Wen they () went out in the moing '

. am asjec a nomag an i i - i n i om SEQ lie S NOold LOinsideCON house' and the old man s lying inside the house '

na an awod nat im i aek i yenev 2SG:AOR PF hit n you SG yestery'You (sg) hit the man yestery '

e t a pa n ae n v i l a eh e l e - i i n ha l uwun3SG:AOR go he Vila DAT-CONS son his'He went to Vila to his son '

I some case s , howeer , he sub ec may be moed o seece fa osoafer reosoa hrases :

( 1 0 7 ) i s et tet a- i p i kad a nataaPAST meet OCCONS pig S man'he man met up with a pig '

nev-el au y i et atga i an aen7whichcanoe PREF 3SG:AOR travel LOCits he'Wich canoe did he go on? '

et tas imta-k a tosei3SG:AOR talk DAT S osei'osei spoke to me '

As mos aguages , emora hrase s ofe occur seecea

raher ha oserba oso :

( 108) nouban na i s l ep at i n- imehetime that PAST also not : be NOsick't that time also, there s no sickness '

j a i i n p i e a t i y i a tou a ka ja m i ka but today NSG : AOR NEG know e : NC : PL that . . 'But today, we ( c} don 't know whether '

Oddy eough, howeer , he errogae emora hrase a nouban 'when? ' saarey o ermed o occur seece- a oso :

( 109) i s apan aen a nouban7PAST go he LOC time

'Wen did he go? '*a nouban s apan aen7

LOC time PAST go he



5 SNTNC STRUCTUR

5 S mple senences

G 35

Smple sentenc es contan ony one eb (a thogh sentenc es contann g nonphases whch ncde an STM patce ps adecte o nea wl also be

cassed as smple) Ths secton exnes sentencetypes n Aneom statements ,coands , and qestons Natay , an explanaton of these types of smpesentences also appes to compex sentence s bt the dscsson on compexsentences n 5 2 focsses moe on the ntena stcte than the fncton

5 Saemens

Neos example s of statements n Ane om hae been gen n eal e pages ,and thee s l ttle to be added hee . Whle qestons and coands ae sayoety maked n some spec fc way , statements ae nmaked sentence s

5 1 Coa nds

The dscsson on coands wll be dded nto sectons on affateand negate coands

Affirmave

In aff ate coands , the STM patc es do not appea ; the sbj ectponon , howee , s almost always pesent Example s

) ag aekeat youSG

'at! (snga sbject)

ayo aek im-agome you SG ES-eat'ome and eat! (sngla subect)

awod p kad aowahit pig youPL'eat the pig! (plal subject)

Coands gen to a nonsecond peson saly nole the mpeateof the eb udei ' leave, let ' followed by a eb maked by subjncte STMpatcles

l ) u de - y i n y i h ag a e

let-him 3SGSUBJ eat heet him eat '

udei -ak k i apan aaklet-me SG : SUBJ go I'et me go '



36 JOHN LYNCH

Negatve

Negtive conds sho peveb ptic j i m :

( 2 ) j i m hag aekNEG : I eat youSG

'on 't eat! (sing sbect)

j i m ud e - y i n y ag ae nNEG: IMP let-him 3SG: SUBJ eat he'on 't let him eat '

5 1 3 . Qu es t o ns

Yes-no questons

Qestions dending confition o deni y be encoded in to ys

Fis t sipe stteent ith fin ising the thn fl ling intontionconstittes qestion :

( 3) i s a pam aen a nepe?PAS come he LOC night'id he come in the night? '

Second , sttent becoes qestion hen the cse is fooed by ka a 'o'o not ' often bbevited s k a ' o

( 4 ) i s apam aen a nepe ka a o?PAS come he LOC night o not'id he come in the night (o not ? '

Infoaton questonsInfotion qestio ns eqie the s e of speci inteogtive bses

he oction inteogtive eda 'whee? ' nd the tepol inteogtive

a nouban 'when? ' hve edy been discssed in othe contexts ( 3 3 , 4 . 3 ) ,nd e biefy i stted gin hee :

(5) na amen aek eda?2SG:AOR stay you SG whee'Wee do you (sg) li v e? '

i s ad a aen a nouban?PAS go away he time'Wen did he go ay? '

et pu ad i a aen a nouban?

3 SG : AO F go ay he timeWen wiII he go ay? '

In ddition the se of the inteogtive pefix neve- s discssed bove in2 . 2 3 . nd 4 2 .

A nbe of the othe inteogtive bses fnction s nons heseincde :

( 6 ) d i 'who? '

d i i mna 'who (non-sing) ? '



n e v i t a i

i ne

vane

v a n e v i t a i

Expes :

hat c neve- + n t a i thing )

hat ?

hy

hy

) e t a t g i p ka d a d i ?3SG AOR kil l pig SM hoo kil led the pig?

et aces d i a p ikad?3SGAOR bite ho SM pigom did the pig bite ?

et at t i nca d i aen ?3SG AOR cut don tree pss ho heWhose tee did he cut don

e t c n e a e n ?3SG AOR et hat heWhat is he eating

i s atg i p i kad a nataMa i na a nev ta i ?PAST kill pig SM man that NS htWhat did that man ki ll the pig ith

et ad ia aen vane?3SG AOR go aay he CAUShat Why did he go aay

ANEJOM GRAMMAR KETCH 37

he einin ineives fncin s hes f veb phse s hesincue :

8 ) eca

eed

a w

Expes :

hy

ho many ?

to do hat?

9 ) et eca et bar aces i c a p i kad?3SG AOR hy 3SG AOR then biteyou G SM pigy did the pig bite you ( )

era apam a nat m i et eed?NSG AOR come SM person 3SG AOR homanyHo many people ce?

et i ka aen y i awur i ?3SG AOR say he 3SG SUJ do hatat does he ant to ?

Fin y he veb ) f nev s bseve nsin he Enishineive ho?

2 ) e t nev ad ia aen?3SG AOR ho hich go aay heHo did he leave ?



138 JOHN LYNCH

5 2 . Compl ex Sentences

he ount n qulity of t vilble on vious oplex sentenetypes e quite vible n this setion loo fist t vious ins ofoointion n then nube of ses involving suboinion

5 2 . 1 Coordnate clases

hee is onsieble ount of t on sequentil tion neltivistion (hih in Anejo is expesse by oointion) but not nelyso uh on i sj untion n ltention

Sequential acton

hen the subjets of the to luses e iff eent the to l use s ybe joine by the onnetive a n the veb in the seon luse ill nolly

ontin t lest one of the spet es am ' sequentil tion' e 'alsoagain ' ba 'then next ' A fe sentenes hve been eliite hee the SMe hs been elete fo the seon luse but genelly these eetine Exples :

( 1 2 1 ) Ma upc apam ae a ba r amj eg afakAS F first come he and AS then sleep I

'He came and then I slept '

ecet deto a toe am l av aeAS see eto SM osei AS SEQ laugh he'osei saw eto and then she eto laughed '

ecta p kad a ataMa am athut mad aAS seeTS pig SM man AS SEQ run ESgo :away

'he man saw the pig and it ran away '

et aca umu ae am aca aou aak3SG : AOR spear fish he SEQ spear turtle I

'He speared a fish and I speared a turtle '

When the subjets o both luses e the se siil stutues tothose i susse bove y be use n these ses hoeve the SM ptil eson the seon veb see to be lost invibly oitte n the subj et of the seon luse i s l so nolly elete :

(122 ) ek hag aak a bar ameglSG : AOR FU eat I and then sleepI wi ll eat and then s leep '

et Ma apam a p kad am hag3SG :AOR F come SM pig SEQ eat'he pig ce and ate '

ecet de to a toe am avAS see eto SM osei SEQ laughosei saw eto and Zaughed '

Cope eseill this lst exple in (122 ) ith the seon exple in ( 1 2 )t o see the if feene beteen the to types



ANEJO RA SKECH 39

Heve hen the sub ects f bth cuses e the sme , thee is nthestuctu ptin his invves the use the ech-subect me m hichis pef ixe t the f is t mpheme in the veb phse ; if this mpheme i scnsnnt-initi becmes i m - STM n spect ptices my nt be usein the veb phse hen m- is use t ppes tht m- is mst cny

use hen the pecein veb is ne f mtin thuh in numbe f exmp eshich hve eicite the type ith m- my ccu in ppent fee vitin iththe type escibe bve he exmp es be e ten fm the text insectin 6

( 2 ) a pa n aa a m -a i h c v a i - y i n i m - t a i a - ngo they : PL EgeetAUS ( ) him EScy Lhis'hey p) ent to faee ll him and to cy ove him '

wat np amn aaa am ct in la iy i i sTEMP night stay they PL SEQ see light PREF PAST

asuo l asuol m-apan imtauja i i a- i n-omag iy idescend descend ESgo Etouch LOCCONS NOMold PREF

'en it as night they stayed and sa tt light comingdon� and it ent and touched that o ld man '

i s an omag upn i i an m i t i y i a tou m-atgasj i pPAST PF old good he ESNEG kno Ealkabout'He s vey old and asn 't able to alk about '

i s i t i y i imh an ja i m-amn majgan nouban masPAST NEG sick he and E stay Eait fo time die'He asn t sick, he as just aiing fo the time to die '

Reatvsaton

Retivistin in Anejm es nt invve ny speciic min thee tive cuse Rthe the etive c use is simpy ppene t the mincuse:

(24) k atou na t i m i i y i aak na awod ak i ynvSG : AOR kno peson PREF 2SG AOR hit you SG yesteyI kno the peson hom you s) hit yestey '

t an a pa n v i l a a n a t i m i i y i i s h g i t a lSG : AOR PF go Vila SM peson PRF PAST eat :up PL tao

uak a pik uwunPOS SM pig his

'e mn hose pig ate up my tao has gone to Vila '

ther typs o coordnaton

Atentin invves the use f the cnunctin ka ' o hich siscus se bve ith efeence t yesn questins ( sectin 1 ) isunctin invves the use th cnunctin jam 'but ' hich isi ustte in the f in sentence ten fm pe s MS



40 JOHN LYNCH

(125) et pu t i y i mas aen jam umu3SG :AOR FUT NEG die he but live'He will not die, but will live ·

5 2 .2 . Subord inat ion

A number of different types of subordintion for which dt revibe wi be discussed briefy beow:

Temporal Cl aus es

Tempor cuses use the spect mrkers wat in the pst nd wut in thefuture ong with the regur STM prti ces (which , however re oftendeeted in discourse s wi be pointed out in 5 4 . beow) Exampes :

(1 26) wut amen ajowa wu t nad i at atumop wut a l aaheni

TE : FUT stay Y : PL TEMP : FUT y-rest TEM : FUT prayajowa a nuyal eg wat a aujh u an apam ma i hecvai -akyou:PL LC moing TEMP go : out PF come E-greet-AUS ( ? ) -me

When you are there praying on uny moing, and when you havecome out from hurch , then you st come and farewel l me

i s wat yetpan a nouban i na i s wat a l aujhu aaraPAST TEMP arrive SM time that PAST TEMP go : out they : PL

a n uy a eg , mn aj u j a i n a t i m i a s ga ehe l e nLC moing, PF go : east person all DAT-his

When the time arrived, and when they had come out of hurchin the moing, then all the people went east to see him

Conditions

Conditions were pprenty expressed by the prticle e l e t S optionyfoowed by wut or w a t Exmpe :

( 127 e l et wut apam aen na pu eet y i n aekCOND TEMP : FUT come he 2SG : AOR FUT see-him you : SG'If he comes, you (sg) will see him '

According to infonts however , this is stye of speech now used ony byod peope nd is thus pprenty dying out . In the modern nguge conditions tend to hve one of the fo owing structures :

( ) STM prtice + wut o r w a t which mens tht this type of conditionc use is indis tinguishbe from the tempor cluse :

(28 ek w ut i t i y i apan anejom aak ek pu i t iy i e ce ty i cSG : AOR TEM FUT go neityum I SG AOR FT NEG seeyu : SGIf I don t go to neity, I won t see you (sg) '

e t wat ehe i yenev ek amen a nemnemSG : AOR TE rain yes tery SG : AOR stay LOC home'If it had rained yesterday, I would have stayed at home '



ANEJO GRAAR ETCH 4

(b) e le + conon e l e + a n clause I ay be concenal ha he onlyeale s I have of hs sucue ae h neave conons

(29 e le i i y i apam uwun iyenev e l e ar opCND NG coe : hi yetery ND then jut

amen a nemnem akajatay LC hoe e N PL

f he hadn t coe ye tery, we ( n c p l ) would have ut tayed at hoe

( c ) he os coon oen sucue hoeve nvolves he use of wu o w t oponally pecee by he STM pacl es an folloe by he veb i ka ay,want he veb of he acual conon follos hs c lause an noal ly akessubuncve STM pacles Eaples

130 e wu i ka aen y i apam na pu ee-yi n aek3SG:AR EM FU ay he 3SG SUBJ coe 2SG : AR FUT ee-hi you SGf he coe, you (s) wil l ee hi

e w u i ka e i d i m i i y i e e i y en ev e k

3SGAR E FU ay 3SG AR ASSRT NG rain yetery SG ARpu i d i apan masjaaFUT ASSRT go Sfih

f it didn t rain ye tery, would have gone fihing

Qoaons

Quoave senences nvolve he quoave veb ika h no noucoypa cle beoe he quoaon

13 k i s ka aa k ek pu apam i mra"SG : PAST ay SG : AR FUT coe toorrow

aid, wil l coe toorrow

i s i ka a jon "ek pu apan aak i mra"PAST ay SM ohn SG : AR FUT go toorrowohn aid, will go toorrow

opae hese eaples of e c speech h sla eaple s of epoe speech

32 ) k i s i ka aak k i s pu apam imraSG : PAST ay SG : PAST FUT coe toorrow aid would coe toorrow

i s ka a jon i s pu apan i maPAST ay SM ohn PAST FUT go toorrowohn aid he ohn would go toorrow

i s i ka a jon k s pu apan aak imraPAST ay SM ohn SG : PAST FUT go toorrowohn aid would go toorrow

Compemenaon

hs scusson of quoave senences leas naually no a eaen ofcopleenaon an ca n be see n fo he eap es above ha quoavecopleens o no eque any noucoy con uncon Mos ohe copleens hoeve eque a conuncon o nonal saon of he veb



42 JO LYC

The conuncon hch nouces copleens s m i a hch s pesably(hsocal ly a leas) echo-subec ake m- + i a ay, want The veb n

he copleen akes eula SM akes aos o pas he copleen seals (e ae know hea ec ) subuncve he copleen seals (e ae want ec ) Eaples

( 1 ) e ato a�a m i a et Man apam a nat im i i naSG:AOR know that SG:AOR F come SM man thatI know that that man ha come

e egei a�a m a i s Man apan a etma-m v i l aSG : AOR hea that AS F go SM fathe-you : G Vila' head that you (s) fathe had gone to Vila

e eret a�a mia yi apam aen imra�SG : AOR want I that SG : SUJ come he tomoow'I want him to come tomoow

et meret aen mia i apam a�a iyenevSG : AOR want he that SG : SUJ come yetey

He nted me to come yetey onalsaon o he veb n he copleen clause s anohe alenave

eho o epessn copleens ; hs s use paculaly houh no solely hen he sub ecs o boh cla uses ae he sae onal saon nvolvespeaon o n an suaon o -va� hch has soe (a s ye o e ucle a)elaonshp h he causave peposon va Eaple s

(34) e meet a�a napam-va� imra�

Resu t

SG : AOR want I NOM-come-NOM tomoow' want to come tomoow

e i t i y i meret a�a n-apam-va� aen i mraSG : AOR NEG want NOM-come-NOM he tomoowI n t want him to come tomoow

Resul clauses ae nouce by va-ni becaue

( 35 ) e t a e s - a a p i ad v a - n i e a s j i i -y i n a a a - n ha tSG : AOR biteme S M pig becaue SG : AOR hoothim NS-tonehe pig bit me becaue I thew a tone at him

i s ap an ae n v i a va - n i i s i m eh e a enAST go he Vila becaue AST ick heHe went to Vila becaue he wa ick

5 3 Locatve sentences

n aon o eula senences conann locave phases aseepl e n above Aneo possesses anohe ype o locavesenence hose aa s que een o enon o hs ype s aeby apell o by nls ( 882 ) hee eely pesen he aa snce aunable o sas acoly analyse hese senences



ANEOM G KEH 14

In hs ype of ocave senence he veb s pecee by a (SM?)pace e a� ( osse hee as LO : SM) an s fooe by one of oec cs : he nea ecc n ncan he coseness of he subec ohe speake o he ec c na ncan ha he subec s a soe sance fo he speake he uneyn sub je c of he senence appeas

n he aenabe possessve fo Soe eape s 16 e a � a pa n n �a a n a r t a

:SM go EI : NR OSS : L garden'I a going to te garden '

ea� apan n �a m-agLO : SM go EI : NR : E-eatI a going to eat '

e aR ag n �aLO : SM eat EI : NR OSS :'I a going to eat '

e aR apan na nataa� na v aLO : SM go EI : MI OSS man tat Vila'at man i going to Vila '

e a� apan n nataa� na v }aSM go EI : NR OSS tat Vila'at man near me i going to Vila '

he ake e a� ay occu h he se ype f consucon h heas of vebphases hch ae no vebs :

1 7 ) ea eda na wnLO : SM were EI:MI : i'ere i e going '

eaR eee na wnLO SM A EI : MI

'e i coming toward me 'In one case n a neave conona a sa consucon as ec e hoeve he ake e aR as epace by he conona ake e e an heecc as no pesen he fu eape s ven as 129) above I epeahee ony he conon :

18 e e t t y a p am wn y en ev ON NEG come i yetery,'I e adn 't come yetery, '

o facos sues ha hese senences shou be eae as nona saons :he pesence of he eccs foon he vebs an he use of a enabeposse ss on o epes s he uneyn sub ec Aans ha nepeaon hoeve us be pu he fac ha he vebs n each case ae no hese ve s

noase : hee s no n pef o -vaR suff he ake e aR oes noappea n ehe In s o ape ' s aa skeches an he beas soeesebance phonoocay o he sequence e an epoe by In s h seuence s n fac e conona + an secon peson snua subecpef hch appeas o have e o o a eas h he seancs ofhe senences n 16 ) an 1 7 I pesen hs aa hou anays s hen snce appeas o be an neesn aspec of Aneo aa an one hchceay eques fuhe eseach



OHN LYNCH

A secon e of locaive senence is even less ell unesoo onsiehe fol loin eale s

( 9 ) yek aen et etec a nemnem3SG: he SG AOR stay LO home'He is at home '

yek aen a naur i ta i3SG she LO garden'he is in the garden '

*et yek aen a naur i ta iSGAOR SGL she LO garden

aell ( 20 ) ives he folloin eale

( 0 ) etwa-m yek eda?brotheryour SG 3SG : where'Where is your (s) brother? '

In his eale "he aicle yek aks he hi sinula equaion like ap an

ak fo fi s an 2n esons esecivel We fin ( 9) he folloin eale sof hese lae aicles

( ) aek ak eda?you SG 2SG : where'ere are you s )

aak ap ank iI lSG:LO this'Here '

is clea ha a p a k an e (a) canno be ecee b he eula SMaicl es an e (b ) funcion in soe a as vebs in locaive senences his eains a oic fo fuhe invesiaion

5 . 4 Subject-markng n d scourse

As a have alea becoe obvious fo a nube of he eles ivenabove he ules fo subecakin eseciall houh no onl in conneceiscouse ai of soe vaiaion he fol loin ossibi li ies shoul be noe

(a ) n case s hee he basic ense is obvious fo he cone an he esonan nube of he subec is clea fo an ove onoinal o noinalsub ec he SM aicles a be oie hus i cotext bohsenences in ( 2 ) ae acceable :

( 2 ) ek att i i i nca i aak i yenevlSG:AOR cut : wn tree I yes terday

' cut the tee yestey 'at t i i i nca i aak iyenevcut : down tree yesteryI cut do the tree yestery '

(b) onvesel a onoinal sub ec a be elee if i s eson an nubeae aequael ake b an SM aicl e an if he sub ec is ecoveablefo cone hus aain ( ) oul be an acceable vesion incone of he eales iven in ( 2 )



ANEJOM GRR KET 45

(43) k at t nca ynvSG : AOR cut down tree yestery cut down the tree yestery '

( e ) Thiy hee ae a fe case s hee he noina subec especi ay of aninansiive cause is no pecee by he sub ecake a Aain he

ipoan poin sees o be ha a ay be oie ony if confusion ouno esu Eape

(44) t an apam p kad m-c wamtc3SG : AOR PF come pig ESeat sweet :potatohe pig ce and ate the sweet potato

These poins shou be kep in in hen he e in he ne secion iseaine

6 . TXT

The e iven beo e s he soy of he eay Aneiyuese hisians as o o e in o Moesby by eo Wiae The e is iven fi s opheebyophee in Ane o ih ine inea En is h ophee os se s anhis is fooe by a fai y fee Enish ansaion

nuya l g upn ohn .moing good ohn

k mrt aak m ka k asa yubaSG :AOR nt I that SG : S te story

hl-om a n uy a l g n t pdpd nyuba n nyuba l aATyour: SG C moing this 3SG : AOR short story this, story AOT

n-a aahn anr a ran Anjom twuacn .NOMpray AOTarrival LOits neity long : ago

aya twuacn s watyes, long : ago AST TEM

top am r a n-a l aahn Anom s cvan upn I n - m s s n - n v cjust SEQ arrive NOMpray neity AST strong good NOMbel ieve NOMtrue

u at m h atua . s l p amn upn nat m am amn upa POSS P :person AT-OS god AST also stay good person SEQ stay long

s a go - ra n - my s s n - n v c h l - a t ua s a to u no uba n n AST makethem : L NOMbeieve NOMtrue ATOS god AST know time this

a a ra s pu t r a- n theY : PL AST FT no : longer LOG its

aya s amn a n -o mr ag s t h Ah a om a s a t m - a l a a h n yes, AST stay SM NOMod AST one hajom, but AST personpray

an am amn n omasv ta . s amn anhe SEQ stay houseL : book AST stay

nomrag upn NOMod good

s amn n a t m AST stay person

m- am n n a - y n . n ou ba n na s l p a t n - m h m - t y ES look : afterhim time that AST also be :not NOMsick ESNEG

n a t m m-amn m-omag upn I I a bar msma s . aya n-omrag y person Estay Eold good but then PL : die yes, NOMold PREF

mh an nhn s upn asga . s wat ka an y sick he toothhis AST good al AST TE nt he 3SG : S

a v n t a l n s a h n a c r d s c as ca s a s ba r c want : eat taro this AST roast scrape AST crisp but AST then eat

mhsick

sAST

hageat

anhe

t y NEG

amso

panCOM



46 OHN LYNCH

m-amen aen jam i m i m i n a l aaheni wat at gasj i pea naun i a-n L crust LO-its . E-sty he so repetedly pry TE l k-bcknd orth

nat im i a nepe wat e l ad-pan a n i om uwun jam eta i i s atau naj uperson LOC night TEMP lookto LOC house his so see TRANS PAST il luminted

i a-n fan l a i a- i ens i n l am edeva aa ja i top i n l a uLO-its� like light LOCCONS benzene l like it yes but just light

atua i amen aen wat etpan a nouan n i s i a i t i igod 3SG SUBJ sty he TEMP rrive SM time tht PAST nt 3SG SUBJ no longer

am ap aF- se i n tas Umej mi a wut amen ajowa wut nad i at -at umopSEQ send-down word ej tht TE FUT sty you PL TEMP FUT yres t

wut a aFahen i ajowa a nual eg wat a l auj hu an apam m-a i heva-FaTEMP FUT pry y PL LOC moing TE come out PF come Egreet-AUS ( ) me .

aa i s wat etpan a nouan i na i s wat a l aujhu aaa a nua l eg yes PAST TEMP rrive SM time tht PAST TEMP come out they PL LOC moing

an ajuja i nat im i asga ehe l en

PF go est person l l DAThis .

a pa n a a a m -a i h e v a i - i n im-taF

go they PL EgreetAUS ( ) -him ES-cry

i a - n i s i t i i i mas ae n j a i n -e va F i m i a i s a i he - va i - i nL-his PAST NEG yet die he but NOM-show 3SG SUBJ tht PAST greet-A ( ) him

aa am atou aaa m i a mu i t i i l ep eet i n they PL SEQ know they PL tht FUT/OR NEG gin see him.

aa wat agoyes TEMP do

i n i p an a a a a m l e p u de i - i n p an i a i a t i m i i s amenthis they PL SEQ gin leve-him COM LOC-CONS PL person PAST sty

wat nepeF amen aaa am eet i n l a i s asuo l m - a m e n j i n a i - i n E- look terhim . TEMP night sty they PL SEQ see light PREF PAST descend

asuo l mapan i m - t a u j a i i a- i nomag i i wat t i i pan watdescend ES-go Etouh LOC-CONS NOMold PREF TE no longer-there TE

e t e i p a n i n a i l pu -a t i m i -amenj i n a i - i n i s an ah i w i u aen an mas aen feel-there-him SM UM PLperson-look terhim PAST PF old he PF die he

a a i s lep amen n-omag i s e h e i i s l e p i i a e n i s amenyes PAST lso sty NOM-old PAST nother PAST lso thus he PAST sty

aen e ite i Anoua i s l e p C I a e n i s omag upn aen i s l e p amenhe t ( ) nouy PAST lso thus he PAST old good he PAST lso sty

na t i m i m- amenj i n a i - i n person Elook ter-him

i s an om ag upn i i aen m- i t i i a tou matga-sj i pe .PAST PF old good he ES-NEG know Elk-b nd

orth.

ja i i s i t i i imehe aen ja i m-amen m-ajgan nouan mas

but PAST NEG sick he but E-sty E-wit or time die

amen aaa wat

sty theY PL TEetpan a nouan i s i th i i i s an atou aen m i a mu ude-a amenrrive SM time PAST one PAST PF know he tht FUT/OR leve-them L . sty

a t i j i a i i s amen m-amen na i i n i jhou m-ate im-ua l amSM three people PAST sty ES-look terhim outside E-sit E-tel l sto SEQ

asje a n-omag a-n l i i - i n i om (e l ep anag a n i da-alie SM NOM-old Linside-CONS house ( SG AOR l so forget ABOUT ne-their PL

aaI

j a i et am a pa n i n ua l i n i m i i .but 3SG AOR SEQ go story this E-thus) .

a s j e a n o m ag a - n l i i - ilie SM NOM-old LO-insideCONS



ANEJOM GRAMMAR KETCH 47

n iom j a i nepe y i am e g e y i n attaj i s amen aen im-tas . e c t i d a i attajhou bu nih PREF SEQ har-him hy TR PAST ay h Ealk up hy TR

m-att mapan a - n l i i - i n iom am i ka i s i t i i n omag n e v i t a iES-run ESo L-inidNS hou, SEQ ay PAST on NMold wha

na amen aek masa?2SG AR ay you SG E-ay i s am i ka aen 'o ea amen akajaPAST SEQ ay h, no NSG AR ay w NC PL

mapan n- a aaeni et amen a nat i m i -na l aaen i m- i ka et etecESo LC NMpray SG AR ay SM pronNM-pray ES-ay SG AR b

i npekepn i i am etec i peke-as plaood SEQ b pla-bad

j a i i n p i e a i t i y i a t o a ka j a m i kabu oy NSG AR NEG know NC PL ha

et i nv i j i c i ntas wn aen ka et ac i l . j a i amen akaja wt

y iPREF

SG AR ru word hi h or SG AR fal bu ay NC PL TEMP FUT

i ka aak k i dei -cotaj ka cowa m top e adj a i ajotajwan SG SUBJ lav-you TR or Y PL FUT/R ju loo-a Y TR

a-netja i wn i nwoen i ne et etja i i nojeva-nya l eg i a-n

L-riin i pla hi SG AR ri ar-LC-moin Li w t i ka a jo t aj i e ce t i n l a y - as o l m i my s sTEMP FUT ay Y TR NSG SUBJ lih SG BJ-d, FUT/R bl iv

n i n v i j i c a j o t aj m i ka e t i n v i j i c et e tec i n peke pn i i i m i n pe ke - a s " .NM-ru y TR ha SG AR ru SG AR b plaood and p labad

Maya amen aa a ep ad i a a t i j i ak i ma l aj m-amen i joy ay hy PL aain o ou SM hr popl ESo ou E ay ouid

l ep atec i m-ya m-asjec a nomag a nl i i i n i o m .aain i El l ory E- li S M NM-old L-inidN hou

an l ep egey i n attaj i s l ep aketo aen im-tas . i s an

PF aain har-him hy TR PAST aain rpa h E-al k PAST PF

m-amenE-ay

lep

aain

i sPAST

e c t i d a i a t t a jup hYTR

a pa n a -n l i i - i n i om m-aodan m i ka nomag nev i ta io LinidN hou E-ak-him ha NM-old wha

y i n amen aek m-asa? "PREF 2SG AR ay you SG Eay

i s am i ka aen ' 'w ek as jec aakPAST SEQ ay h oh SG AR li

am ecet-yi n nat i m i et eo ea apam aaoSEQ i pron SG AR wo NSG AR om hy D

a i -am aaoNSG ARarriv hy D

m-aso- a i a- i ape a-a i e am aos ape l Maa i e eaE-drhm D LC-CNS L loh-whi SEQ arry L loh -whi NSG AR

apam aao m-a eel e-k m- i ka wt l ep apam a n i tt- nad i at anom hy DU ES and DATmy ES-ay TE FUT aain om LC wn- y PF

eak m a d i a ajamtaj" ak-m FUT/R o away w EXC TR

aya i s an l ep de-ny, PAST PF aain lav-him

a t i j i a k iSM hr popl

m-a aj m-amen i j oES- ou E- ay ouid

i s l ep t i i n-amjeg amen at taj wat yetpan a noan i y i etPAST aain no lonr NM- lp ay hy TR TEMP arriv SM im PREF SG AR

a s a a n om a g a n i t t -n a d i a t am e ce t i n a i y i i s a s o l - a s o lay SM NM-old LC dawn--y SEQ lih PREF PAST dnd-dnd



48 JOHN LYNCH

a-nwoen i y i i s asa� a n-omag aso m-apam anman-nacobn a n i omO-place PREF PAST say SM NOM-old descend ES-come O-holechiey O house

i m-taja i a n i pj i nemtan n-omag y m-apam imt i i pan a npsedonE-touch O forehead-his NOMold PREF ES-come E-no longer-there O toe-his

j a i ba t - pa n aya i s wa t a pan a t i j i a k i a -n i i ibut next no : longerthere . yes PAST TEMP go three people O-inside-ONS

n i om wat etce i -pan n-omag i s an ah iw i aen i s an mas aenhouse TE fee l-there NOMold PAST PF cold he PAST PF die he .

aya et an i n i i nyba yes, 3SG : AOR PF finish story

ohn J a i nyba 1ohn but story

Fee ansaon

i nv i j i c i n i true this.

i n i j o inkahethis OSS : our N D here

akyouSG ( ? )

ood moing, ohn. I nt to tell you a story this moing. It 's a shortstory, about the arrival of hristianity on neity long ago. We ll, long ago,when hristianity had first arrived on neity, people 's b el ief in od svery strong. eople lived wel l, and they lived long. nd their faith in odal lowed them to know when they were going to die .

ere s an old at hajom, and he s a rel igious and had alibra He s very old, and some people were looking after him. t that timealso there was no sickness, and people did not get sick but lived to a ripe oldage and then died. Wel l , this old man sn t sick. He had al l his teeth .en he nted to eat he roasted taro and scraped off the crisp bits and ateit with the cst s ti ll on He prayed repeatedly, and anyone lking around atnight cou ld see that his house s all li t up, as if he had a benzene la; bu tth is s the light of od. here ce a time when he s ready to die, and hesent rd to ej as follows "en you go to church on uny moing,when you have come out, come and take leave of me ". o the time came, and thepeople ce out of church and went east to see him. ey went and took leaveof him and they cried over him; he ha ' t yet died, but this s to show thatthey were farewel ling him because they knew that they wuldn 't see him again .o they did this and then left him again with the people who were looking afterhim. en night ce they saw a light descending, and it came and touchedthe ol d man and disappeared, and when the peop le looking after him felt him, hes cold he was dead.

Well , there s another o ld n like this living at nouyac; he s justlike this, very old, and he also had people looking after him. He was so ol dthat he couldn ' t lk about. ut he wasn 't sick, he s jus t waiting for histime to die . time came when he knew that he s going to leave them. hethree people looking after him were sitting outside telling stories, and theold n was lying inside th house . I 've also forgotten their nes, but thisis how the sto goes . e ol d man was lying inside the house, and that nightthey heard h alking. ey got up and ran inside the house, and one of themsaid, "ld man, what were you saying in here ". He replied, "We go to churchand the pastor says that thre is a Heaven and a Hel l . ut toy we don 't knowwhether his words are true or fal se . We are here now, but when I leave youthree or al l of you just look tords the east where the moing-star rises .If you see a light descending, you can believe that there is a Heaven and a He ".



ANEO GRR SKETCH 9

Wel l, there they were; t he three peple went ay d stayed utside andagain sat rund hatting, while the ld n lay inside the huse nd againthey heard him talking again they gt up and went nside the huse andasked him, ld man, what were yu saying in here ? nd he repl ied, h, was lying here and saw tw peple ming hey ame here dressed in white,

and they arried white lthes he tw f them e and std bes ide me andsaid that if they e again at , they uld take me with them

So the three people left him again and went and stayed outside . u theres n mre sleep Tey stayed until the time the old man had spoken about, andat they saw a light desending in the plae he had talked about, and it e into the himney of the house and touhed the o ld n 's forehead anddisappeared, and then went to his toes and then disappeared. So the three people went inside the house, but when they felt the old man, he s old _

he s dead

Wel l, that 's the end f this stry f urs; but, hn, it 's a true stry

Mophee

a

a

a

aa

a

a k

am

a p

ba

e e

e

e e e

e e

ek

ek ra

e k s

e

e e

Index o graacal morphemes

Funcion

subec-ake

ocaive peposiion

epoa phase inouce

insena peposiion

eeenia peposiion

veb oaive

2n s ocaive euaiona paice

avebia paice seuenia acion

s s ocaive euaiona paice

avebia paice 'next, then '

nuea iaive

uipicaive pei

aive peposiion

ocaive ake

s s aois SM paice

non-s aois SM paice

2n & non-s pas SM paice

ocaive SM paice

coniiona paice

Secion (s)

2 2 5

2

2

5

5 2

5

5 2

2

2 2

5 . 3 .

5 2 2



150

Mophee

era

et

etaf i

i

- i

i c i

i d i m

i pu

m

i m

i m iimta

i n

i n c a

i n t a

i i y i

i a

i s

i t i y i

j a i

ja i

jam

j i m

ka

ka a ' o

k i

k i s

lep

lua-

m

mika

mu

an

n

na

Funcon

non-s aos SM pacle

s aos SM pacle

locave peposon under avebal pacle 't yet '

ansve suff

possessve consuc suff

avebal pacle thus

asseve pacle

huan plual pef

conuncon and onn noun phases

m-

ave peposon

avebenefacve peposon

n

ea possessve ophee

nsuenal nonalse

s subuncve SM pacle

= a (locave)

pas SM pacle

neave pacle

conuncon and onn clauses

oveen upa easa

conuncon 'but '

neave peave pacle

conuncon or

queson-a

1s s subuncve SM pacle

1s s an 1s nc non-s pas SM pacle

avebal pacle also again

nk possessve ophee

echo-subec pef

copleen- nouce 'tt '

fuuehoave pacle

pefecve pacle

nounake nonalse

2n s aos SM pacle

Secon(s)

1 1

1 1

1 1

2 5

2 2 2 2

1 2

2 2 2

2

5 2 1

2 2 1

2 2

2 2 1

1 1

1

1 1

1

5 2 1

2 5

5 2 1

5 1 2

5 2 1

5 1

1 1

1 1

1 5 2 1

2 2

5 2 1

5 2 2

1 2

1 2

2 2 1 5 2 2

1 1



Mopheme

n a i m i -

nei

neve-n i

n i -

nupu-

pam

-pan

pan a

-panki

pura

r a i

r i

-se

s j i pe

op

u

u

upi iu ra-

va-

vaP

vaP-n i

wat

wu

yek

y i

Funcion

aenive nominalise

na

ineoaive pefix2n s sbuncive STM paice

pual pefix (inanimae?)

pual pefix (non-han animae)

ansiive suffix

movemen oas speake

movemen aay fom speae

comiaive peposiion

movemen aay fom speae

fuue paicle

ANEJOM GRAMAR SKETCH 5

Secion(s)

2n & 3 non-s subuncive STM paicle

2 2

2 2 .

2 2 2

2 2 2

2 . 5 .

2 5 .

2 5

2 . 5

2

.

.

2 . 5 .

2 5 .

. . 4

.

2 2

4

5 2 2

5 . 2 2

era

non-s sbuncive STM paicle

movemen onas esas

movemen back an foh

avebia paice , 'merely jst '

locaive peposiion

enea aienable possessive mopheme

avebia paice 'first '

= u

causaive peposiion

nominaise

conuncion 'becase '

pas empoal paice

fuue empoal paice

3 s ocaive equaional paice

i P i y i

2 5 2 2

. 2 5 2 2

5 .

No inclue on hi s is ae vaious foms of he ponouns , hich aelise esehee (focal foms in ( ) obecive foms in ( 6) an possessivefms in (72 an ( 74 » an a so he vaious eic ics li se in ( 4 5) - ( 48 ) .



1 5 JOHN LYNCH

NTS

I am ratef to Deto Wimae an homas Niitaae for proviin mch of the

ata on hich this paper as ase ; to the University of apa Ne Gineafor research fns an to that Univers ity an the Astraian NationaUniversity for assistance ith a perio of sty eave rin hich thispaper as ritten; an to Darre ryon an Don Laycock for coents on anearier raft

he traitiona orthoraphy either i not isti nish from or from or ese rote the vearise aias as simpe aias ith afooin he paata nasa receive varios treatments in theorthoraphy : an ( finay ) ere the most coon Heitt (196 6)ses B an � for the vearise aias

3 ompare the a sffi x ith the nmera e o two an the triasffix ith ee three

4 One of my informants (Deto Wimae ) sai that the termination is sey speakers in the east of the is an an the o termination y speakersin the est

5 he preposin of seems to e a rear morphophonemic proce ss in theanae to reak p an nacceptae init ia consonant cst er : note theiscssion in 5 1 rearin the echo-sect prefix hich ecomes efore vers or prevera morphemes einnin ith a consonant

6 . his variation eteen e an i s an exampe o f the more enerafctation eteen an e hich as iscsse in aove

7 he form eo grndprent shos an intrsive in the pra formation e o his grndprent for * eo

8 "he fooin is the ist [of no non-proctive prefixes orke ot yKern ith the meanins provisiona y assine to them t ithotthe iachronic comparisons mae y him" ( : 3 -3 3 ) :

1 � e � o- "makes reference to time an space reationships Kern says ( they) serve to inicat e that the action in the ste take sin a stretch of time or spreas over a certain space " ( : 3 5) Exapes: o slp oo clp eo grow second time sil

nasa : imperfective Exampes : e brek, s wves ep luck leves mock .

3 casative "Kern says ' this is ony a prefix in appearance reay nothin t a variant pronnciation of make e "

( : 35 ) In moern Aneom forms ith an o can ereconise: bruise tke b force sme l l oe bu o perfo in the mnner of mn

etc

4 e "occasi onay has to ses esierative an irective he atter is primary irect onese f to the iea inicate y theste" ( : 35 ) Exampes : e oo fight e e be envious e e e be hungr

5 e � proay erive from O * is a casative :eoo pper e join splice



ANEOM GAMMA SKECH 53

6 ehr- , pobaby fom O * p a i - , is eipoal : ehramen iv togth e h r i c i at togth ehratga go togth

7 . apell an Ken eo i m i - � imy- as a ausaive bu i al so appeaso have a omiaive snse : imyapam ing (f apam com imyapan tak aong (f pan go i mya t i i caus to put (f a t i i put

imyedou tak fo a walk (f edou wand 8 ta- he oon Ausonesia n pefix f sponaneiy is foun peifie

in eain os ( : 36) : t a l u l u down t a l a l a pass out of sight tal ad, ind

9 The ole speake efee o i Thomas ii auae ho oke ih me inTanna in 97 5 The youne speake De o Wimae oke i h me in oMoesby in 98

0 n he ia n lis ( 88 2) ave ony t a i j i s fo all pesons ape hoeve isolae he fis exlusive seon an hi peson fomsfom ibe ans aions an exapoaes he fis inlus ive (hih ishus shon in squae bakes) nlis has i n t i s fo he fis inlusiveplual bu sine hi s is homophonous ih he ua fom i is pobableha i is a mispin an ha apel ' s fom is oe

apell ives he foms et i an t i , bu i t i y i seems o be he oon moenneaive

2 oe he mophophonemi hane hee in e e o fo expee **e e e

3 . One infoman suese ha he iffeene beeen i nhe an n e v i t a i asha i nhe as use speifiay if one as poinin a o iniain anobe o if i as in sih heeas n e v i t a i ha a moe eneal use oe aso ha he fluuaion beeen e an i menione in 2 above ous vey fequenly ih nev i ta i , n i v i ta i bein almos asomonly hea

ompa he isuss ion in 2 . 2 . ean he non-make n - (befe el)

� i n (befoe onsonans) Tha he in he fom i m is epenhei asno nie by pevious anay ss o hus ook i m- o be he same mophemeas he on union oinin noun phases an sa as meey a euefom of his

5 is pobable ha e e eives fom an ealie e (oniional) et(3 sinua aois) nis (882 : 38) ives fo he ' subunive sinula he foms e e ( s) e an (2n) an e e (3)

6 Fo an expanaion of he possess ive as sbe see 5 3



54 JOHN LYNCH

B I BLIGRAY

CAE A

MS A estuy of the l auae of Aety, Ne Hebes ypescpt

CODRNGON RH

885 he Melanesian languages Oxfo : Claeo ess

GAEENZ HC vo e

86- Die lanesischen Sprachen epz Hel 7 3

NGS J

882 A dictionary of the Aneityuse l anguage. oo :Wl lams a Noate

KERN He

906 aalveel ee vehael e ove het Aetysh me t eeaahasel ove het las telse l va het Eomaa Verhandelingen

van de Koninklijke Nederlandsche Akademie van Wetenschappen ,

afel etteue 8 : -46

YNCH oh

976

Y S H

926

Not es o Ae tyumese aa Uvesty of apua Ne Guea :mmeoaphe

A comparat ive study of the Melanesian Island languages.

Cbe : Cambe Uvesty ess

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Anejom Grammar Sketch