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Andrew Cannon Yuki Osada Angeline Honggowarsito

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Contents What are Evolutionary Algorithms (EAs)? Why are EAs Important? Categories of EAs Mutation Self Adaptation Recombination Selection Application

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Evolutionary Algorithms Search methods that mimic the process of natural evolution Principle of Survival of the Fittest In each generation, select the fittest parents Re-combine those parents to produce new offspring Perform mutations on the new offspring

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Why are EAs Important? Flexibility Adaptable Concept to Problems Problem examples: Travelling Salesman, Knapsack, Trading Prediction in Stock Market, etc. Algorithms to solve those problems are either too specialised or too generalised

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Categories of EAs Genetic Algorithms Evolutionary Strategies Evolutionary Programming Genetic Programming More similarities than differences

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Genetic Algorithms In 1950s, Biologists used computers for biological system simulation. First introduced in 1960s by John Holland from the University of Michigan Modeling Adaptive Process Designed to solve discrete/integer optimization problem

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Genetic Algorithms Operate on Binary Strings, binary as the representation of individuals Applying recombination operator with mutation as background operator

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Evolutionary Strategies First developed by Rechenberg in 1973 Solved parameter optimization problems Individuals represented as a pair of float-valued vectors Apply both recombination and self adaptive mutation

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Evolutionary Strategies Similar to Genetic Algorithms in recombination and mutation processes Differences with Genetic Algorithms Evolutionary Strategies are better at finding local maximum while Genetic Algorithms are more suitable at finding global maximum Thus, Evolutionary Strategies are faster than Genetic Algorithms Evolutionary Strategies are represented as real number vector while GAs are represented using bitstrings

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Evolutionary Programming Developed by Lawrence Fogel in 1962 Aimed at evolution of Artificial Intelligence in developing ability to predict changes in environment Use Finite State Machine for prediction

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Evolutionary Programming Predict output of 011101 with initial state C, produce output of 110111 No recombination Representation based on real- valued vectors 1/1 0/0 0/c 0/1 1/1 1/0 A B C

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Genetic Programming Developed by Koza to allow the program to evolve by itself during the evolution process Individuals are represented by Tree or Graphs

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Genetic Programming Different from GA,ES,EP where representation is linear (bit strings and real value vectors), Tree is non-linear Size depend on Depth and Width, while other representations have a fixed size Only requires crossover OR mutation

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Mutation Binary Mutation: Flipping the bits, as there are only two states of binary values : 0 and 1 Mutating (0,1,0,0,1) will produce (1,0,1,0,1)

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Mutation Real Value Mutation: Randomly created value added to the variables with some predefined mutation rate Mutation rate and Mutation step need to be defined Mutation rate is inversely proportional to the number of variables (dimensions)

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Sources & References Eiben A.E 2004, What is Evolutionary Algorithm, Available from:.[29 August 2012 ]. Michalewicz, Z., Hinterding, R., and Michalewicz, M., Evolutionary Algorithms, Chapter 2 in Fuzzy Evolutionary Computation, W. Pedrycz (editor), Kluwer Academic, 1997. Evolutionary Algorithms, T. Bck, U. Hammel, and H.-P. Schwefel, Evolutionary computation: comments on the history and current state, IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation 1(1), 1997 X. Yao, Evolutionary computation: a gentle introduction, Evolutionary Optimization, 2002 Whitley, D 2001, An Overview of Evolutionary Algorithm: Practical Issues and Common Pitfalls, Information and Software Technology, vol.43, pp. 817-831

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Self Adaptation Dont know what values to assign to parameters so let them evolve! Population consisting of real vectors x = (x 1,x 2,,x n ) We produce offspring by adding random vectors to them

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Step Size Schwefel (1981): add vectors whose components are Gaussian random variates with mean 0 What standard deviation should be used? The standard deviation evolves as the algorithm is running

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Step Size Represent entities as (x,s) the individual itself (x) and a step vector (s) We start by producing an offspring s from s: s i = s i exp(cn -1/2 N(0,1) + dn -1/4 N i (0,1)) n = generation number, c,d>0 constants We produce an offspring x from x: x i = x i + s i N i (0,1)

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Self Adaptation Other parameters can evolve using similar ideas Sources: Bck T, Hammel, U & Schwefel, H-P 1997, Evolutionary computation: comments on the history and current state, IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 3-17. Available from: IEEE Xplore Digital Library [23 rd August 2012]. Beyer, HG 1995, Toward a Theory of Evolution Strategies: Self-Adaptation, Evolutionary Computation, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 311-348. Saravanan, N, Fogel, DB & Nelson, KM 1995, A comparison of methods for self-adaptation in evolutionary algorithms, BioSystems, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 157-166. Available from: Science Direct [26 th August 2012]. Schwefel, H-P 1981, Numerical Optimization of Computer Models, Wiley, Chichester.

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Recombination Produce offspring from 2 or more entities in the original population Most easily addressed using bitstring representations

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One Point Crossover Entities are represented in the population as bitstrings of length n Randomly select a crossover point p from 1 to n (inclusive) Take the substring formed by the first p bits of the first string and append to it the last n-p bits of the second string to give offspring

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One Point Crossover Bitstrings of length 8: 01011100 and 00001111 Choose crossover point of 6 Take the first 6 bits from 01011100 Take the last 2 bits from 00001111 Form the offspring 01011111

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Uniform Crossover Form a new offspring from 2 parents by selecting bits from each parent with a particular probability For example, given strings: 11001011 and 01010101 Select bits from the first string with probability

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Uniform Crossover Rolled a die 8 times: 2, 3, 6, 6, 3, 1, 3, 5 Whenever the result is 3 or less, take a bit from the first string, otherwise, take a bit from the second string: 23663135 23663135 11001011 and 01010101 Produce offspring: 11011011

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Other Variants Multiple crossover points Multiple parents Probabilistic application Source: Bck T, Hammel, U & Schwefel, H-P 1997, Evolutionary computation: comments on the history and current state, IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 3-17. Available from: IEEE Xplore Digital Library [23 rd August 2012].

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Selection How individuals and their offspring from one generation are selected to fill the next generation May be probabilistic or deterministic

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Proportional Selection Probabilistic method Assume that fitness f(x)>0 for every entity x in the population p(y) = f(y) / (sum of f(x) for every x)

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Tournament Selection Probabilistic method Select q individuals randomly from the population with uniform probability The best individual of this set goes into the next generation Repeat until the next generation is filled

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(,)-Selection Deterministic method From a generation of individuals, > offspring are produced The next generation is produced from the fittest individuals of the offspring The fittest member of the next generation may not be as fit as the fittest member of the previous generation

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(+)-Selection Deterministic method From a generation of individuals, offspring are produced The next generation is produced from the fittest individuals from the + parents and offspring The fittest members will always survive

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Selection Best method (or methods) will be problem specific Sources: Bck T 1994, Selective pressure in evolutionary algorithms: a characterization of selection mechanisms, Proceedings of the First IEEE Conference on Evolutionary Computation, pp. 57-62. Available from: IEEE Xplore Digital Library [28 th August 2012]. Bck T, Hammel, U & Schwefel, H-P 1997, Evolutionary computation: comments on the history and current state, IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 3-17. Available from: IEEE Xplore Digital Library [23 rd August 2012].

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Travelling Salesman Problem (TSP) Travelling salesman problem: This is a hard problem (NP-hard, "at least as hard as the hardest problems in NP") The DP solution is O(n 2.2 n ) Genes are a sequence representing the order that the cities are visited in Example: [0 5 3 4 8 2 1 6 7 9]

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Crossover in TSP A possible crossover: The greedy crossover. "Greedy crossover selects the first city of one parent, compares the cities leaving that city in both parents, and chooses the closer one to extend the tour. If one city has already appeared in the tour, we choose the other city. If both cities have already appeared, we randomly select a non-selected city." Sources: J. J. Grefenstetts, R. Gopal, B. Rosmaita, and D. Van Gucht. Genetic Algorithms for the Traveling Salesman problem. In Proceedings of an International Conference on Genetic Algorithms and Their Applications, pages 160168, 1985.

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Mutation in TSP A possible mutation: The greedy-swap. "The basic idea of greedy-swap is to randomly select two cities from one chromosome and swap them if the new (swapped) tour length is shorter than the old one" Sources: S. J. Louis, R. Tang. Interactive Genetic Algorithms for the Travelling Salesman Problem. Genetic Adaptive Systems Lab, University of Neveda, Reno. 1999.

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Applications EAs are a very powerful computational tool EAs find application in: bioinformatics phylogenetics computational science engineering economics chemistry manufacturing mathematics physics and other fields

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Applications Computer-automated design Automotive design Design composite materials and aerodynamic shapes to provide faster, lighter, more fuel efficient and safer vehicles No need to spend time in labs working with models Engineering design Optimise the design of many tools/components ie. turbines

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Applications Game playing Sequence of actions can be learnt to win a game Encryption and code breaking Telecommunications DP problems: Travelling salesman problem Plan for efficient routes and scheduling for travel planners. Knapsack problem

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Sources T. Bck, U. Hammel, and H.-P. Schwefel, Evolutionary computation: comments on the history and current state, IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation 1(1), 1997 X. Yao, Evolutionary computation: a gentle introduction, Evolutionary Optimization, 2002