Ancient Greek.pdf

7/26/2019 Ancient Greek.pdf

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L E A R N TO R E A D

GREEKPART 1

Andrew KellerCollegiate School

Stephanie RussellCollegiate School

New Haven & London

Copyright 2012 Yale University

Learn to Read Greek, Textbook, Part 1, Excerpt


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Copyright 202by Yale University.

Al l rights re served .

Tis book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, including illustrations, in any form (beyond that copying permited by Sections 07and

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Set in Arno Roman ty pe by Integrated Composition Systems.

Printed in the United States of A merica.

Library of Congress Catalogi ng-in-Publication Data

Keller, Andrew, 960

Learn to read Greek / Andrew Keller, Stephanie Russell.

p. cm.

Text in English and Greek.

Includes index.

ISBN 978-0-300-589-5(part ) ISBN 978-0-300-590-(part 2) . Greek languageGrammar.

2. Greek languageGrammarProblems, exercises, etc. 3. Greek languageReaders. I. Russell,

Stephanie, 946 II. Title.

PA258.K43520

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Tis paper meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-992(Permanence of Paper).

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Cover illustration: Rembrandt van Rijn,Aris totle wi th a Bust of Hom er,653. Te Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Purchase, special

contributions and funds given or bequeathed by fr iends of the Museum, 96(6.98). Image copyright Te Metropolitan Museum of Art.




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xv

P R E F A C E

Learn to Read Greekis closely modeled onLearn to Read Latin,our textbook published by Yale UniversityPress in 2003.LTRGis both an introductory grammar and a rst reader for the Atic dialect of ancient

Greek. Te book aims to help students acquire as quickly as possible an ability to read and appreciate thegreat works of ancient Greek literature. Learning the language of ancient Greece is a lifelong challenge andan abiding pleasure for the curious intellect. Many factors combine to make ancient Greek a difficult lan-guage to master: a large, nuanced vocabulary (more than three times the number of words in extant Latin);extensive and inconstant morphology for nouns, adjectives, and verbs; and a wide variety of dialects offer-ing many variants in spelling, syntax, and word usage. In addition, various authors have their own spe-cially developed vocabularies, syntactic habits, and writing styles. One must, in effect, learn the Greek ofTucydides, the Greek of Sophocles, the Greek of Homer. If the task is difficult, however, the rewards forthe devoted effort of serious students are great: what is to be gained is nothing less than direct access to thewords and thoughts of Plato, Euripides, Aristophanes, and many others.

LTRGdiffers from many other beginning Greek books in offering students interesting and rewarding

samples of real Greek texts for reading practice from the third chapter on. Tese readings quickly becomesubstantial and challenging, and, in our view, are a far beter means for studying the language than fabri-cated stories in Greek such as ofen appear in other textbooks. WhileLTRGis an Atic Greek text, we includereadings containing forms from other dialects (with appropriate explanatory notes) in order to exposestudents to a wider range of authors and to accustom them to non-Atic forms that they w ill encounter inAtic Greek texts. We also include readings from Greek writers of the Roman period who wrote in AticGreek, which by then was recognized as an important literary language and used by a select number ofeducated writers.

Our Latin and Greek texts both drew inspiration from books wr iten by our former colleagues at theBrooklyn College of CUN Y Latin/Greek Institute:Latin: An Intensive Course,by Floyd L. Moreland and

Rita M. Fleischer, and Greek: An Intensive Course,by Hardy Hansen and Gerald M. Quinn. Floyd Moreland,founder of the Latin/Greek Institute, provided us with our most important guiding principles for teachingLatin and Greek: rst, if clearly and completely presented, no element of these languages is more di fficultfor students to learn than any other; and second, excessive simplication and omission are harmful, nothelpful. Summer afer summer at the LGI and for many years in our own teaching, these principles havebeen tested and vindicated, and we have used them to guide our decision ma king throughout the writingofLTRG.

We could not have produced LTRG in its present form without the aid of the digital version of theTesaurus Linguae Graecae.Tis excellent online resource made it possible to choose vocabulary for each




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chapter based on each words frequency in a selected list of major authors and texts. In this way we couldbe sure that students using this textbook wi ll learn words that they will encounter regularly when reading

classical Greek. Special effort was made to include in the early chapters the words that occur most ofen inAtic Greek. Searching the TLGalso helped us nd for each chapter appropriate readings drawn from awide range of prose and poetry.Tese are the authors that we used most frequently in our searches not onlyto nd passages for inclusion but also to answer questions of meaning and usage:

Aeschines IsocratesAeschylus LysiasAristophanes PlatoDemosthenes SophoclesEuripides TucydidesHerodotus Xenophon

To resolve broader questions of usage, word frequency, or morphology, or to conrm impressions we hadformed from our initial searches, we ofen searched the works of every TLGauthor from the eighth to thefourth centuries b.c.e. In some instances, particularly to conrm the rarity of Greek forms, we searchedthe works of every TLG author from the eighth century b.c.e. to the rst century c.e. Tese searches al-lowed us to include information in the textbook about the rarity of particular words, the occurrence ofverbs in certain moods and voices, and the existence or nonexistence of certain forms. Tey also informedour decisions about the order of presentation in the textbook and led us to exclude forms and words thatwe discovered were uncommon in Atic Greek. Statements in the textbook about the frequency of certainforms or about the most common meanings of Greek words are based on our examination of evidencegathered from the TLG.

xvi PrefaceCopyright 2012 Yale University



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xix

HO W T O U S EL E A R N T O R E A D G R E E K

Te following is a detailed description of the components ofLearn to Read Greek, accompanied by sugges-tions for their most effective use by students and teachers. Only if the textbookis used in partnership with

the workbookcan the best results be achieved.

Overview: Components and Organization

Te main text ofLTRG comprises sixteen chapters, divided into two parts, that present all the basic mor-phology and syntax for an elementary course in Atic Greek. Depending on the amount of time availablefor ones course (meetings per week, minutes per meeting), these sixteen chapters can be studied in two orthree college semesters or in two or three years in high school.

Te actual teaching and learning units of this book are the sections, and there are approximately tensections in each chapter. Two or three weeks in college (perhaps twice as much in high school) should be

devoted to the study of each chapter. Substantial vocabulary lists and complex Greek sentences (bothsynthetic and authentic) allow students to signicantly advance their knowledge of syntax and to practiceand rene their reading skil ls. Te book as a whole, as well as each of the chapters taken individually, aimsnot at hasty coverage of material but at thorough understanding and engagement as soon as possible withGreek literary texts.

Vocabulary Lists

Each chapter begins with a list of new words to be memorized, placed rst for ready reference. Te vo-

cabulary has been chosen to provide students with words that appear commonly in a wide variety of Greekauthors. In many chapters certain pieces of morphology and syntax must be presented before new vocabu-lary is learned, but the vocabulary l ist is g iven prominence to emphasize its importance and to encourageits acquisition by students as early as possible in the study of each chapter . As the book progresses andchapters are devoted to more advanced syntax, words that are commonly found with the constructions tobe learned in those chapters are included in the vocabulary.

At the back of both the textbook and the workbook are complete GreekEnglish and EnglishGreek

. An ideal arrangement for a three-semester course would be to begin in the spring term or semester and cover six chapters,then complete the book over the two semesters of the following year. Tis would allow ample time for readings.




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vocabulary lists containing all the words that appear in the chapter vocabularies. Some additional meaningsand idioms that appear only in the vocabulary notes or elsewhere in the textbook are included. Tese lists

also include the names of the gods and cardinal and ordinal numbers.

Vocabulary Notes

Vocabular y notesfollow the word list in each chapter. Since essential information about the forms, mean-ings, and usage of new vocabulary words is contained in these notes, students should always read them,and the teacher should emphasize the most important points. Particularly in the early chapters, importantinformation about the forms of vocabulary entries (adjectives, principal parts of verbs, etc.) and new mor-phology is included in the vocabulary notes.Tis information should be presented in conjunction with thenew material in the chapters. It is included in the vocabulary notes for ease of reference, and students should

consult these notes frequently while mastering the material in the chapter. (For those who would like tolearn more about the development of the Greek language, information has also been included about wordformation and Indo-European linguistic features.) Immediately following the vocabulary notes in eachchapter are lists of English derivativesand cognatesfor many of the new words in the chapter. Althoughby no means exhaustive, the lists a llow students to see how Greek words are related to English words.

Summaries and Synopsis Blanks

When beginning each new chapter, students should tear out from the back of the workbook all the sum-

mariesfor that chapter. Tese summaries include a copy of the vocabulary list, a list of the new verbs withinformation about the voices in which they occur and their meanings in different voices, andmostimportantone or two pages of compact summaries of the new morphology and syntax introduced in thechapter. Tese summaries should be consulted when drills on new material are being done in class, andthey can serve as valuable learning aids as students work toward mastery of the material presented in eachchapter. Included afer the summaries for all the chapters are verb synopsis blanksthat can be torn outand used to make multiple copies for drills .

Sections and Drills

Te sectionsthat present new morphology and syntax are numbered consecutively from Part throughPart 2of the textbook, as in a reference grammar. Frequently throughout these sections (as well as in thevocabular y notes), brief instructions appear in capital leters (for example, Memorizehisirregularorm). Tese instructions are addressed directly to students and are intended to ensure that no essentialpoint is overlooked.

Following many of the morphology and sy ntax sections are sentences pointing to appropriate drillsinthe workbook for individual sections or groups of sections. Te drills are designed to reinforce new mate-rial as it is presented.Te sentences pointing to appropriate dril ls indicate the natural breaks within chap-ters, and they can be used to determine how much material to introduce in a class period.

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Drills on new forms and syntax include only vocabulary from earlier chapters, unless new morphologyor syntax requires the use of new vocabulary. For example, when the morphology of a particular type of

third-declension noun is introduced, it is necessary to include new nouns in the corresponding drills toreinforce the new morphology. Also, additional dri lls on new verbs are added in appropriate places in orderto provide more complete coverage of the morphology of new verbs.

Drills are provided in such sufficiently large numbers that some can be done at sight in class, othersassigned for homework, and stil l others used for individual work or quizzes.

Exercises

Following the drills in each chapter in the workbook, exercisesare provided that allow comprehensivepractice of all new vocabulary, morphology, and syntax introduced in a chapter, while reinforcing material

presented in earlier chapters.Te exercises, consisting of synthetic sentences, are divided into three sec-tions. Afer the rst two chapters, the rst section contains Greek sentences withoutaccents, and correctaccents must be added before the sentences are translated; the second section offers Greek sentences fortranslation; and the third section provides sentences in English to be translated into Greek.Tis last sectiongives students practice in writing clear, correct Greek in plausible Greek word order. Te exercises shouldnot be assigned until all new material in a chapter has been introduced, unless a teacher selects only thoseexercise sentencesthat contain material already presented.

In the synthetic Greek sentences (drills, exercises, and examples used in the textbook), we have triedto include only usages found in extant Atic Greek; ofen exact phrases from Greek texts have been in-cluded in these sentences.

In our experience,LTRGworks best when translations of some exercise sentences are assigned as writ-ten homework, while class time is devoted to the reading of other exercise sentences at sight. As many assixty such sentences are provided in the early chapters, but this number is gradually reduced as it becomespossible to reinforce new material through unabridged Greek passages.

Readings

Beginning in Chapter 3, the introduction of new material is fol lowed by a section of short readings, un-abridged Greek passages drawn from a wide range of ancient authors. Each short reading is preceded by abrief introduction to establish context.2Beneath each reading are vocabulary glosses for words that do not

appear in the chapter vocabulary lists.3Te inclusion of these short readings, which steadily increase innumber and length, reects our belief that the best way to learn to read Greek is to study specimens ofauthentic Greek as soon as possible. Te short readings have been chosen to reinforce the vocabulary,morphology, and syntax of the chapters in which they appear and to provide examples of various wordorders from Greek prose and poetry. Many of these short readings can be read at sight in class, and some

2. Introductions are usually notprovided for short readings that are identied as fragments.3. Vocabulary glosses for each reading are listed in the order in which the words appear in the passage for ease of use by the

student. A dagger () indicates a word requiring a special note.

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may be read before all the new material of a chapter has been introduced, provided that they not containmaterial that has not yet been presented.

Beginning in Chapter6, each section of short readings is followed by a section of longer readings, alsounabridged Greek passages.4In addition to introductions and vocabulary glosses, at the rst appearance ofan author or a work we have included brief biographies of the authors and descriptions of the works fromwhich the readings are taken. A l ist of authors and passages allows students and teachers to refer to thismaterial when authors or works appear again in subsequent longer readings or to investigate further whenshort readings feature these authors or works.

To help give students a basic knowledge of the history and development of Greek literature and tofoster their interest in further study, we have organized al l readings from ancient authors in each chapterin chronological order by author. (Works by the same author are arranged alphabetically.) Since the textsof Greek literature that survive contain examples of the language as each writer in each period chose tostyle it, this chronological arrangement helps students observe the evolution of various styles of both prose

and poetry. Trough the short and longer readings,LTRG is meant to become in part a literary venture,and there are many opportunities for consideration of rhetoric and style as well as of forms and syntax .

Names and Meter

A section on the names of the Greek gods and one on basic meters of Greek poetry are included afer chap-ters 5and 6, respectively. Information presented in these sections is incorporated in subsequent readingsin the textbook, and students may either learn the material in these sections or look back at them whennecessary, knowledge of which will enhance their reading and appreciation of the authentic Greek pas-

sages in the readings.

4. As a general rule, longer readings are those that have ten or more vocabulary glosses.

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xxiii

A B B R E V I A T I O N S

diaeresis* indicates that a form is hypothetical< > enclose an element added by editors[ ] when referring to authors, indicates

that, contrary to the tradition, anauthor is notconsidered the writer

of a work< (derived) from> becomes sectiona, p, u antepenult, penult, ultimaacc. accusativeact. activeadj. adjectiveadv. adverbaor. aorist

b.c.e Before the Common Erac.e. Te Common Eracf. confer,compareconj. conjunctiond.a. direct addressd.o. direct objectdat. dativedemonstr. demonstrativedh dactylic hexamaterec elegiac couplete.g. exempli gratia,for example

etc. et cetera,and the remaining thingsexclam. exclamatoryf. femininefem. femininefrag. fragmentfut. futuregen. genitivei.e. id est,that is

i.o. indirect objectIE Indo-Europeanimperf. imperfectindef. indeniteindic. indicativeinn. innitive

interj. interjectioninterrog. interrogativeintrans. intransitivem. masculinemasc. masculinemid. middlen. neuterneut. neuternom. nominativeobj. object

part. participlepass. passiveperf. perfectPIE Proto-Indo-Europeanpl. pluralpluperf. pluperfectposs. possessivepred. predicateprep. prepositionprep. phrase prepositional phrasepres. present

pron. pronounrel. relativesing. singularsubj. subjectsuppl. supplementarysubst. substantivetrans. transitivevoc. vocative




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grammaticformthatdisplaystheirgenetic

relationsandlooselysuggeststheirgeographicdistribution.Cop

yright98byHoughtonMifflinHarcourtPublishingCompany

.Adapted

andreproducedbypermission

fromTeAmericanHeritageDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage.




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1

I N T R O D U C T I O N

. Te Greek Language and Its Dialects

Te Greek language belongs to the Indo-European family of languages. Te name Indo-Euro-

pean indicates the geographic area where these languages were originally spoken. Te familyincludes most of the languages spoken in Europe, as well as those spoken as far east as ancientPersia, Afghanistan, and India. By the careful comparison of vocabulary, morphology, and syntax,scholars have shown that all these languages descended from a common ancestor that is calledeither Indo-European (IE)or Proto-Indo-European (PIE), which was probably spoken sometime in the fh millenium b.c.e. (see gure ). Te people who spoke this original language aresupposed to have gradually dispersed throughout Europe, Asia, and India, and the language overtime changed differently in different places until the variety of languages belonging to this familygradually appeared.

No direct evidence, writen or archaeological, survives either for PIE or for the people who

spoke it. What is known of the language comes from the comparative study of the languages thatdescended from it. Te study of these languages began at the end of the eighteenth century whenSir William Jones, a lawyer and student of eastern languages, rst asserted publicly that Greek,Latin, and Sanskrit, the language of ancient India, were descended from a common source. Tescientic study of the Indo-European languages began in the early part of the nineteenth century

when Franz Bopp compared the forms of the verb in Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, ancient Persian, andthe Germanic languages, of which English is one.

Te Indo-European languages have been analyzed and divided into various subgroups, andGreek belongs to the subgroup called Hellenic. Hellenic comprises many varieties of ancientGreek, which are called dialects,for which writen evidence has survived. Te earliest Greek dia-lect for which there is surviving writen evidence is Mycenean, which was writen in a script

called Linear B. Evidence for this language and this script has been found in several sites inmainland Greece and on Crete and dates from as early as the late feenth century b.c.e. Forreasons that are still uncertain, Mycenean culture had experienced a sharp decline by the endof the thirteenth century b.c.e., and the Linear B script in which the Mycenean dialect was writ-ten ceased to be used.

No Greek writing survives from the next several centuries, but by the beginning of the eighthcentury b.c.e. a new alphabet was being used, and various forms of writing from this period onwardare extant. Linguists now identify about two dozen dialects of Greek (see gure 2for their geo-graphical distribution), which are known from the thousands of inscriptions that survive, and al-




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Figure 2. Map of Greek Dialects




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1. The Greek Language and Its Dialects 3

though these share basically the same alphabet and many of the same linguistic features, they alsoexhibit marked differences in spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, and morphology. Although it is

likely that speakers of different dialects could have understood one another to some extent, theremust have been many moments of confusion. Most dialects of Greek may be organized under thefollowing four headings:

Arcado-Cyprian(two old dialects that seem to have developed from Mycenean)Western Greekor Doric(a large group of dialects that includes Laconian, the language of ancientSparta)

Aeolic(Boeotian, Tessalian, and Lesbian)Attic-Ionic(two dialects of great literary importance, Atic and Ionic)

Observaions

. Ionic was spoken and writen by Greeks living along the western and southwestern coast ofAsia Minor, on many of the islands close to this coast, and in Euboea in mainland Greece.Many of the earliest writers of prose wrote in this dialect, among whom are the philosophersTales, Anaximander, and Anaxagoras; the medical writer Hippocrates; and the historianHerodotus.2. Te Atic dialect, closely related to Ionic, was spoken and writen in Athens and in Atica,the area around Athens. It is the language of, among others, the tragedians Aeschylus,Sophocles, and Euripides; the comic poet Aristophanes; the historians Tucydides and Xe-nophon; the philosophers Plato and Ar istotle; and the orators Lysias, Isocrates, a nd Demos-thenes. Because of the prominence given to this dialect by these and other great writers, af-ter the fh century b.c.e. Atic became the predominant literary language throughout theGreek-speaking world.3. From Atic Greek a common dialect eventually developed called Koine(< ,common language), which became the standard language throughout much of the Greek-speaking world, and from which modern Greek developed. Te New Testament was writen inKoine Greek.

As the names of the dialects and the map ingure 2suggest, different forms of Greek were initia llyspoken and used in particular localities in the Greek-speaking world. However, many were alsoshaped by different writers into literary languages,and the importance of their compositions estab-lished literaryversions of these languages with strict rules of vocabulary and syntax. Different liter-ary languages ofen crossed dialectal borders and once established for a particular type of poetryor writing were used by writers regardless of their native dialects. Te language of theIliadand the

Odyssey,for example, shows features of Ionic with a substantial admixture of Aeolic elements. Tismixed dialect became associated with poetry writen in hexameters (the Homeric meter), and thepoet Hesiod, although a Boeotian, used this mixed dialect in his hexameter poetry.Te early Ionicprose writers inuenced later prose writers to adopt that dialect for their works. In a similar way, aliterary version of Doric became the standard language for choral lyric poetry, and it was used by

. Te Greek of theIliadand the Odysseycannot, however, be considered a true literary language because these poems werecomposed over several centuries by preliterate bards, that is, poets of a culture that lacked the art of writing. Tis is known as theoral tradition.




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4 Introduction

Athenian tragedians in the choral portions of their tragedies, while the language of the rest of theplays remained Atic.

This textbook provides an introduction to Attic Greek. Differences in usage between po-etry and prose are pointed out, but for the most part the rules of Attic Greek presented heremay be presumed to hold true for the literature of the fifth and fourth centuries b.c.e. Read-ings from later writers such as Plutarch and Diogenes Laert ius are also included because they

wrote in deliberate imitation of the Attic Greek of an earlier time. Readings from writers inother dialects are included as well, along with brief notes about their dialectal dif ferences from

Attic.

2. Pronunciation and Orthography of Atic Greek

Tere were variations in the pronunciation of Atic Greek over the course of the centuries in whichit was spoken and writen, but there is considerable evidence for a standard in pronunciation, andrules approximating that standard are presented here.2

Te rules for pronouncing Atic Greek have been reconstructed from several types of evidence:

. Te statements of Greek grammarians and Greek authors on specic points of pronuncia-tion. Many of these grammarians were contemporaries or near-contemporaries of the an-cient authors.

2. Te orthography, or writingparticularly spellingof Greek words in inscriptions andmanuscripts. Ancient spelling, both in Greek and in other ancient languages, was considerablyless standardized than modern spelling. Variations in spelling usually indicate differences in

pronunciation.3. Te representation or transliteration of Greek words in other languages and the representation

or transliteration of foreign words in Greek. Te transliteration of names, in particular, providesvaluable information about pronunciation.

4. Te grammatical and poetic structure of Greek.Tis includes the evidence available from themeters of Greek poetry.

5. Te etymology of Greek words and the development of Greek words in other languages.6. Greek wordplay and onomatopoeia (the formation of words to imitate sounds).

AlphabetTe Greek alphabet used in modern printed texts has twenty-four leters. Te following chartpresents them in their Greek order along with their conventional names and guidelines for pronun-ciation with English equivalents.

2. For the presentation of pronunciation the authors are indebted to W. S. Allens Vox Graeca (Cambridge, 3rd ed., 987),although they have not followed it in all particulars.




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2. Pronunciation and Orthography 5

Uppercase Lowercase Name Pronunciation alpha (short) as therstaof await (or as the uof cup) A(long) as the aof father beta asb gamma as the gof get

as the nof bank before , , , or delta as d epsilon as the eof pet zeta as the sdof wisdom eta as the aof late theta as the tof top or as the thof theater iota (short) as the iof bit J(long) as the eeof feet kappa as k la(m)bda as l mu as m nu as n xi as thexof ax omicron as the oof sof pi as the pof top rho as a rolled r, a , , b sigma as the sof sof as zbefore , , or tau as the tof coat upsilon (short) as the uof put (long) as the ooof fool phi as the pof people or as the fof feel

chi as the cof cat or as the chof loch psi as the psof apse omega as the awof sawor as the oof hope

Observaions

. Although in the most ancient manuscripts only the uppercase leters were used, modern edi-tions of ancient works use the lowercase leters developed in the Middle Ages. Capital letersare used, however, for the rst leters of proper names, the rst leters of direct quotations withthe exception of drama, and sometimes for the rst leters of paragraphs.2. Most of the Greek alphabet was derived from the Phoenician alphabet, and many of the namesgiven to the Greek leters are derived from the Phoenician names for their leters. Te names ep-silon,omicron,upsilon,and omegawere developed in the Middle Ages as the sounds they repre-sented changed.33. Te name forin common use today is lambda,but the classical name appears to have beenlabda.4. Te pronunciations given for long and short upsilon do notrepresent the sound of original At-

3.Epsilonand upsilonmean, respectively, writen simply and writen simply (< or+J, simple). By the Byzantineperiod certain diphthongs (see below) were pronounced in the same way as these vowels, and epsilon and upsilonwere developedto refer to the simple vowels. Omicronmeans litle o (


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6 Introduction

tic Greek but are common substitutes used by English speakers. A n upsilon in Atic Greek repre-sented a sound between English uand English i.

5. Te alternate pronunciation given for the vowel omega does notrepresent the sound of originalAtic Greek but is a common substitute used by English speakers because it makes a clearer dis-tinction between the sounds of omicron and omega.6. Te alternate pronunciations given for theta, phi, and chi are the pronunciations that these let-ters had at a later period in the development of Greek. Tey are ofen used as common substi-tutes for the sounds these leters had in Atic Greek because they allow English speakers to dis-tinguish clearly the sounds of different Greek leters. For example, the difference between thetaand tau is strictly the difference between an aspirated t(a twith a puffof air afer it, as most En-glish speakers pronounce every t) and one without aspiration (as may occur when a tis pro-nounced at the end of a word in English).7. Te leter is a double consonant and represents the sound zd. It is possible that it was alsoused to represent the sound dz.8. Te leters andare double consonants and represent, respectively, ksandps.9. Of the three different lowercase symbols for sigma used in modern printed texts of ancientGreek, is used onlywhen the leter appears at the beginning or in the middle of a word; is usedonlyat the endof a word and is sometimes called final sigma. Te third symbol, b, called lunatesigma, may be used any where in a word. For example: or bbb. Te lunate sigma wascommonly used in ancient Greek manuscripts from the third century b.c.e. on, and its adoptionin modern printed texts reects a desire to imitate more closely the ancient writen tradition. Inthis textbook, the short and longer readings in even-numbered chapters use lunate sigmas, whilethose in odd-numbered chapters employ the more conventional sigmas in order to familiarizestudents with all forms.0. One leter that occurs in many Greek dialects but is not found in Atic-Ionic is the digamma(), which represents the English w sound.

Drill2ADmaynowbedone.

Consonants

Nine Greek consonants are called mutesor stopsbecause when they are pronounced the breathingpassage must be closed or stopped.Tese consonants are further distinguished in the followingchart:

Voiceless Voiced Aspirated + Labials Dentals Palatals

Observaions

.Voicelessconsonants are made with no vibration of the vocal chords and no aspiration.Voicedconsonants are made with some vibration of the vocal chords and no aspiration. Aspi-ratedconsonants (orAspirates) are consonants followed by a puffof air.2. A labial(relating to the lips) is a sound that is produced using the lips. A dental(relat-




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ing to the teeth) is a sound that is produced (when properly made) by placing the tongueagainst the teeth. A palatal(relating to the palate) is a sound that is produced using thesofpalate.43. When anylabialis followed by a in a Greek word (e.g.,), the two consonants are re-placed by a. When anypalatalis followed by a in a Greek word (e.g.,), the two conso-nants are replaced by a .

Greek also has two consonants called liquids(,), sounds that may be prolonged; two consonantscalled nasals (,), sounds that are produced with vibration in the nasal passage; and one sibilant(), a hissing sound that may be pronounced without a break.

It is necessary to be familiar with these terms for Greek consonants. Understanding the rela-tions among consonants is ofen important in the formation of Greek words and in the changesthat many Greek words undergo.

Vowels, Diphthongs, and Iota Subscripts and Adscripts

Greek has two sets of ve vowels:

Short Long A J S

Observaions

. Vowels have both quantityand quality.Quantity refers to the lengthof a vowel. A long voweltakes approximately twice as long to pronounce as a short vowel. In this text, when an , , or is long, it is marked with a long mark or macron().Te leters and are alwayslong vowelsand do not require macrons. Te leters and are alwaysshort vowels. Qualityrefers to thesoundof the vowel. In most cases a long vowel differs in bothquantity andquality from its re-lated short vowel.2. Each vowel in a Greek word is either long or short by nature.and A, for example, are twodifferent vowels, even if they are closely related.3. Differences in vowel length ofen convey signicant differences in meaning. For example,means we are standing; Lmeans we were standing.

A macrononalongvowelshouldbeconsideredparohespellingoaGreekword. Whenlearningnewvocabulary, memorizeallmacronsandalwayswriehemonlongalphas, ioas, andupsilons.

A diphthong(, double sound) is a single sound made from pronouncing two

4. Te palate is the roof of the mouth and is divided into the front, hard portion and the back, sofer portion. Palatals are madewith the sofpalate at the back of the mouth. Palatals may also be calledvelars, relating to the velum, because the velum is anothername for the sofpalate.




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8 Introduction

vowels together. Te quantity of a diphthong is equivalent to that of a long vowel. Te eight diph-thongs of Greek are , , , , , , ,and . Tey are pronounced as follows:

as the iof highas the aof lateas the oyof boyas a combination of uand i (uwi) or as thewiof twinas the owof howas a combination of eand uas the ooof foolhardly different from

Observaions

. Tere is no English sound corresponding to the Greek diphthong . As its spelling indicates, itis a combination of the short vowels and pronounced as one sound. Te sound is approximatedin the swifpronunciation of the vowels inBedouin(pronounced as if spelled Bdowin).2. Tere is no English sound corresponding to the Greek diphthong . As its spelling indicates,it is a combination of the short vowels and pronounced as one sound. If Elmer Fudd pro-nounced very(vewy), the ewwould closely resemble the Greek sound.

InAtic Greek there are three additional diphthongs, which combine a long vowel (A, , or) withan : A, , and. In Atic Greek the in these diphthongs was very lightly pronounced, and by thesecond century b.c.e. it was not pronounced at all. Eventually, the was not even writen, but sinceit was important for spelling and distinguishing words, the scholars of the Middle Ages began to

write itunderthe appropriate long vowel. Tis is called an iota subscript. When the is writennextto the long vowel, it is called an iota adscript.

Iota subscript Iota adscript A

When the rst leter of such a diphthong is capitalized, the is alwayswriten as an adscript.

Iota adscript

Observaions

. When a long alphawith an iota subscript or adscript appears in this text, the macron over thealpha is regularly omited.2. For a long time, only the iota subscript was used in representing the lowercase versions ofthese diphthongs in modern editions of ancient texts, but in recent years iota adscripts have




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become more common. Tis text uses iota subscripts.Nanioasubscripanioaadscripshouldbepronounced.

Rough and Smooth Breathings

Whenever a vowel or diphthong begins a word, it must be accompanied bya rough breathing () ora smooth breathing() mark. A rough breathing indicates that an h-sound (the blowing out of aircalled aspiration) should be pronounced at the beginning of the word. A smooth breathing indicatesthat there is noh-sound at the beginning of the word. A rough or a smooth breathing is placed abovea lowercase vowel. It is placed beforean uppercase vowel. It is placed on the secondvowel of a diph-thong. For example:

(rough breathing abovelowercase vowel)

(rough breathing beforeuppercase vowel) (rough breathing above secondvowel of a diphthong) (rough breathing above secondvowel of a diphthong with uppercase rst leter)D (smooth breathing abovelowercase vowel)D (smooth breathing beforeuppercase vowel)A (smooth breathing above secondvowel of a diphthong)A (smooth breathing above secondvowel of a diphthong with uppercase rst leter)

If a word begins with the consonant(rho), the consonant always receives a rough breathing mark.For example: (). Tis aspiration is not usually pronounced by English speakers.

Punctuation

Although the earliest Greek writings had no breaks between words and almost no punctuation,ancient Greek texts are now printed with words divided and punctuation marks added, some of

which are identical to those used in English.Te punctuation marks in common use are the following:

Punctuation Mark ExamplePeriod .(as in English) .Comma , (as in English) ,

Semicolon (a raised dot) Colon (a raised dot) Question mark ; (an English semicolon) ;

No exclamation point is used. When editors of modern printed Greek texts wish to indicate directspeech, some use quotation marks, as in English ( ), others capitalize the rst leter of the quota-tion, and others do both.




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10 Introduction

Syllabication

A Greek word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. When a word is div ided intosyllables, each syllable should begin with a consonant whenever possible. For example:

// (3 syllables)/ (2 syllables)//// (5 syllables)

If there are two or more consonants in a row, the last consonant goes with the following syllable:

D //D / //

If, however, the combination of two consonants is a mute(, ,,, , , ,, ) followed by a liquid(, ), the two consonants are kept together:

/ / ///

Te last three syllables of a Greek word are known as the antepenult, penult,and ultima:

last syllable = ultima(last)second to last syllable = penult(almost last)third to last syllable = antepenult(before almost last)

/ / antepenult penult ultima

Drill2EKmaynowbedone.

3. Accentuation : Te Possibilities of Accent

Almost every Greek word has one of three kinds of accent marks over the vowel or diphthong inone particular syllable.5Tese accent marks originally indicated various changes in tone or pitch

as follows:acute accent ( ) raised tonegrave accent ( ) no change in tone or tone raised less than for an acutecircumex ( )6 raised and lowered tone

Although changes in tone also occur when English words are pronounced, more prominent is astress accent,by which one syllable of an English word is pronounced more loudly or with greater

5. Tere are some words that have no accents, and in certain situations some words might have two accented syllables.6. Te circumex can be writen , , or .




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3. Possibilities of Accent 11

emphasis than the others.7Te accented syllables in Greek words usually receive a stress accent(rather than a change of tone) when pronounced by speakers of English. Tis stress accent sounds

the same no mater what kind of accent mark appears. For example:(antepenult is stressed)(penult is stressed)(ultima is stressed)

An accent is placed abovea vowel or above the secondvowel of a diphthong. If a syllable with a roughor smooth breathing is accented, an acute or grave accent is placed to the rightof the breathing, anda circumex is placed abovethe breathing:

(acute accent above a vowel)(circumex above the second vowel of a diphthong)

(grave accent above a vowel to the right of a smooth breathing)(acute accent above a vowel to the right of a rough breathing)(circumex above a smooth breathing above the second vowel of a diphthong)

An accent for a capitalizedvowel is placed beforethe vowel rather than above it. When the rst vowelof a diphthongis capitalized, the accent is placed above the secondvowel. However,when a diphthongcontains an iota adscript,the accent is placed beforethe vowel:

(acute accent to the right of a rough breathing before an uppercase vowel)(acute accent to the right of a smooth breathing above the second vowel of a diphthong withan uppercase rst leter)

(acute accent to the right of a rough breathing before an uppercase leter followed by aniota adscript)

mater how long a Greek word is, its accent may appear only on the ultima, the penult, or theantepenultthat is, on one of the last three syllables. Each accent should be considered part of thespelling of each Greek word and should be learned with care and precision. As a word changes itsform (e.g., as a noun becomes plural or a verb changes tense), or as it appears in a particular placein a sentence, the accent on a word may changeeither in the type of accent or in the syllable over

which the accent appears or both. Changes in accent, however, are limited according to six unchang-ing rules for the possibilities of accent.

. a p (if ultima is followed by another word)

. a p (if ultima is followed by a punctuation mark that signals a pause). a p u (notpossible if penult is long and ultima is short). p (ultima must be short). a p u (ultima must be long). a p (if penult is long and is accented and if ultima is short)

7. Sometimes more than one of the syllables in an English word is stressed.




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12 Introduction

Observaions

. In the rules pictured above, a,p, andurepresent the last three syllables of any Greek word. Abreve( )represents a short vowel. A syllable having neitherof these marks may contain a shortvowel, a long vowel, or a diphthong.2. Te grave accent (rule ) appears only over the ultima. Whenever a word having an acute ac-cent on the ultima is followed by another word with no intervening punctuation, the accentchanges from an acute to a grave. Tus, every grave accent was originally an acute accent that

was forced to change to a grave because of the ow of the words in a sentence. When an ultimahas a grave accent, it need not be stressed.3. Te acute accent may appear over the ultima (rule 2) ifa pause indicated by some sort ofpunctuation (period, comma, semi-colon, question mark) follows immediately. Te ultimamay be long or short.4. Te acute accent may appear over the penult (rule 3) exceptwhen the penult contains a long

vowel or diphthong andthe ultima contains a short vowel. If the penult must be accented un-der these conditions, it is accented with a circumex (rule 6).5. Te acute accent may appear over the antepenult (rule 4) only ifthe ultima contains a short

vowel.6. Te circumex may appear over the ultima (rule 5) only if the ultima contains a long vowel ordiphthong. A circumex neverappears over a short vowel.Macrons are regularly omitedfom asyllable that has a circumexbecause the accent mark itself indicates that the vowel is long.7. Te circumex may appear over the penult (rule 6) only ifthe penult contains a long vowel ordiphthong andthe ultima is short. A circumex neverappears over a short vowel. If the penultof a word containing a long vowel or diphthong (a so-called long penult) is to be accented, andthe ultima contains a short vowel (a so-called short ultima), the accent on that penult mustbe acircumex.

Memorizeandbeableowrierommemoryhesixrulesorhepossibiliiesoaccen.

Drill3maynowbedone.

4. Vocabulary, Morphology, and Syntax

Elementary language study may be divided into three parts: vocabulary, morphology, and syntax.

Vocabulary

Vocabulary refers rst to the acquisition of the English meanings of words in another language.Tus, the Greek word Ameans wisdom; the wordmeans say, tell. In addition to Eng-lish meanings vocabulary encompasses certain other important elements that give crucial informa-tion about gender (for nouns), stems, and parts of speech. Afull vocabulary entry(the way the wordappears in the dictionary) includes all these pieces of information. Alwaysmemorizeheull




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4. Vocabulary, Morphology, and Syntax 13

vocabularyenryoreachnewwordobelearned.Te English meaning alone will neverbe enough.

Morphology

Morphologyis the study of the different formswords take in a given language. In English, for example,various pieces of verb morphology must be learned:

. the third-person singular present tense form of most English verbs is formed by the additionof -sor -es:

laugh laughs go goes

2. the past tense of many English verbs is formed by the addition of -ed:

laugh laughed

Morphology extends as well to nouns, adjectives, and certain other parts of speech that have mul-tiple forms. Te changing of form to convey changed meaning is called inflection.

Some languages are more inected (have more forms) than others. Tus, the English nounregularly appears in only four forms:

dog (singular) dogs (plural)dogs (singular possessive) dogs (plural possessive)

Te Greek noun, by contrast, regularly appears in ten or more forms. Since Greek is a more inectedlanguage than English, Greek morphology is considerably more extensive than English morphology, andmastery of Greeks many forms is essential.

Syntax

Te grammatical function of a word in a sentence is the syntaxof that word. In the English sentenceDan gave his mother a gif, Dan, mother, and gif all have different grammatical functionsthat help convey the complete meaning of the sentence:

Dan subjectmother indirect object

gif direct objectTe terms subject, indirect object, and direct objectare examples of English syntax, and theseand several other terms of English syntax are also used in Greek syntax. Accurate translation of aGreek sentence requires the identication of the syntax of the words in that sentence. Troughoutthis textbook, new Greek syntactical terms are introduced and dened. Tese terms are always

boldfaced at their rst appearance. Learnallboldacedsynacicalerms.




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14

C H A P T E R 1

Vocabular y

D, , agora, marketplace

A, A, house A, A, wisdom D, , circumstance;

misfortune, disaster A, A, land; country

, , wil l; plan; council;advice

, , judgment; spirit,inclination; opinion

, , justice , , peace ,, Helen , , batle ,, soul; life force

,, Alexander , , or human

being, man , , companion , , or god; goddess

,, word; speech;argument

,, island ,, custom; law

, , road, path; journey; way

, , war ,, Priam

, ,task, work; deed , ,living being; animal , ,tool;pl.,arms,

weapons ,,child

, (prep. + acc.)to, toward; into;against; with a view to, regarding

, (prep. + gen.) (out) from, out of;resulting from, in accordance with

(prep. + dat.) in, on; among, in thepresence of

(conj.) and; . . . . . .both . . .and . . .

(adv.) even, also , ,(article) the (prep. + gen.) concerning, about (prep. + dat.) around

(prep. + acc.) around; concerning,about

/(prep. + dat.)(along) with;with the aid of; in accordance with

(interj.) O

. An arrownext to a vocabulary word indicates that there is important additional information about the word in the vocabularynotes.




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Vocabulary 15

Vocabulary Notes

Te basic meaning of D, , is assembly. In Homer it refers to an assembly of the people(as distinct from a meeting of the chiefs in council) and is spelled . It also has the more generalmeaning of public meeting place or market. Te Din fh-century Athens was situated be-tween the Acropolis (hilltop fortress) and the Dipylon (city gate) and contained the temples andpublic buildings used for the work of the Athenian democracy. Because there is no exact Englishequivalent for the Greek D, it is ofen translated agora.

Although A, A, may mean wisdom in the sense of broad learning and deep understand-ing, it more ofen refers to a certain cunning, cleverness, or practical skill in some specic area. Teart or crafof gods such as Athena or Hephaestus may be called A, as may skill in, for example,music, medicine, and divination. Particularly (but not exclusively) in Plato, two other ideas are asso-ciated with A: sound judgment or intelligence in maters of moral life and k nowledge as op-posed to ignorance.

D, , refers to a bringing togetheror conjunction of elements. Tus the word hasneutral meanings such as event or circumstance. More ofen, however, Dmeans mis-fortune or disaster. With an appropriate adjective, Dmay also refer togood fortune. Be-cause the rst syllable of Dis related to the preposition , it also has an older Atic spelling,D, in the tragedians and Tucydides. Be prepared to recognize both forms of this noun.

, , is the will of a person or god. It is also the name of the smaller deliberative bodyof the Athenian democracy, the boule or council. Afer the reforms of Cleisthenes in 508/507b.c.e., the was made up of ve hundred Athenian cit izens whose job was to carry on the day-to-day business of the democracy. Members were chosen by lot to serve one-year terms.

, , is related to a verb meaning know and is used to refer to several different aspectsof the intellect. It means judgment or reason and may be contrasted with anger, passion, or

chance.ofen expresses ideas close to the English mind or spirit, as well as the will orinclination of ones mind or spirit. Finally, may refer to a particular opinion or plan.

Te original meaning of , , was custom or usage, and characterized behavior con-sistent with ones place in society. It soon came to mean rightconduct or justice. In poetry, is sometimes a goddess, the close ally of Zeus. In addition to its abstract meaning of justice,has the concrete meaning of lawsuit.

,, , Helen, is the wife of Menelaus, k ing of Spar ta. Afer being carried away to Troy,Helen is also referred to as the wife of Paris, her abductor and consort.

,, means soul in two important senses. First, it is the animating element,the lifeforce that departs from the body at the time of death and travels under the earth to the house ofHades. Tis soul is said to be both immaterial (ghostly) and immortal . Second,is the unseenmoral, emotional, and intellectual center of the self or individual. Tis soul (equivalent to many usesof the English words heartand mind) can be good or bad and is ofen the seat of emotions, desires,and rational thought.

,, , Alexander, is the Greek name of Paris, son of the Trojan king Priamand consort of Helen. From Homer onward, both names,and, appear in Greektexts, but the later is more common.is also the name of Philip of Macedons son, ofenknown as Alexander the Great (356323b.c.e.), who conquered and united all of Greece, as well asmost of the lands surrounding the Mediterranean. Te philosopher Aristotle was his tutor.




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16 Chapter 1

,, is a noun related to the verb , speak, and its many meanings are derived froma general idea of verbal expression. When it refers simply to what is said,means speech,story, discussion, or word. Whenrefers to the account of a person, it can be translatedrepute or report.is a lso used to refer to any rational expression, writen or spoken, that is an explanation

(of a theory, of a cause), an account (of nancial transactions, of an occurrence, of an idea), or anargument in a legal or philosophical context. By extension from these meaningsis used in amore abstract sense to mean reason or reasoning.

Sometimes the meaning ofis claried by its use in contrast with other words. Whenis opposed to ideas such as actuality, fact, or truth, it means theory or, more negatively,pretence. When it is opposed to myth, however, it means (rational) account.

,, is used of any habitual practice, usage, or custom. From this develops its secondmeaning, law, either a formal statute (the laws of Solon) or a more general guiding principle (thelaws of gods and men). Human behavior is ofen characterized as according toor contrary to.

, , is used for any actual or gurative road, path, street, or course (the road to the ag-ora, the path ofthat is, totruth). It may also refer to a voyage or journey on either land or sea. Fi-nally, means way in a broadly metaphorical sense (a wayof doing something, a wayof speaking).

,, , Priam, is the king of Troy, husband of Hecuba, and father of many children,including Hector, Alexander, and Cassandra.

, ,means work in the sense of toil or labor in general, but it may also refer tospecic occupations or activities, particularly when qualied by a noun in the genitive case (theworks of war, of feasting, of marriage). may also be used of theproductsof labor. In Homer,for example, the phrase refers to ti lled land. Frequently contrasted with,in such contexts means either deed or fact.

, ,in the singular means any kind of tool or implement. Te plural most ofen refers

to the implements of war, arms, weapons. Te preposition /is a proclitic and is followed by the accusativecase only.A proclitic (< M,

lean forward) is a word that has no accent of its own but is pronounced closely with the word thatfollowsit. Te form commonly used in Atic prose is , exceptby the historian Tucydides, who usesexclusively. In Atic tragedy, is more common than , but both forms are used.

/expresses direction to, toward, or into a place.

E the road (subj.) tothe agora A intothe house

/may also mean with a view to or regarding.

EE the misfortunes (d.o.) regardingthe children

In contexts suggesting hostil ity, /means against.

war (d.o.) againstthe gods




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Vocabulary 17

Te preposition is spelled when it is followed by a word beginning with a vowel.A proclitic,/is followed by thegenitive caseonly./expresses direction from or out from a place, usuallywith the article, to indicate origin.It may also appear with a Genitive of Separation (6).

outfomthe marketplaceA outfomthe house the men (subj.)fom the islands

/also may convey an idea of causewith the meanings resulting from or in accordance with.

resultingfom(caused by) the deed of Helen in accordance with the laws

Te preposition is a proclitic and is followed by the dative case only.It expresses location in aplace, condition, or position.

inthe marketplace in arms inwar

may also mean in the number of, among, or in the presence of, in the power of.

among men in the power ofthe gods

is a coordinating conjunction.A coordinating conjunctionconnects onlyparallelorgrammaticallybalancedwords, phrases, or clauses. When two or more nouns are connected, they must be in thesame case: for example,(of Priam and of Helen). Grammatical ele-ments other than nouns (verbs, adjectives, prepositional phrases, etc.) may also be connected by :for example, A (out of the house and into the road).

To create an even greater balance of elements that are to be joined in Greek, is ofen used tomark each element. Tus, . It is convenient to translate the rst withthe English word both: both for Priam and for his child. When such a parallel series containsmore than two elements (), one may omit translation of therst and translate the others and: gods and men and animals (subj.).is also an adverb that qualies any single element in a sentence: (even for the god-

desses), (also in war). Te preposition generally means around or about in both physical and gurative senses.

When followed by the genitive case, means concerning or about. Te word in the genitivecase expresses the thingabout whichone is speaking, writing, or thinking.

When fol lowed by the dative case (rare in both prose and poetr y), means around and lo-catessomething arounda place.




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18 Chapter 1

When followed by the accusative case, means concerning or about. It may also reportmotionor position around a place or connectionwith a person (around, about, connected with).

Sometimesis writen aerthe noun or pronoun it governs, and its accent shis to the penult:, about justice. Tis reverse order of a preposition and its object is called anastrophe(, turning back ). Anastrophe may occur with many other disyllabic(two-syllable)prepositions and is always indicated by the shifof the accent to the penult.

Te preposition (more common in poetry than in prose) is always followed by a noun in the da-tivecase. Itexpresses a general idea of accompanimentand means with in these senses: along with,with the aid of, in accordance with. Tese common phrases serve as models for the uses of :

along with arms (= armed or bearing arms)() with the aid of the gods in accordance with justice (= justly)

Te older Atic form is favored by Tucydides and the tragedians.

Flash Cards

Te mastery of vocabulary is an essential part of learning Greek, and the creation and use ofashcards help students memorize and retain words as their vocabulary increases. To make a ash cardfor a noun, one should write the full vocabulary entry in Greeknominative singular, genitive sin-gular, and article indicating genderon one side of a card and the English meaning(s) on the other.Additional meanings or other important information given in the Vocabulary Notes can be includedas well. Flash cards are most effective when the Greek entry and meanings are said aloud.

For a preposition, adverb, or conjunction write the Greek word on one side of a ash card and allother informationincluding such things as part of speech, cases taken, and English meaningson the other.

, , will; plan; council; advice




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Vocabulary 19

Makealashcardornewvocabularyiemand includeinormaionromhe

vocabularyenryonhevocabularypageaboueachword.

Derivatives and Cognates

Many English words are derivedfom Greek words; that is, they descend directlyfrom words in Greek.Such words are called derivatives. Te English wordpolemic,for example, is a derivative of the Greekword . In many instances, the differences in sound and spelling between a Greek word andits English derivative are not signicant enough to obscure the fact that the two words are related.Some English words are derived from the rootsof one or more than one Greek word. A rootis the ba-sic element or stem of a word that carries its meaning and from which many other words are made.Te English word economics,for example, is derived from the roots of twoGreek words, A(-)and(o-).

An English word and a Greek word can also be related if they both descend (are derived) from acommon Proto-Indo-European word or root, even if the English word is notderived from Greek butfrom another ancient language (such as Latin). Such words are called cognatesbecause they are re-latedto each other, but one is notderived from the other. It is ofen impossible to tell that an Englishword and a Greek word are cognates because the PIE root from which they descend has undergone

radically different changes in pronunciation and spelling as it has developed in each language family.Te English wordparliamentis cognate with the Greek word , for example, but the words donot appear to be related. As words developed and changed from one language to the next, theirmeanings ofen changed radically,and therefore themeaningsof words do not help to identify cog-nates. Cognates are identied by rst tracing a word or root in a language back to a word or root inan older language (ofen PIE) and thenapplying what is k nown about how the individual soundsin that root changed in different languages.

In each chapter a list of some English derivatives and cognates of the new Greek vocabulary ap-pears at the end of the vocabulary notes. Tis list is intended in part to help students remember themeanings of new vocabulary words by associating them with certain English words. It may also helpstudents expand their English vocabulary and stimulate further interest in learning about the rela-tions among words. Te cognates are provided to show how the same root or word in PIE has givenrise to a wide variety of seemingly unrelated words in English. Sometimes only the rootof an Englishword is related to the corresponding Greek word. W here possible, the port ion of the Engl ish wordthat descends from that root is set in boldface.2

(prep. + gen.) concerning , about(prep. + dat.) around(prep. + acc.) around; concerning, about

2. For further information on these and other derivatives and cognates, students may consult the Indo-European RootsAppendix of theAmerican Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed. (Houghton-Mifflin, 2000).




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20 Chapter 1

Derivatives CognatesD agoraphobia, allegory aggregate, cram anthropology, misanthrope abulia ball, ballistic, devil, parable,

parliament gnomic know, can, notice, diagnosis dicast, theodicy toe, addict, indict erg, energy, George work, irk, organ, orgy zodiac, zoology quick,vivid,whiskey,biology atheism, enthusiasm, tiffany feast, profane logic, apology, epilogue legal,dialect, intelligent theomachy might, may autonomous, economy nomad, nimble odometer, exodus hopliteA economy, ecology village, villain

polemicA philosophy thane, tocology Psyche, psychic




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5. Persistent Accent 21

5. Accentuation 2: Persistent Accent

Te accent on each Greek nounis given by the rst form of the word as it appears in vocabulary listsand dictionaries. One could say that each Greek noun has a given accent on a given syllable bynature. When the form of a noun is changed (by the addition of different endings), the given ac-cent is usuallypersistent .A persistent accentideally remains the same kind of accent (acute or circum-ex) on the same syllable.Sometimes, however, the rules for the possibilities of accent require anouns persistent accent to change to a different kind of accent or move to a different syllable (3).For example:

First Form with Given Accent Changed Forms , A , , , ,

Observaions

. When the ending -of the noun is changed to or A, no change of accentis required.Te persistent accent given in , an acute on the penult, remains unchanged.2. When the ending -of the noun is changed to -, no change of accent is required.Since the ultima remains short,the given accent (acute on the antepenult) does not change.

When the ending is changed to -, the ultima is no longer short, and no accent may appear onthe antepenult. Te persistent accent remains acute but moves to the penult.

3. When the ending -of the nounis changed to -or -, the ultima is no longershort. Te persistent accent remains on the same syllable, but it changes to an acute.4. When the noun is changed to or , the syllable bearing the given ac-cent (-) becomes the antepenult instead of the penult. In the form the persistentaccent may remain over the same syllable (-), but it must change to an acute since only anacute accent may appear on the antepenult. In the form , no accent is possible on thesyllable -in the antepenult because the ultima is long. Te persistent accent is forced both tomove to the penult and to change to an acute.5. When the noun adds a syllable in its changed forms, the given accent is no longer onthe ultima, but it may remain the same accent on the syllable --when that syllable is thepenult.

If a nouns given accent is an acute on the ultima, this acute almost always changes to a grave when

the noun is followed by another word with no intervening punctuation.First Form with Given Accent First Form with Word Following

Drill5maynowbedone.




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22 Chapter 1

6. Te Greek Noun and Its Properties:Gender, Number, and Case

A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.3Every noun in Greek has three properties: gender,number, and case.

GenderGreek nouns have the genders masculine or feminine. Nouns that are neithermasculine nor feminine are called neuter. In the vocabulary entry for each noun, the gender isindicated by a particular form of the article the: = masculine, = feminine,= neuter (0).Te gender for each noun must be memorized.

NumberGreek nouns appear in the singularwhen referring to one and in the pluralwhenreferring to more than one. Te dualrefers topairsof things (e.g.,hands, feet, the sons of Atreus),

but dual forms are fairly uncommon. Forms of the dual are given in the Morphology Appendixalong with singular and plural forms.

CaseGreek nouns occur in a variety of different forms in both the singular and the plural.Each different form, or case, is indicated by an endingatached to a stem that remains the same.Each case ending indicates a nouns syntax, the grammatical function that it has in a sentence.

When a Greek noun functions as the subject of a sentence, for example, it has one case ending, butwhen it functions as the direct object, it usually has a different case ending.

Te parent language of Greek, Indo-European, had eight cases for nouns, each case with itsown grammatical function or functions. Greek has only ve cases, which nevertheless express allthe functions of the original eight. Tis is possible because certain cases in Greek perform morethan one grammatical function. In order to clarify the functions of cases in particular instances,prepositions are ofen used. Te names of the Greek cases and their basic functions are:

Nominative Case

used for the subjectof a sentenceused for thepredicate nominative

Te two essential elements of every sentence are the subjectand thepredicate.Te subjectis thatwhich is spoken about, and the predicateis all that is said about the subject.

Helen wept.Te man will send a leter to his brother.

In these sentences, Helen and the the man are subjects; wept and will send a leter to hisbrother are predicates. Both Helen and the man would be in the nominative case in Greek,and the syntax of each would be Nominative, Subject.4

3. Tere are, in fact, several kinds of nouns: common nouns: woman, song, town, pancake proper nouns: Maisie, Greece, Castor, Beatles collective nouns: crowd, tribe, senate, army abstract nouns: friendship, beauty, freedom, excellence verbal nouns: walking (gerund), to walk (innitive)4. Te syntax of any noun includes the caseof the noun and itsgrammatical function.




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6. The Greek Noun and Its Properties 23

Certain verbs, such as be, become, and seem, are called copulativeor linkingverbs. Alinking verb is followed notby a direct object but rather by an element that is equivalent to the subject,

and this element is called a Predicate Nominative.Helen is a queen.Te man will become a god.

In these sentences Helen and the man are subjects, while a queen and a god are PredicateNominatives. Both the subjects and the Predicate Nominatives would be in the nominative casein Greek, and the syntax of a a queen or a god would be Predicate Nominative.

Genitive Case

used to qualifyor limitanother noun in a variety of waysofen corresponds to a translation using the Engl ish preposition ofalso expresses separationand in this usage corresponds to a translation using the English

preposition from

In the phrases the beauty of Helen, a fear of death, the brave ones of the soldiers, the phrasesof Helen, of death, and of the soldiers qualify or limit in various ways the nouns on which theydepend.Tese phrases would be expressed in Greek by Helen, death, and soldiers in the geni-tive case with no separate Greek word corresponding to the English word of. Tat is, the genitivecase ending contains within it the idea of of.

One idea commonly expressed by the genitive case is that of ownership or possession. In the

phrase the house of the man (= the house belonging to the man), of the man would be expressedin Greek by the word man in the genitive case, and the syntax of that word would be Genitive ofPossession.

In the sentence We departed from the land, the phrase from the land indicates that wewereseparated from the land. In the sentence Tey will remove the general from office, thegeneral will be separated from office.Tese two examples begin to illustrate the genitives separa-tiveor from function. From the land and from office would be expressed in Greek by theland and office in the genitive case, and the syntax of each of those words would be Genitive ofSeparation. Sometimes a preposition meaning from accompanies a Genitive of Separation inorder to clarify this function of the genitive case and distinguish it from other functions of the samecase.

Dative Case

used to express theperson or thing interested in or affected bythe action of a verb and in thisusage corresponds to a translation using the English prepositions (with reference) to or for

also expresses meansor instrumentand in this usage corresponds to a translation using theEnglish prepositions with or by (means of)

also expresses location(in space or time) and in this usage corresponds to a translation usingthe English prepositions in, on, or at




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In the sentence To the Corinthians war is inevitable, the phrase to the Corinthians expressesthe persons with reference to whomor in whose opinion war is inevitable. To the Corinthians

would be expressed in Greek by the word Corinthians in the dative case, and the syntax of thatword would be Dative of Reference.No separate Greek word corresponding to the English preposi-tion to would be used; such an idea is contained withinthe dative case ending.

In the sentence She struck him with a sword, the phrase with a sword indicates what sheusedto strike him, the instrument by means of which she struck him. With a sword would beexpressed in Greek by the word sword in the dative case, and the syntax of that word would beDative of Means(or Dative of Instrument).No separate Greek wordcorresponding to the Englishpreposition with would be used; such an idea is contained withinthe dative case ending.

In the sentence In the house he is safe, the phrase in the house expresses an idea of location.It answers the question Whereis he safe? Te prepositional phrase in the house would be ex-pressed in Greek by the word house in the dative case preceded bya preposition meaning in.

Accusative Case

used to express the direct object of a verbused following certain prepositions

In the sentence Te poet composes a song, the noun song is the direct objectof the verb com-poses because the action of the verb composes is directly exerted on the object song. Song

would be expressed in Greek in the accusative case, and the syntax of that word would beAccusa-tive, Direct Object.

In the sentence Te army was moving toward the city, the words the city express the placetoward whichthe army was moving. Toward the city would be expressed in Greek by the wordcity in the accusative caseprecededby a preposition meaning toward. Many ideas of motion toward,into,or againstare expressed in Greek by a noun in the accusative case preceded by a preposition.

Vocative Case

used for addressingsomeone directly

In the sentence Tell me, friend, why you are here, the word friend expresses the person being

addressed directly by the speaker of the sentence. Te word friend would be expressed in Greekin the vocative case, usually preceded by a Greek word similar to the English interjection O.




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7. The Three Declensions 25

Summary of Cases and Teir Basic Functions Case Name Used to Express Nominative . subject 2. predicate nominative

Genitive . of 2. from

Dative . to, for 2. with, by (means of) 3. in, on (with preps.)

Accusative . direct object 2. toward, (in)to, against (with preps.)

Vocative direct address

Drill6maynowbedone.

7. Te Tree Declensions

Greek nouns are grouped in three families called declensions. Each noun belongs to one declensiononly,and each declension has its own distinctive sets of case endings.

A full vocabulary entry for a Greek noun contains, in the following order, the nominative singular,thegenitive singular,one of the three nominative singular forms of the article the to indicate gender,5

and the English meaning(s). For example:First Declension A, A, wisdom

, , judgment

Second Declension ,, word, , tool

Tird Declension , ,or divinity, , body

Observaions

. Nouns ending in -Aor -in the nominative singular and -Aor -in the genitive singularbelong to therstdeclension.2. Nouns ending in -or -in the nominative singular and -in the genitive singular be-long to the second declension.3. Nouns of the third declension have a great variety of nominative singular forms. Teir geni-tive singular forms usually end in -.

5. For a complete presentation of the Greek article, see 0.




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4. Te masculine singular nominative of the article () indicates that a noun is masculine ingender. Te feminine singular nominative of the article () indicates that a noun is feminine ingender. Te neuter singular nominative of the article () indicates that a noun is neuter.

Finding the Stem

Te genitive singular given in the vocabulary entry for each noun helps indicate the declension towhich the noun belongs.Te genitive singular is a lso the form from which a stemis derived for usein making all other forms of the noun.

To nd the stem of most nouns, remove the endingfom the genitive singular (the second elementgiven in the vocabulary entry). What remains is the stem.

A, A, wisdom stem = -

, , judgment stem = -,, word stem =-, ,tool stem = -, , or divinity stem = -, ,body stem = -

All the forms of a noun are created by taking the stem of that noun and adding the case endings thatbelong to its particular declension. When one generates a complete set of forms for a noun in Greek,one is said to decline the noun, and the resulting set of forms is called a declension of the noun.6

8. Noun Morphology: First Declension Most nouns of the rst declension are feminine; some are masculine. Tere are no neuter rst-declension nouns.

Te two most common kinds of rst-declension nouns are those whose nominative singularforms end in -A, which are called long-alphanouns, and those whose nominative singular formsend in -, which are called etanouns. Long-alpha nouns use the set of endings on the lefbelow;eta nouns use the set of endings on the right. Te plural endings of both sets are identical.

Case Endings of the First DeclensionSingular Plural Singular Plural

Nominative/Vocative -A - - -Genitive -A - - -Dative - - - -Accusative -A -A - -A

Memorizeeachseoendings, proceedingdownhesingularcolumnandhendownhepluralcolumn. Bepreparedorecieheendingsquickly.

6. Declension thus has two meanings: it is both the name for each of the three families of nouns ( rst declension, seconddeclension, third declension) and the name for a complete set of forms for an individual noun.




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8. First Declension 1 27

To decline a long-alpha noun of the rst declension, add the appropriate endings to the stem.For example:

A, A, housestem = -

SingularNom./Voc. A a house (subject or predicate nominative)

house (direct address)Gen. A of a house; from a houseDat. to a house/for a house; by a house/with a house;

in a houseAcc. A house (direct object)

Plural

Nom./Voc. houses (subj. or pred. nom.)houses (d.a.)Gen. of houses; from housesDat. to houses/for houses; by houses/with houses;

in housesAcc. A houses (d.o.)

Observaions

. Te abbreviations for the case names used in the model declension above are standard andappear frequently in this textbook. Te abbreviations subj.(subject),pred. nom.(predicatenominative), d.a.(direct address), and d.o.(direct object) are also standard and used

throughout.2. In both long-alpha and eta rst-declension nouns, the nominative and vocative endings areidentical in both singular and plural and are therefore listed together. In long-alpha rst-de-clension nouns, -Ais the ending of both the genitive singular and accusative plural.3. Tere is no indenite article in Greek, but the English indenite article (a, an) may be freelysupplied in translations of Greek nouns.4. Te accent on nouns ispersistent and is given by the nominative singular. Te rules for thepossibilities of accent allow the acute accent on the penult in the word Ato remain persis-tent throughout the declension (3). One accent rule, however, applies to allrst-declensionnouns: the genitive plural ending -alwayshas a circumex no mater where the persistent ac-cent falls. Memorizehisaddiionalruleoaccen.75. All rst-declension nouns have an alternate dative plural ending, -(), which appears in

Atic poetry and in other dialects. Tis alternate ending has a nu in parentheses, which is calleda nu movableor a movable nu. It usually appears as part of the dative plural when the word towhich it is atached is followed by a word beginning with a vowel orwhen the word to which itis atached is the last word in a clause or sentence. Bepreparedorecognizehisaler-naeendingwhenioccursinreadings.6. Although the English translation from is given for a word in the genitive case, a genitiveis sometimes also preceded by a Greek preposition meaning from. Te English translation

7. In earlier Greek, the genitive plural ending of rst-declension nouns was -D. In Atic Greek the two vowels contracted andresulted in the ending and accent -.




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in for the dative is usually used onlywhen the noun is preceded by a Greek preposition mean-ing in.

To the declension of Aone may compare the declensions of several other rst-declension nouns:

A, A, D, , , , , , land marketplace justice willStem = - Stem = - Stem = - Stem = -

SingularNom./Voc. A D Gen. A Dat. Acc. A D

PluralNom./Voc. Gen. Dat. Acc. A D A D

Observaions

. Although long alpha was the original distinguishing vowel of rst-declension nouns, in AticGreek this long alpha remained only in nouns whose stems end in epsilon, iota, or rho (e.g.,A, A, D). In all other nouns, the long alpha changed to an eta (e.g., , ).

Te vocabulary entry for each noun makes clear whether a noun is a long-alpha noun or an etanoun. Both groups have the same endings in the plural.2. For the noun A, the persistent accent on the penult in the nominative/vocative plural is acircumex because the ultima is short. For allrst-declension nouns, the nal diphthong -inthe nominative/vocative plural counts as shortfor purposes of accent. Memorizehisaddi-ionalruleoaccen.3. If the persistent accent on any rst-declension noun is an acute on the ultima (as in Dand ), the acute becomes a circumex in the genitive and dative singular and plural.Memorizehisaddiionalruleoaccen.

Summary of Accent Rules for First-Declension Nouns. Te nominative/vocative plural ending -counts as shortfor purposes of accent.

2. Te genitive plural ending -has a circumex in allrst-declension nouns regardless of per-sistent accent.3. If the nominative singular has an acute on the ultima, the genitive and dative singular and plu-

ral have a circumex on the ultima.

Drill78maynowbedone.




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9. Second Declension 29

9. Noun Morphology: Second Declension

Nouns of the second declension ending in -in the nominative singular are either masculine orfeminine. Tose ending in -are neuter.

Case Endings of the Second Declension: Masculine/FeminineSingular Plural

Nominative - -Genitive - -Dative - -Accusative - -Vocative - -

Memorizeheseendings, downhesingularandhendownheplural, andbe

preparedoreciehemquickly.To decline a masculine/feminine noun of the second declension, add these endings to the stem.For example:

,, custom; lawstem =-

SingularNom. custom (subj. or pred. nom.)Gen. of custom; from customDat. to/for, by/with, in custom

Acc. custom (d.o.)Voc. custom (d.a.)

PluralNom. customs (subj. or pred. nom.)Gen. of customs; from customsDat. to/for, by/with, in customsAcc. customs (d.o.)Voc. customs (d.a.)

Observaions

. Te vocative singular of masculine/feminine nouns of the second declension has an ending(-) that is differentfom the nominative singular ending (-). In alldeclensions allvocativeplural endings are identical with nominative plural endings.2. Te persistent accent on(given by the nominative singular) remains unchangedthroughout the declension. Unlike rst-declension nouns, second-declension nouns do not allhave -in the genitive plural.




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3. All second-declension nouns have an alternate dative plural ending, -(), which appearsin Atic poetry and in other dialects. Tis alternate ending has a nu movable. Bepreparedorecognizehisalernaeendingwhenioccursinreadings.

Case Endings of the Second Declension: Neuter Singular PluralNominative/Vocative - -Genitive - -Dative - -Accusative - -

Memorizeheseendings, downhesingularandhendownheplural, andbepreparedoreciehemquickly.

To decline a neuter noun of the second declension, add these endings to the stem. For example:

,, childstem =-

SingularNom./Voc. child (subj. or pred. nom.) child (d.a.)Gen. of a child; from a childDat. to/for, by/with, in a childAcc. chi ld (d.o.)

PluralNom./Voc. children (subj. or pred. nom.) children (d.a.)Gen. of children; from childrenDat. to/for, by/with, in children

Acc. children (d.o.)

Observaions

. Neuter nouns of the second declension are distinguished from the masculine/femininenouns by the ending -in the nominative/vocative andaccusative singular and by the ending-in the nominative/vocative and accusative plural.In all neuter nouns in Greek the accusative

ending is identical with the nominative/vocative ending, both in the singular and in the plural.2. Te persistent accent on(given by the nominative singular)

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