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ANALYSIS OF THE EXTENT AND THE
QUALITY OF EXTENSION SERVICES,
KEMBATA TEMBARO ZONE
This publication was created within the project
“Enhacement of Quality and Extent of Extension Services of Angacha woreda,
Kembata Tembaro zone”
Financed by the Czech Development Cooperation
and implemented by the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague.
July, 2012
Angacha woreda, Kembata Tembaro zone, SNNPR, Ethiopia
Prepared by Lenka Pešková
Supervized by Jana Mazancová
2
List of content
Prefrace ...................................................................................................................................... 6
Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 6
Objectives ................................................................................................................................... 8
Target area and target group .................................................................................................... 9
State of data collectors......................................................................................................... 12
Limitations of the study ........................................................................................................ 12
Results ...................................................................................................................................... 13
Modality of service provision of agricultural extension in Kembata Tembaro zone ............ 13
Model farmers .................................................................................................................. 14
Modular training .................................................................................................................. 16
Individual visits ..................................................................................................................... 17
Theoretical education versus practical education ............................................................... 17
Woreda Agricultural Office – WARDO ................................................................................. 21
Direct information transfer .................................................................................................. 23
FTCs .................................................................................................................................. 23
Farmer´s fields .................................................................................................................. 38
Problematic issues ................................................................................................................ 38
Information transfer and information acceptance .................................................................. 44
Information transfer ............................................................................................................. 44
Farmer’s cultivation changes ........................................................................................... 44
The advisor´s role ............................................................................................................. 45
Information acceptance ....................................................................................................... 48
Acceptance process – self evaluation survey ................................................................... 48
Education .......................................................................................................................... 49
Training ............................................................................................................................. 51
Experience ........................................................................................................................ 52
Study materials ................................................................................................................. 52
Status of leaders of FTCs and DAs ........................................................................................ 53
Status of DA .......................................................................................................................... 53
Vertical communication ....................................................................................................... 54
DAs – farmer communication .......................................................................................... 54
WARDO – DAs communication ........................................................................................ 55
The Planning process ............................................................................................................ 55
Target group and target place ............................................................................................. 58
The modern extension acceptance and factors influencing the information transfer ..... 58
Gender as a factor influencing the acceptance of new extension ....................................... 60
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Woreda level ........................................................................................................................ 64
Plan for financial sustainability of FTCs ............................................................................ 64
Motivations of DAs ........................................................................................................... 64
Planning of trainings and educational activities for off-time season .............................. 64
FTCs differentiation .......................................................................................................... 64
INGOs and NGOs level .......................................................................................................... 65
Supporting the FTCs with study materials ....................................................................... 65
Topics for training ............................................................................................................ 65
Beekeeping/apiculture ..................................................................................................... 65
Forage production ............................................................................................................ 66
Rforestation ...................................................................................................................... 67
Soil and water conservation ............................................................................................. 67
Water shade management and its practical application ................................................. 67
Application of fertilizers and improved seeds and system of allocation among the farmers ............................................................................................................................. 67
National level ........................................................................................................................ 68
Strengthening the position of the DAs and their competencies ..................................... 68
Optimization of the national guideline plan for extension services ................................ 68
Clarifying the DAs education and transparent evaluation ............................................... 68
References: ............................................................................................................................... 70
List of pictures
Picture 1: Classroom of Bucha FTC, Angacha woreda .............................................................. 18
Picture 2: Building of Bucha FTC, Angacha woreda ................................................................. 18
Picture 3: The map of Doyo Gena woreda ............................................................................... 23
Picture 4: : The facilities for animals under the construction, Angacha woreda ..................... 26
Picture 5: The example of demonstration fields, Angacha woreda ......................................... 26
Picture 6: Planting differences between traditional and modern one in Doyo Gena woreda a,
b, c ............................................................................................................................................ 27
Picture 7: the FTC serves for education /Jeba Dodoba, Angacha woreda) ............................. 27
Picture 8: Coffe beans cultivation at Angacha Kelema, Angacha ............................................ 28
Picture 9: Cofee beans cultivation at Jeba Dodoba, Angacha.................................................. 28
Picture 10: Bee hives at Jeba Dodoba, Angacha ...................................................................... 28
Picture 11: Farmers working within the working group .......................................................... 35
Picture 12: Farmers working within the working group .......................................................... 36
4
Picture 13: DA´s - farmer communication ................................................................................ 54
Picture 14: DA´s - farmer communication ................................................................................ 55
Picture 15: The planning sheet given to FTC by WARDO ......................................................... 57
Picture 16: The apiculture practices in Bohe Kebele ............................................................... 66
Picture 17: Elephant grass and other types of grass as specialized fodder ............................. 66
List of graphs
Graph 1: The target group gender division ................................................................................ 9
Graph 2: The population sample division among the woredas ............................................... 10
Graph 3: Education - model farmers versus normal farmers .................................................. 14
Graph 4: The size of the field - model farmer versus normal farmer ...................................... 15
Graph 5: Motivation to be a model farmer .............................................................................. 16
Graph 6: Crop production - improved versus traditional......................................................... 30
Graph 7: The crop production in Kembata Tembaro zone ...................................................... 31
Graph 8: The cultivation changes - variety versus technique changes .................................... 32
Graph 9: Timing of accepted changes in crop cultivation ........................................................ 33
Graph 10: The gender and type of farmers under the FTC supervision .................................. 34
Graph 11: Farmer´s problem: lack of land ............................................................................... 38
Graph 12: Farmer´s problem: low productivity ....................................................................... 39
Graph 13: Farmer´s problem: not enough yield ...................................................................... 39
Graph 14: Farmer´s problem: erosion ...................................................................................... 40
Graph 15: Farmer´s problem: no acces to water ..................................................................... 40
Graph 16: Farmer´s problem: lack of access to market ........................................................... 41
Graph 17: Farmer´s problem: lack of modern knowledge…………………….................................41 Graph 18: Farmer´s problem: not demand for products ......................................................... 42
Graph 19: Farmer´s problem: no agricultural technology ....................................................... 43
Graph 20: Farmer´s problem: traditional low productive methods ........................................ 43
Graph 21: The role of farmer´s willingness to accept advice (maize) ...................................... 44
Graph 22: The best advisor ...................................................................................................... 45
Graph 23: The advisors in crop production (divided according to crop) ................................. 46
Graph 24: Sources of information about modern fading ........................................................ 47
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Graph 25: Sources of information about traditional farming .................................................. 47
Graph 26: The relation to innovation ....................................................................................... 49
Graph 27: Criteria for DAs evaluation defined by government ............................................... 50
Graph 28: The normal versus model farmers acceptance of agricultural extension .............. 59
List of tables
Table 1: Number of FTCs in Kembata Tembaro zone in 2011 .................................................. 23
Table 2: The average numbers of type and gender of farmer under the FTC supervision ...... 34
Table 3: Responsibilities in the extension services process information transfer ................... 37
Table 4: The easiest and the most difficult techniques for adoption as perceived by DAs ..... 60
Table 5: SWOT analysis of agricultural extensiion in Kembata Tembaro zone ........................ 62
Table 6: The comparison between the countries in total number of farmers per one DA ..... 63
List of figures
Figure 1: The map of SNNPR….................................................................................................10
Figure 2: The map of SNNPR…………………………………………………………………………………….…….……11
Figure 3: The agricultural extension services scheme…………………………………………………..…..…13
Figure 4: The scheme of extension services from national level to the farmer´s level……..….20
Figure 5: The information transfer at woreda level………………..……………………………….……...….22
Figure 6: The example of the structure of FTC facilities……….……..……………………….………….…..25
Figure 7: The planning process: reality vetsus theoretical plan…………………………..……...……….56
6
Analysis of the extent and the quality of extension services,
KembataTembaro zone
Prefrace
The analysis was one of the activities of development project called “Enhancement of
Quality and Extent of Extension Services in Angacha woreda, Kembata Tembaro”, financed
within Czech Development Cooperation. The analysis covers whole zone Kembata Tembaro,
including seven woredas1. The data were collected from October to December 2011. The
same methodology for data collection was used in the whole research area.
Introduction
Kembata Tembaro zone i sone of the most heavily populated areas in Southern
Nations, Nationalities, and People´s Region (SNNPR). The population of the Kembata
Tembaro zone is approximately 680 000 inhabitants with the area of 1,355.89 square
kilometers which makes the population density of 502 inhabitants per square kilometer. The
overpopulation and other serious problems such as erosion affect the critical lack of land
(Yigrem, 2008), which is very serious especially in highland areas. Thus farmers keep trying to
find new ways how to improve their yields. According to Berry (2003), improvement of the
yield is the only possibility to ensure food security. The agricultural extension is considered
as a way how to improve a current situation. The development of agricultural extension
services has become a priority for the national development plans for period 2010 - 2015.
The situation of agricultural extension preference can also confirm other facts such as
following (Xisnhen and Pratt, 2007): “given approximately 21.8 million adult (15-65) in
Ethiopia, who are active in agriculture, it is estimated that when extension system reaches its
goal of 60,000 Development Agents (DAs) placed in the field”; there will be roughly one DA
for 476 farmers. This would be one of the strongest extension agent-farmer ratios found in
the world today (Leeuwis and van Den Ban, 2006).
Woredas (districts) of Kembata Tembaro zone are not uniform in terms of climatic or
topographic conditions. The whole Kembata Tembaro zone is situated between the ranges
1 Angacha, Doyogena, Demboya, Kedida Gamela, Kacha Birra, Hadero Tunto, Tembaro
7
500 – 3500 meters above the sea level that influences the agronomic practices in woredas.
The zone is divided into three2 agrological zones:
“Dega” - mainly Doyo gena woreda
“Woina dega”/ “Weynadega” - is lower level area ( Angacha woreda)
“Woina dega” and “Kola” - Demboya woreda, Haderona Tunto, Keddida Gamela
and Tembaro
The lower-altitude woredas have better conditions for agriculture in general. Cash crops
such as coffee or ginger are cultivated. In woredas with higher altitude and less stabile
weather, cash crops are usually not cultivated.
The Ethiopian government paid much attention to develop a strategy supporting food
security of rural population. Since livelihood of the majority of Ethiopians is based on
agriculture, the government has placed maximum emphasis on the sector of agriculture.
That is why government developed a national strategy which is known as „Agricultural
Development Led Industrialization“ (ADLI), based on the strategy that uses the labor
extensively and land intensively. The training and education of rural farmers has been given
higher priority during last decade. Establishment of Agricultural Technical Vocational and
Educational Training Centres (ATVETs) and Farmer Training Centers (FTCs) belongs to the
package developed by Ethiopian government and its target ministries (FDE Report, 2008).
2 the forth is “Barha” of the lowest altitude zone, but not being represented in Kembata Tembaro
8
Objectives
The main objective of this study is to analyze the extent and quality of extension
services in Kembata Tembaro zone. The specific goals lie in comparison of results received
from three target groups.
Development Agents (DAs) play a crucial role in the information transfer thus their
status is analyzed too. DAs competencies and the acceptance of new technologies are
analyzed in the second part and contribute to the evaluation of the quality of extension
services in Kembata Tembaro zone. The vertical communication (among the planning
process belong), as same as horizontal communication significantly affect the quality too.
Summarized recommendation is the second goal of the analysis.
Methodology
The analysis is based on the literature review of existing data sources and the field
survey. The data collection in the field was designed as a combination of qualitative and
quantitative survey with a qualitative case study approach with the in depth discussion on
particular topics.
Methods used for data collection included as follows: a personal formal semi-
structured interview recorded into an interview sheet based on multiple-choice questions or
open-ended questions, an informal unstructured interview recorded into a separated sheet.
Both of the interview formats were based on the face-to-face approach guaranteeing the
relevant data. The participant observation and focus group discussion (FGD) were also used
as appropriate techniques in the survey. For each technique (the interview, participant
observation and FGD) the pilot testing was carried out on two model groups. Research
techniques and tools were adjusted and then used on the research sample. The pilot testing
was carried out from October to November 2011, and then followed by the data collection
for the main research in December 2011. The data from 283 farmers were processed with
the statistical software SPSS.
9
Graph 1: The target group gender division
Target area and target group
Kembata Tembaro (in the figure 1 denoted by KT) zone lies in the region of SNNPR,
which i sone of the 11 regions located in Ethiopia. Deressa et al. (2009) mention in the
research that SNNPR is the least vulnerable to climate changes in comparison with all other
Ethiopian regions. According to them them the lower vulnerability is associated with region’s
relatively greater access to technology and markets, increased irrigation potential and higher
literacy rate (Deressa et al. 2009).
A target group consists of farmers who were in most cases the beneficiaries of the
FTCs programmes. The farmers live in kebeles close to the main woreda town Angacha. The
gender balance of the target group is shown in the graph 1. This unbalanced division can be
explained by the role of men as decision-makers of the family. Hence, families sent their
men to represent family opinions. The author, however, the gender misbalance does not
influence the study results in general.
10
Figure 1: The map of SNNPR region
The Kembata Tembaro zone includes seven woredas; all of them were surveyed3. The
sample share of each woreda is given in graph 2.
Graph 2: The population sample division among the woredas
3 Angacha, Demboya, Doyogena, Hadero Tun, Kachabira, Kedida Gamela, Tembaro
11
Each woreda has its own specifics, due to the different altitude, cultural and
agricultural background. Doyogena, Demboya and Angacha existed as a unit until the
separation in 2002. The woredas also differ in agricultural extension background and
equipment. Angacha woreda used to be a “model woreda” and should serve as an example
of successful woreda in the zone. Also the altitude can influence the extension services -
Angacha has the highest altitude from all woredas and thus the access to the FTCs can be
hindered. Several groups involved in extension services in Kembata Tembaro zone were
selected in advance and further asked to cooperate within the data collection to get a
hierarchical and conceptually connected sample which in the end was represented by four
groups4.
Figure 2: The map of Kembata Tembaro zone
4 WARDO management, FTC leaders, farmers and Development Agents (DAs)
12
State of data collectors
The data were collected mainly by Hawassa University students. There were 10
students participating on research. Under the supervision of the author the MA students
have learnt the methods of data collection and the rules of successful and ethical data
collection. The educated people are in the rural Ethiopian conditions very highly appreciated
and respected authorities. These facts very positively influenced the data collection process
in the case of ability to communicate with the farmers into deep and trustworthy.
Limitations of the study
Several limitations hindering data collection were found. Among the most difficult
ones belonged logistical problems - limited local transportation to uneasy accessible
kebeles.
Although English is taught from the basic school levels, the communication problem
often occurs. The language barrier caused needs of translation and indicated indirect
interviews. During the translation, misunderstanding can occurs and the time is prolonging.
The understanding of the cultural differences and ability to respect different culture
and different behavior is the base for successful field-worker. The status of researcher,
university educated person, European and the guest is much appreciated in rural areas
especially, where the research was carried out. Farmers appreciate the visitors and wish to
communicate and explain all the problems with the hope to get help. One of the
responsibilities of the employees of extension services (or generally told advisors) is not to
talk to the farmers and bring them the extension, but to listen to their problems and to get
the qualitative data instead of the quantitative data with the respect to the farmer culture,
tradition and needs.
During the data collection, the summer course for DA education on the BA level has
been running thus the availability of DA was limited.
13
Results
Modality of service provision of agricultural extension in Kembata
Tembaro zone
Extension services are under a strong hierarchy system developed by Ethiopian
government. The model is similar in the whole region of SNNPR, respectively countrywide.
At the present time the extension is carried by the Woreda Office of Agriculture and Rural
Development (WARDO) with the support of governmental or non-governmental
organizations in Kembata Tembaro.
There are two types of model of extension services organized at the governmental
level structure through the FTCs (Farmers Training Centers), referenced in figure 3. Two
groups of the information transferors participate in the system of agricultural extension,
namely: Development Agents and model farmers.
MODULAR TRAINING INDIVIDUAL VISITS
FARMERS
National level
Regional level
Zonal level
DAs
Model farmers
Figure 3: The agricultural extension services scheme
14
Development Agents (DAs)
Development Agents are employees of WARDO responsible for extension services in
rural areas and working directly with farmers.
Model farmers
Model farmers, also called “contact farmers” play a key role in information transfer
and organizing and motivation of other farmers. They are traditionally the base for the
extension services. The model farmers are identified by DAs or nominated by other farmers,
they have good agronomic background, are willing to accept and try new extension and
voluntary to share news with other farmers. There are other subordinate criteria (as the
garden in front of the house, irrigation system etc.), but not being unitized within the zone.
The differences between normal farmer and model farmer were searched. Regarding the
education, there is the same level of education of them as it is showed in graph 3.
Graph 3: Education - model farmers versus normal farmers
15
Neither the age influence the status to be a model farmer and the age distribution
among model farmers and normal farmers is very similar too. The number of children of
model farmer is almost same (mean = 5.56) as in the family of normal farmer (mean 5.8)
meaning that number of children is also almost same. Neither the size of the field influences
the difference between model farmer and normal farmer. Also the hypothesis if size of the
field influence to be a model farmer or normal farmer was researched. The results show
(as reference graph 4), that size of the field do not influence the status of farmer.
Graph 4: The size of the field - model farmer versus normal farmer
The motivation of being a model farmer is not clear every time – generally, the model
farmers should not be supported by incentives, by any inputs, the model farmers are within
the community considered as authorities respected from other farmers. On the other hand,
they are receiving more attention from DAs, from WARDO experts and some of them are
also supported in non-official way with small amount of incentives as improved seeds. The
model farmers participating in research were asked on their motivation to be a model
farmer. The results are shown in the graph 5.
16
Graph 5: Motivation to be a model farmer
Modular training
The modern model of extension services is in present time strongly supported by the
government. The effort is to establish the model as a norm for extension services. The
modular training is generally provided only in “model FTCs” being equipped with a classroom
for theoretical lessons with appropriate equipment (blackboard, tables, and chairs), a
demonstrative field with a storage place and an office for DAs. Because of the lack of money,
there is not enough FTCs being equipped and prepared for modular training and most of
them provide only theoretical education on demonstrative plots and individual visits of
farmers. In the system of modular training, three groups of farmers are educated within one
semester with possibility to choose the module focused on different specializations (crop
production, animal husbandry, natural resources). Countrywide, mode than 20 modules are
offered, but in Kembata Tembaro zone only three mentioned are available. The education is
designed as a combination of theoretical lessons and practical field work.
Farmers meet two times per week for 6 hours per day for combined lessons. After
successful graduation farmers receive the “green certificate”. The motivation of the farmers
is not clear everywhere – respecting the official rules farmers should not get incentives, even
not inputs. Being considered as a bonus of graduation farmers receive the inputs as a
17
support and motivation for attending the course in some places. In the modular training, the
courses of crop production, animal production and natural resources management are
offered with supplementary courses such as home economics courses and HIV protection
courses. Within one year – 60-90 farmers graduate.
Individual visits
Individual visits of farmers by extension agents being referred as a traditional model
has a predominant role in providing extension services. The farmers are visited by a DA. The
individual visits of farmers are designed as planned or emergency cases. Because of
emergency cases there is not enough time to fulfill the planned visits. This causes the slow
direct work and systematical information transfer impeding the impact of extension services.
The half of farmers (49.8%) confirms the visits with development agents while the
other half says the opposite. 9.5 % of farmers have a meeting with development agent four
times per month, meaning once per week. 25.1 % of farmers have meeting with
development agents less than four times per month and 15.2% of farmers have meeting
with development agent more than four times per month.
Theoretical education versus practical education
Although most of the FTCs and whole concept of extension services aim at
establishing the modular training in all kebeles and is being considered as the best solution
by the government, a lot of farmers still prefer the practical training instead of the
theoretical training. More investigation on this topic is recommended because of the
support of theoretical preparation without the will of farmers is not effective and more
attention should be given to the farmers’ opinion and ability to adapt.
To attend the modular training the condition of literacy must be fulfilled. Farmers
who have never attended the school system and could never adapt to the system of
theoretical education do not accept it as easy as practical work, especially in elder age.
According to both normal as well as educated model farmers their preference is given to
practical education. The information gap could be fulfilled by short topic-oriented trainings.
18
Picture 1: Classroom of Bucha FTC, Angacha woreda
Picture 2: Building of Bucha FTC, Angacha woreda
19
In cases of Hobicho Milisa and Bucha for example, the FTCs involve fully equipped
classrooms even though the modular training were not being practiced in the presence. The
absence of trainings lies in the lack of improvements or not sufficient state of the technical
conditions of the classroom as glass in the windows or improper ceiling construction or
insuffcient floor. According to the information of the WARDO staff, the farmers were not
satisfied with the technical condition of the building and have decided to interrupt the
modular training, which already has been practiced for one or two semesters. The traditional
extension methods (farmers visit) continued while waiting for support from WARDO or NGO.
WARDO accepted the interruption.
Groups and participants responsible for extension services
Understanding of the interconnection between principle players in extension is
crucial for assessment of extension services. As it is obvious from the figure 4, the WARDO,
FTCs and model farmers are essential for the information transfer. Universities, colleges,
ATVETs and research centers are responsible for new extension ideas including improved
varieties and species, improved techniques, etc. In each region several research centers,
universities and ATVETS can be found. There is a direct cooperation between research centre
and WARDO. WARDO then closely collaborates with practical implementers on kebele level
such as FTCs, cooperatives, peasant associations, model farmers and others.
20
Figure 4: The scheme of extension services from national level to the farmer´s level
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
WARDO
Farmer to farmer
FTC (Cooperatives,
Peasant associations)
Research group Extension group
Research center
Model farmer
Working group
Universities
NGO
National level
(Regional level)
Woreda level
Kebele level
21
Woreda Agricultural Office – WARDO
The Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Office (WARDO) is responsible for
agricultural extension services and the coordination of FTCs and DAs. The WARDO structure
is the same in every woreda. WARDO is divided into several departments such as Food
Security Department, Land Use Management and several others under the Plant Agricultural
Extension unit. The employees in above mentioned departments are called experts and they
are always responsible for a specific topic. The experts assemble the Subject Matter
Specialists (SMS) team being responsible for advising, planning, controlling and evaluating
the agricultural extension. The employees working in WARDO are in most cases almost
without exception the members of the Ethiopian leading party (Ethiopian People’s
Revolutionary Democratic Front).
The FTCs’ coordinator is a person responsible for communication with FTCs leaders
and DAs within their woreda; he/she coordinates, supervises and informs the FTCs leaders.
The communication gap between the SMS team and DAs has been found. WARDO is the
main centre for the extension services in woreda and is the base place for farmers and DAs
(as shown in figure 5). Farmers and DAs have regular meetings at the WARDO base. As a
meeting day serves the “marketing day” when the population from kebeles is coming to the
central town to use the marketing services. Market is moving within the zone and in each
woreda is one or two times per week.
The training and evaluation of the work, sharing problems and experience according
to the DAs specialization under the supervision of the experts of the same specialization is
organized.
22
Figure 5: The information transfer at woreda level
WARDO
Kebele FTC
management
DA
Woreda administrator
FARMERS
FTCs woreda coordinator
Kebele and Kebele Management
Each kebele is divided into as many parts as number of DAs working in the FTC. When
three DAs are working in FTC - there are three divisions in the kebele, while each DA is
responsible for one part of kebele. There are two ways: (I) DAs do not change their area of
work and are responsible for one part of kebele; (II) DAs change the supervision area
regularly and they move to different parts of kebele.
As it was already mentioned, the DAs are experts for crop production, animal
production or natural resources. Because of traditionally agriculture is oriented more on
plant production rather than on animal production especially in the mountain areas, the
crop production experts are busier and their advice are frequently demanded by farmers.
Both systems (changing the kebele parts with other DAs or being permanently in one part)
have advantages and disadvantages.
The permanent residence of DAs can be considered as one of the advantages.
Farmers can easily contact DAs from all specializations, but only in specific period of the time
when they are actually present in their part of kebele. The disadvantage can occur when DAs
are not prepared and trained enough in the specialization in which they should be experts.
23
Picture 3: The map of Doyo Gena woreda
Direct information transfer
FTCs
Farmer Training Centers started to be established approximately 15 years ago,
serving as an extension centre for a kebele, working on the principle of model farm and
educational centre. The intensive establishment of the FTCs started only few years ago as
well as massive strengthening of DAs capacities (in table 1 is referenced the amount of FTCs
in Kembata Tembaro zone in 2011). The woredas in Kembata Tembaro are also newly
established.
Table 1: Number of FTCs in Kembata Tembaro zone in 2011
119 of FTCs in total
15 FTCs under construction
5 of FTCs even have not started to be built
24
FTCs equipment
In each FTC, the following parts should exist (figure 6): a classroom, a DAs’ office,
storage for the crop production and for the presented hand tools, a toilet, and a marketing
room. The marketing room (serving for the demonstration of agricultural products) is
mentioned in materials as FTCs part, but has not been built in any FTCs yet. The very
important part of FTC is the demonstration plot which however has not been established in
all FTCs so far. All FTCs buildings are built according to the same architectural project to be
uniform, many of them have not been finished yet.
The DAs working in rural areas should, according to the governmental plans, get the
possibility of accommodation in the special house with dormitories for DAs. There should be
one house for several neighboring FTCs. In Kembata Tembaro zone, 42 of such houses for
DAs accommodation have been already built or under the construction.
25
Demonstration plots are perceived as important part of FTCs - new varieties and
techniques are demonstrated. The demonstration plots shall be free open for farmers to
come without any payment. All farmers have the same right to attend, observe and work
there. A specific attention is given to women and young farmers.
Most of appropriate varieties, fodder, and application of fertilizers, anti-erosion
techniques and harvesting pond are presented on demonstration fields of FTCs.
Classroom for theoretical lessons
FTC leader office
DAs office
Equipement storage
Products storage
Toilet
Water reservoi
r Car and motorbike
place
entrance
Demonstration plot
Demonstration plot
Demon stration
plot
Meeting place
Stable for animals
DAs facilities
Figure 6: The example of the structure of FTC facilities
26
Picture 4: : The facilities for animals under the construction, Angacha woreda
Picture 5: The example of demonstration fields, Angacha woreda
27
Picture 6: Planting differences between traditional and modern one in Doyo Gena woreda a, b, c
Most of the FTCs are uniform, but the topographic condition and DAs qualities would
allow specializing FTCs according the conditions and DAs and farmers interest.
As it was already mentioned, in Kembata Tembaro zone there is a lack of land and
that also touches demonstration plots which are limited in demonstrating all new varieties
or techniques. The situation is thus solved out by using the fields of model farmers or
communal fields for further dissemination. The average size of such a field is up to 2ha (but
in some cases there is no demonstration field at all). FTC can have one or more
demonstration plots.
FTCs serve not only as a model farm, but also as a meeting place for farmers.
Members of cooperatives or other community groups can have meeting in the FTC.
Picture 7: the FTC serves for education /Jeba Dodoba, Angacha woreda)
28
Picture 8: Coffe beans cultivation at Angacha Kelema, Angacha
Picture 9: Cofee beans cultivation at Jeba Dodoba, Angacha
Picture 10: Bee hives at Jeba Dodoba, Angacha
29
Crop production
In South Ethiopia cereals are mainly cultivated. The commonest are maize, teff,
sorghum, while barley and wheat are the most important (Yigram et al, 2009). Regarding the
governmental report, most support for farmers is received on crop production (FDE Report,
2008). Crop production is prevalent over animal husbandry. Most of the FTCs have no
demonstration on animal husbandry at all. According to the economy model analysis from
Diao and Pratt (2007), the growth of cereals and other staple crops should receive priority
(Xisnhen and Pratt, 2007).
On the demonstration fields of FTCs (see graph 7) crop diversity corresponds with
that cultivated on farmers’ fields, with special focus on problematic crops. The main crops
are wheat, maize and teff and among the least represented belong garlic; even it is used by
local people. The graph 6 represents the division between traditional cultivation or varieties
and improved cultivations or varieties. Maize is mostly cultivated in improved version while
inset is mostly cultivated traditionally.
Coffee and beans are also crops often cultivated on demonstration fields, but
traditional way of cultivation is preferred by farmers as referred in the graph 6.
Some of the crops cultivated on demonstration fields were not found on farmers‘
fields., but it does not mean that they are not important for farmers and for development of
the Kembata Tembaro zone farming. The principle aim of demonstrative field functioning
and supporting is to demonstrate new crops,varieties or techniques and to provide to
farmers time and possibility to decide whetever cultivate them or not. The variability of the
crops cultivated on demonstrative fields is very positive for the future development of
Kembata Tembaro zone.
30
Graph 6: Crop production - improved versus traditional
31
Graph 7: The crop production in Kembata Tembaro zone
Type and representation of crops cultivated on
demonstrative field of FTCs in Kembata Tembaro zone
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Name of the crops
Cro
ps
re
pre
se
nta
tio
n
Maize Wheat Teff Coffee Chat Barley
Garlic Potato Bean Chilli Ginger Onion
Inset Pea Haricot bean Taro Banana Sorghum
Spices Millet Sweet potato Ground nuts Yam
Farmers were asked if they prefer to improve a variety of the crop or technique of
cultivation. The improvement of technique is more demanded than improvement of a
variety. The improvement of agricultural technique gives a large space for experimenting in
comparison with improvement of a variety, which is often dependent on the possibility to
find out, receive or buy improved variety of seeds. The differences between ways of
improvement regarding to each crop are presented in graph 8.
32
Graph 8: The cultivation changes - variety versus technique changes
The extent of extension services can be also explained with other example on crop
production. Farmers who have got through changes (does not matter if that was improved
variety or improved technology) were asked in what time they have accepted the change.
They were asked to specify how many years before did they changed cultivation or variety
and the results are expressed in graph 9.
There is a similar rate for most of the crops – most of the changes happened during
the last 3, respectively 6 years. There are some exceptions such as onion cultivation not
33
having been improved in last three years. Important improvements happened in last 3 – 6
years. The maize improvement has been occurring continuously and systematically during
last 36 years (very similarly wheat, teff, and coffee). Some other crops such as pepper or
fruit are not often cultivated and often improved.
The special case among the crops is inset, where cultivation is improved relatively
continuously, but in comparison with other crops the improvement in recent years is not as
intensive as in the case of other crops.
Graph 9: Timing of accepted changes in crop cultivation
34
FTCs’ scope
As it was mentioned, in Kembata Tembaro 119 FTCs have already been established.
On average 15 villages (sub-kebele) with number of farmers belong under one FTC. Four DAs
work in one FTC having responsibility for farmers’ education. Additional training for DAs can
be offered by middle agricultural schools (ATVETC) called also the refreshment trainings. For
one FTC the following numbers and division of active farmers are under the FTC
responsibility (table 2, graph 10).
Table 2: The average numbers of type and gender of farmer under the FTC supervision
Graph 10: The gender and type of farmers under the FTC supervision
61%15%
21%
3%
Normal farmer - men Normal farmer - w omen
Model farmer - men Model farmer - w omen
If we consider that four DAs work in one FTC, one DA serves for 196 of active
farmers. The low number of model farmer is probably caused by traditional society where
the patriarchal system of the family is rooted.
Model
farmer
Normal
farmer
Men 165 481
Women 20 119
35
The DAs and FTC’ leaders very often mention the insufficient capacity and no ability
to fulfill the plans due the capacity reason. Hence, the support from external experts would
be welcome in order to increase the FTC’ working productivity.
Working Group
Working group is a base unit in the process of information sharing in agricultural
extension framework. The working group is very useful especially for illiterate farmers and
farmers preferring practical education. The working group corresponds with nature and a
traditional system of the neighboring help. The working group (also called “1:5”) consists of
five or six farmers when one plays a role of a “model farmer”. Farmers from working group
have a working meeting within their group depending on the need (mainly in harvesting
season) under the supervision of the model farmer. The model farmer is responsible for
group organizing and information transfer.
Development team (Extension group)
The development team (Extension group) consists of from five to eight working
groups. The main goal of the extension group is technical assistance and information
dissemination. The DAs are responsible for group organizing and information transfer. The
trainings with specific topics are organized by DAs leading the extension group. These
trainings are positively accepted by farmers.
Picture 11: Farmers working within the working group
36
Picture 12: Farmers working within the working group
Research Group
The research group is a group of model farmers who cooperate directly with research
centers and are opened to implement new technologies and varieties on their fields and
cooperate within the research. The research group consist of up to 20 farmers under the
supevisison of the research centre employees. The succesful plants are then presented to
the farmers as model examles of new varieties.
Cooperatives
Cooperatives are traditionally established by farmers with the same production.
orientation. The cooperatives can vary from their specialization as well as with the location.
The cooperatives are usually established with regard to the place of origin of its
members. Cooperatives are governmentally and legally recognized groups, usually also
called farmers’unions. The cooperative can be considered also as a credit and saving union
and thus can be found in almost every woreda, even kebele .
The cooperative often serve as a subject organizing trainings or inputs supplying. The
cooperatives closely cooperate with FTCs. There are approximately 9-15 cooperatives
per one woreda.
37
INGOs, NGOs
In Kembata Tembaro zone, in each woreda, several INGOs and NGOs are working and
implementing their projects focused on different topics. INGOs and NGOs cooperate
with WARDO supporting their activities for example when working in agriculture. For INGO´s
and NGO´s is crucial to understand the responsibilities of each level of employee of AES
services in Kembata Tembaro zone as referenced in table 3.
Table 3: Responsibilities in the extension services process information transfer
WARDO Kebele
management
FTC management DA
Monitoring Manage DAs Annual planning
with woreda FTC
coordinator
FTC work – training and
demonstration
Planning Report to WARDO
or woreda
administrator
Asking the
guidance about the
training
Direct work with farmers –
training, evaluating,
guiding and contacting
them
Guiding and
training
Monitoring and
controlling
Preparing the
action plan
Reporting to FTC leader
Evaluating Kebele data
collection
Applying the plan Communicating with
farmers
Supporting by
budget
Manage DAs
Technical and
administrative
support
38
Farmer´s fields
The average size of the farmer’s field is 0.9ha, being divided into from one to four
plots; on average with four persons as hired seasonal labor. The most common crop on
the farmer’s fields is maize (78%) followed by wheat and teff. Other important crops
diversity according to the specifications of each woreda and its climatic conditions. Farme rs
have no possibility to select and buy seeds by themselves. Seeds can be bought only
from limited offer of WARDO.
Problematic issues
283 farmers were asked to express problematic issues regarding their farming life.
The results are shown in graphs 11 – 20.
“Lack of land” is perceived as the most serious problem by 38%. Only 23% of farmers
feel that they have enough land for farming. The “low productivity“ being very closely
connected to “lack of land“ is the second most serious problem for farmers (graph 11).
“No access to water“ is perceived as the most serious problem by 23% of farmers and is
recognized as impeding factor by 35% (graph 15). For only 4% of the farmers is “erosion“
considered as a serious problem (graph 14). The improvement of the soil quality as long-time
process is not mentioned as a serious problem, even though is the predominant for low
productivity and very closely connected to lack of land
Graph 11: Farmer´s problem: lack of land
39
Graph 12: Farmer´s problem: low productivity
Graph 13: Farmer´s problem: not enough yield
40
Graph 14: Farmer´s problem: erosion
Some of the above mentioned problems have been recognized by WARDO. Hence,
specifics trainings such as water shade management have been planned for DAs who will
disseminate it among farmers.
Graph 15: Farmer´s problem: no acces to water
41
Graph 16: Farmer´s problem: lack of access to market
Graph 17: Farmer´s problem: lack of modern knowledge
42
If we consider the “lack of land” and “low yield” as similar problems, the
problem “no access to water” is regarding to the results very serious problem. Within
the regular trainings organized by WARDO for development agents, the trainings on the
topic water shade management are managed and hopefully can improve the situation of
farmers. The special attention on the adapting of water shade management should be done
(see graph 15).
Although the most of the farmers consider themselves as innovative (see graph 26)
(depended on self – evaluation), none consider traditional low productive methods as the
main problem and 88% of the farmers do not feel it as a problem in general (referenced in
graph 20).
Graph 18: Farmer´s problem: not demand for products
43
Graph 19: Farmer´s problem: no agricultural technology
Graph 20: Farmer´s problem: traditional low productive methods
Some of the above mentioned problems have been recognized by WARDO.
Hence, specifics trainings such as water shade management have been planned for DAs
who will disseminate it among the farmers.
44
Information transfer and information acceptance
Information transfer
Farmer’s cultivation changes
The farmers were asked, for the crop’s cultivation changes. In the case of maize, 89%
of farmers answered positively and they specified that they changed cultivation in average 6
years before (graph 21). In the case of wheat, 31% of farmers responded they had changed
wheat cultivation in average less than one year ago. In the case of teff, 73% of farmers changed
cultivation in average 2.7 years ago. Mostly, the changes were recommended by DAs, followed
by model farmers. Farmers answered, they had no problem to share successful information with
other farmers, but they almost had never accepted the information from other farmers being of
the same social status (regular farmer). 70% of the maize cultivation innovators answered, that
they had shared information with other farmers, but only 5.5% of farmers had accepted
information from normal farmers and 7.8% from model farmers. The result shows that DAs role
in the information transfer is essential
Graph 21: The role of farmer´s willingness to accept advice (maize)
45
The advisor´s role
Almost all of interviewed farmers answer that they accept and welcome information
focused on the modern or traditional farming methods and improvements. Development
agents are considered as the best advisors by 59% of the respondents. Other 30% of
interviewed farmers ranked model farmers as the best advisor. No one consider as the best
advisor the cooperative (graph 22).
The farmers were asked about who recommended them changes in cultivation. The
results are shown in the graph 23. There are no important differences – development agents
play a key role in comparison with family. The members of family were usually listened in
the case of inset and sorghum.
As Leeuwis (2006) described the change agents (development agents) are the most
important mainly during the early stages of the adoption processes, but for more farmers
exchange of experience with other farmers is more important. This theory confirms also the
results showing that the traditional methods need different information transfer than the
modern ones. If we compare the acceptance of modern or traditional know-how, the role of
an advisor is different.
In the cases of transfer of traditional information the family plays a key role in 92%
cases (see graph 25). The situation is very different in the case of modern information
transfer, where the farmers assigned the highest importance to development agents (see
graph 24). Graph 22: The best advisor
46
Graph 23: The advisors in crop production (divided according to crop)
The farmers were asked, if they share new information about modern and improved
varieties or techniques with other farmers too. From the results is clear, that farmers
unselfishly share information with other farmers too. Results shows that 10.5% of farmers
(purposefulz analyzed all farmers and all crops cultivated and the number 10.5% is used just
for comparing in this special case) use improved variety or technique through the crops
cultivation (no matter which crop) and 9.9% of farmers answered that they share
information and reccomendation with the others (each crop was originally evaluated
separatly, but results shows almost the same result within all crops).
47
Graph 24: Sources of information about modern fading
Graph 25: Sources of information about traditional farming
48
Information acceptance
To sort the information transferors and evaluate them in terms of the influence on
farmers the innovative and traditional style of farming must be distinguished. Depending on
traditions, family influence and personal opinion, farmers can be sorted regarding their
relation to innovations.
Acceptance process – self evaluation survey
The acceptance of new agricultural extension depends mainly on the motivation to
accept. The farmers were asked to self-evaluate their relation to innovations (charted in
graph 26). The results were compared to the Adopter categories by Simon and Schuster (at
Leeuwis, 2006) and their distribution where farmers were evaluated regarding the number
of hypothetical adoption processes.
In comparison with 2.5% of innovators, 13.5% of “early adopters”, 34% of “early
majority”, 34% of “late majority” and 16% of laggards (described by Simon and Schuster, at
Leeuwis 2006), the Kembata Tembaro results of farmers’ self – evaluation present very
positive self- opinion on adopting on new methodologies of farmers from Kembata Tembaro
zone and most of the farmers consider themselves as innovative ones. Such results of self-
evaluation indicate motivation of farmers to changes.
The research question based on self – evaluation was selected in order to find the
motivation of farmers. The results can be influenced by the fact that only interested farmers
participated in the survey.
49
Graph 26: The relation to innovation
Development Agents and their competencies
Education
Recently the “education boom” has started in Ethiopia. A lot of students attend and
graduate at newly established universities and other educational institutions. Also the
requirements for DAs education have been increasing during the last years.
The Ethiopian government responds to expanding demand for extension services by
establishing the Agricultural Technical and Vocational Education Training (ATVET) program.
The number of DAs in Ethiopia has expanded rapidly over the past five to six years. 45,000 of
employees in governmental offices exceeded in 2010 (Davis et al, 2009). Before the ATVETs
were established, the universities had been the only institutions offering training at diploma
level in general agriculture. Nowadays, 25 ATVETs in Ethiopia offer five three-year study
programmes at diploma level – Animal Science, Natural Resources, Plant Science, Animal
50
Health and Agricultural Cooperatives Development. The last mentioned is offered only by
few of ATVETs (Davis et al. 2009).
In 2008, the ATVETs produced 60,000 DAs; 12% of them were women. The vast
majority of the extension workers have the basic technical expertise and theoretical
knowledge. The official training schedule is followed by trainings organized at woreda level.
DA receives 70% of his/her three-year education through practical training (Leeuwis and van
den Ban, 2006).
The DAs with a diploma mostly wish to improve their education up to the bachelor
degree (BA). Since 2007 the government has supported DAs in further education. DAs can
attend the “summer courses” to study bachelor degree. The graduation is after five years.
However, the DAs have the possibility to fulfill the study requirements only by attending the
two-month summer course per year. From 2007 up to 2010, interested DAs were competing
to receive the scholarship and support at the zonal level and the numbers of participants
from woredas were not equal. Since 2010 interested DAs are competing only at woreda
level. Nowadays, 10% of the DAs from each woreda get opportunity to study BA in summer
courses. The selection criteria for DAs are as follows: College graduate report, Experience,
Gender (female in favour), Working area – distance from a city, topography, size of the
kebele and working efficiency. Even though working efficiency is difficult to assess, its
importance makes 50% share in total evaluation of a DA (see graph 27). This scheme is the
same for all woredas. The DAs are evaluated and selected by the SMS (Subject Matter
Specialists) group involving employees of WARDO.
Graph 27: Criteria for DAs evaluation defined by government
51
The experts working at the WARDO level are mostly BA educated. They also have a
possibility to improve their education, but it is more difficult due to the tough competition
with other applicants at the regional level.
Training
Training and schooling for DAs used to be organized at woreda level. The training
duration depends on the budget allocated from regional bureau. Selected topics are very
similar every year. In addition, topics often depend on the donor’s wishes and interests. The
Development Agents do not participate in the selection process of topics. In this situation,
the low efficiency of trainings might occur due to irrelevancy. As DAs are the only connection
between farmers and governmental level together with the fact of being a key element for
the extension of modern agricultural techniques, their participation in the selection process
seems to be crucial.
The topics are usually identified in order to uniform the knowledge of DAs. In practice
it means, that the DA who studied to be specialist for some discipline is trained in other
disciplines to become the universal DA able to work in crop production as well as in animal
production as well as in natural resources production. In this case, the education
specialization looks a bit illogical. A following question can be posed: Will be extension
services more efficient with DAs of high expertise or with universally educated DAs?
There is a conflict between competition ability and universality of DAs. The previous
strategy developed DAs with general education and specialization was received during the
practical work. Nowadays the strategy develops specialized DAs being uniformed during the
work.
The DAs’ training schedule is well planned by WARDO, however often not respected.
In each woreda (according to the topographic and climatic conditions) the off-season is
suitable for organization of trainings. Nevertheless, this time is not respected which causes
difficulties to farmers being in need of DAs advice. In addition, in the periods of “belg” and
“meher” farmers are very busy having not time to attend the training. The most suitable
condition for trainings is approximately half October to half of November (depends on
woredas or kebeles condition).
52
Experience
The rapid extent of extension services has created more opportunities for fresh
graduates and for new employees. In this time when the number of graduates is increasing
diametrically, the fresh graduates replace the original ones. However, this model is in need
to be developed further. For example the ATVETCs should be integrated into the nation
extension system. The selection of DAs can then go directly through these institutions. This
situation is obvious in the agricultural offices and in FTCs - the employees of extension
services are relatively young. In Kembata Tembaro zone, the sample (n= 32) of FTCs leaders
shows, that average age of FTC leader is only 28 years with average experience in agriculture
approximately 6 years. The original employees are replaced by fresh ones. Common leader
of FTC works in FTC for 3.6 years and 2.4 years on the position of the leader. The extension
services extent is also increasing very rapidly and new positions are developed. The
problems occur mainly on the position of experts of SMS group (Subject Matter Specialists),
whose responsibility is to guide the DAs from the base office and supervise them. They are
often BA educated, but without experience. The original experts are allocated to kebeles,
usually as DAs or as a kebele employee.
Study materials
Commonly there is a lack of study materials in FTCs. DAs would generally appreciate
any supportive materials. Rarely magazines or posters can be seen in FTCs. Posters with
actual topics are usually made by hand by some employee of WARDO or the FTC. Some
manuals and handbooks are also present, but in very low quantities. DAs have no access to
internet or libraries.
Printed manuals or guidelines are not very effective for farmers’ needs as they
usually do not accept any printed materials. Often they are illiterate or of limited education.
Hence, printed poster located in FTCs seems to be very useful. The posters shall provide a
clear demonstration of an appropriate and inappropriate technique.
53
Status of leaders of FTCs and DAs
Under rural conditions, the DAs are respected persons and their advices and opinions
are acknowledged by farmers. The FTCs leader is a person responsible for interconnection
between WARDO and DAs, respectively farmers. When representing an international
organization it is thus always necessary to develop a linkage with the FTC or WARDO
representatives to work with the farmers. The communication through the state officials or
responsible persons is always easier.
Although the gender equality topic is highly supported by the government and
women are strongly supported to work in extension services, in surveyed FTCs only 3% of
FTCs leaders were women and only 1 FTC coordinator at woreda level was woman. Women
as DAs play an important role within the social life of kebele. In the traditional Ethiopian
society, the patriarchal system is practiced and women are often shy to speak with a DA and
must be very often encouraged. Their ideas can be very important and can offer a new point
of view on specific topics. The DA – woman has been also observed during the survey and
their presence had very positive effect on the information transfer to the whole rural
household. Their presence supports the independence of rural women and inspires them in
develop an interest in modern technologies.
Status of DA
DAs’ qualities are regularly evaluated by the SMS (Subject Matter Specialists) from
woreda office and their career depends on the evaluation result. The competency and
activity are evaluated. The criteria being evaluated are as follows: (i) activity on the field
evaluated by visit on a demonstrative plot and (ii) activity addressed to farmers.
As it was already mentioned the educated people and people at a high level working position
are respected and generally appreciated. The DAs are educated and serve as connectors
between “poor world of farmers” and “strong WARDO”; thus respected by farmers.
Farmers’ relation to the transferred information within extension services very often
copies the DAs’ relation. It can be stated that the motivation of DAs is the motivation of
farmers.
54
Vertical communication
DAs – farmer communication
According to Leeuwis and van de Ban (2006), different types of communication for
innovation can be recognized with regard to the wider intervention purpose. Depending on
analysis, specific type of communication can lead toward improvement of a current
situation.
The communication with farmers is the base of DAs’ work. During the observation,
there was not found any problematic issue or other problem related to communication
among DAs and farmers.
Depending on a farmer, a DA uses different kind of communication styles from the
“father authority” communication to the “equal colleague’s speech”. The submissive status
of DAs is not positive, but can be caused by low age of DAs on average.
Model farmers are during the communication usually very dominant in contrast with
normal farmers communication (they accept DAs’ recommendation, even orders in some
cases, very easily). Generally, it can be said, that DAs are very welcome and strongly
respected.
Picture 13: DA´s - farmer communication
55
Picture 14: DA´s - farmer communication
WARDO – DAs communication
The system of extension services on the governmental level is under a strict hierarchy
and it is also a political issue. During the data collection, the cooperation with WARDO and
DAs was necessary and their communication could be observed. Wide communication gap
between SMS group, respectively the WARDO employees have been found.
The DAs are mostly of the diploma education, while the members of SMS are mostly
with the bachelor degree working on the position of expert, very often without previous
practical experience. This situation and stressful work can cause not enough respect of DAs
to experts and backwards. This fact complicates the cooperation very importantly.
The Planning process
Even though it is not as obvious the planning process influences the quality of
extension services very dominantly. According to Leeuwis and van den Ban (2006), during
1950 to 1990 it was quite common in development circles to think of change and innovation
as something that could be planned. It was thought useful to define in advance clear goals
and outcomes for the future. In public service, the top-down planning process is nature and
56
deep respect to the authorities is rooted. Since 2010, the changes in the planning process
from top-down directly to bottom-up have been developed by authorities and have become
the official methodology.
Figure 7: The planning process: reality vetsus theoretical plan
THEORETICAL PLANNING PRACTICAL PLANNING
National level
Regional level
Zone level
Woreda level
Kebele level
FTC - DAs
Farmers
National level
Farmers
FTC - DAs
Kebele level
Woreda level
Zone level
Regional level
FTC - DAs
Kebele level
Woreda level
Zone level
1. Guidance
Regional level
National level
1. Farmers demands
2. Approval
(Authomatic)
Guidance
Zone level
Regional level
FTC - DAs
Acceptance Acceptance
National level
Kebele level
Woreda level
57
Unfortunately, there is a contrast between the theoretical orders and the practical situation
in kebeles, as the Figure 7 illustrates.
The DAs complained during the informal speech about the practices of top-down
process while the authorities explained advantages of the functioning of bottom-up process.
There is a conflict between the plan from farmers and plan provided by official authorities
from top level. It is very difficult to tailor agricultural extension for farmer’s demands.
According to Mogues (2009), even where DAs wished to be able to tailor their advice to
diverse local needs, the fact that their promotion depended on meeting quotas of adopted
packages discouraged them from pursing a mode demand-oriented focus. The DA described the
feeling to be pushed from the side of the authorities as well as from the side of farmers. They
described the conflict between the theoretical order and practice. They are aware of their
position as DAs playing an important role in facilitating bottom-up information flow.
The FTC planning depends on the cooperation between the experts form WARDO and
DAs (FTCs’ leader). The FTC’s leader can suggest the innovation and ask for support only
officially by letter, but the decision-making process (including the budget allocation and
distribution) depends on the SMS group or WARDO management. Simple methods of
planning are used.
Picture 15: The planning sheet given to FTC by WARDO
58
Target group and target place
The modern extension acceptance and factors influencing the information
transfer
Referred by Xisnhen and Pratt (2007), achieving the food security in Ethiopia
(increasing availability of national staple food by 50% by 2015) depends on productivity gap
between the range of traditional and modern technologies adopted by farmers.
The division of farmers into model and normal farmers is very important for
acceptance of new technologies. The model farmers are opened to new technologies and
have opportunities to try new methods and new technologies. There are differences in
expected time for acceptance of new extension presented to farmers in Kembata Tembaro
zone. The graph 28 presents time needed for adoption of selected techniques. The leaders
of FTCs were asked about the time of full acceptance and adoption of the following
techniques by normal and model farmers: composting, water harvesting, improved seeds
using, soil and water conservation, commercial fertilizing and planting methods. Target
techniques were selected with the goal to cover wide area of extension presented in
Kembata Tembaro zone. According to the words of DAs, some technologies such a water
harvesting technique was not even possible to introduce to farmers, because they were not
prepared for such a complicated technology. It is recommended to start with simpler
techniques such as planting methods or composting.
59
Graph 28: The normal versus model farmers acceptance of agricultural extension
The DAs prefer to work with model farmers – their feeling of satisfaction is fulfilled.
Their offers are accepted much easier than by normal farmers. Significant differences were
found in the answers of DAs; graph 4 represents the average answers.
The DAs were asked about the time of acceptance of new agricultural technique by model
and normal farmers. The results are illustrated in graph 28. This statistic can also show the
minimum required time for working with a community of farmers in order to successfully
implement the idea.
The most difficult techniques presented to farmers by DAs are presented in table 4
with description of reasons reflecting the DAs opinions and experience.
60
Table 4: The easiest and the most difficult techniques for adoption as perceived by DAs
Easily accepted
technology
Reason Difficulty accepted
technology
Reason
Planting methods No need of the
material
Composting Plant disease, labor
needs
Vegetable production Income increasing Terracing Labor need
Forage production The cattle feeding Water harvesting Labor need
Fertilize application Higher yields Fertilizer
application
Lack of fertilizers,
high price
Some of technologies as fertilizer application can be considered as both difficult as
well as easy, in different parameters. Some of technologies were also described as difficult,
but being explained that the lack of experience and information cause such a feeling and DAs
are not enough educated or experienced to transfer this information to the farmer.
Gender as a factor influencing the acceptance of new extension
The case study focused on the agricultural extension (Mogues at al, 2009) reveals
that the agricultural extension services are relatively accessible, but there are differences
between men and women. The farmer’s satisfaction with the extension services was very
high, but only eight percent from the sampled farmers had adopted new practices in the
past two years.
From the observation it was found that the female development agent can have very
positive influence on the women’s acceptance of new extension, even on the men’s
acceptance of the women as an acceptor and implementer of new extension. In the rural
areas, the status of a man as a head of family is very strongly respected and the communication
is mostly based on the “male level”. The development agent target men even when advice
concern activities primarily undertaken by women (such as poultry keeping). The national
goal (MoFED, 2006) is to account 30% of women as the extension services beneficiaries, but
61
there was found several barriers to women’s participation in extension programme,
including cultural norms and traditions.
Women’s access to extension services is proportionally much lower than of men (11%
versus 28%). The national goal is that women should attend the programme of extension
services in 50%, but under the conditions of Ethiopian culture and traditional way of life and
work division, the barriers were found (Davis et al., 2009).
62
Table 5: SWOT analysis of agricultural extensiion in Kembata Tembaro zone
A SWOT analysis describing the current systém of agricultural extension services
(table 5) show the evaluation of agricultural extension services inKembata Tembaro zone.
STRENGTH WEAKNESSES
Very good accessibility to extension
services
Farmer’s respect to DAs and
extension services
Farmers willing to new extension
Gender equality support
Top-down planning
The system of trainings for DAs and
model farmers
Unsatisfied working effectivity of
WARDO employees
Non transparency in planning
Communication problem and
disrespect between WARDO and DAs
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
Differentiation of the FTC according
to the FTCs condition
DA training improvement (topics,
methodology)
FTC financial sustainability
DAs feeling of unsatisfaction
Non-sustainable financing of FTCs
Dependency syndrome of farmers on
the external subsidies
The over – ambitious and not realistic
plans and expectations from the national
governmental
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A very good accessibility is a positive characteristic of the agricultural extension in
Ethiopia, especially in comparison with other countries, whereas in Ethiopia show this fact
the table 6 representing the total number of farmers per one DA.
Table 6: The comparison between the countries in total number of farmers per one DA
Source: Davis et al, 2009
The Government supports the agricultural extension as a current priority (PASDEP5).
Development Agents and other employees of WARDO are respected by farmers and farmers
are motivated to try new technologies, varieties and species. However, the DAs are accepted
by farmers as the best advisors, the DAs sometimes complain about a low level motivation
and acceptance of new extension by farmers. The gender equality in extension services is
supported by quotas and advantages for women working in this branch. Women are
supported by quotas in order to get full DAs’ education (women are preferred in scholarship
support). The other quotas regard also beneficiaries, where women shall cover 30% of total
beneficiaries.
The FTC methodology is centrally planned and described in the National Guideline for
Extension Services. The methodology and activities are very similar within the different
zones, woredas, and kebeles.
5 Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty incorporating agricultural training into
priorities for eradicating poverty and achieving food security throughout the Ethiopia
Country Total number of farmers per one
DA
Ethiopia 476
China 625
Indonesia 1,667
Tanzania 2,500
Niger 3,333
India 5000
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Recommendations
Woreda level
Plan for financial sustainability of FTCs
FTCs usually have no plan for financial sustainability. The process of FTCs’
improvement has been slowed down by a lack of financial means. It has also influenced the
implementation of extension activities. The FTCs should have their own financial and
marketing plan on how to be financially independent. Some of FTCs sell already their
products on a market and earn some money. However, FTCs shall not be competitors to local
farmers.
Motivations of DAs
The DAs do not feel satisfied due to their insufficient competencies and a low salary.
The financial interest could improve their motivation; e.g.receiving a share from sold
products might be motivating for DAs to take care about production.
Planning of trainings and educational activities for off-time season
The appropriate time planning is very important, but not respected. The most suitable
condition for training is approximately half October to half of November (depends on
woredas’ condition).
FTCs differentiation
All FTCs are established according to the same system, methodology and strategy.
There is a lack of free space for implementing new ideas originating from DAs. The DAs are
usually very young without previous experience, but the specific topographic conditions or
interest for specialization of DAs could help to differentiate the FTCs. New ideas and new
extension can be improved and be example for others.
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INGOs and NGOs level
Supporting the FTCs with study materials
FTCs lack quantity as well as quality of study materials. The observed study materials
(often only hand- made posters, rarely magazines) present in the FTCs offices were not of a
high quality. Only some experts have study materials. The materials should be translated into
Amharic to assure the ability to use it by all DAs and farmers. The agricultural magazines or
books would enhance the current competencies of DAs and agricultural extension. Nowadays
DAs have no access to the internet and cannot search information by themselves. Hence,
they are dependent only on getting new information from experts at woreda level. Such a
system might decrease the space for new extension and new ideas and initiatives.
Topics for training
DAs trainings are organized by woreda two times a year. Each training lasts from one
to 12 days, depending on allocated budget by a zone or regional bureau. The topics are
selected in the top-down planning process depending on the donor’s wishes without the
consideration of DAs opinions. The topics which are considered as relevant according to local
conditions and needs as perceived by DAs are as follows:
Beekeeping/apiculture
There is a strong interest in beekeeping among farmers and DAs in Kembata Tembaro
zone. Some of the farmers have already started with beekeeping by themselves. In some
woredas the NGOs (as Food for Hunger – FHI in Angacha woreda or World Vision Ethiopia in
Tembaro woreda) have already successfully been implementing beekeeping. Honey can be
used as a marketing product, especially in areas where cash crops are not cultivated
(Angacha woreda, Doyo gena woreda, Demboya woreda).
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Picture 16: The apiculture practices in Bohe Kebele
Forage production
In Kembata Tembaro zone the crop production is dominant. The reasons lie in
unstable climate conditions and a lack of land causing limitations in feeding the cattle. The
traditional species are not effective and farmers have no condition to take care about
improved species. The improved forage production could support the animal production in
the zone, respectively the milk and meat production. DAs very often forget on forage
production when presenting new extension.
Picture 17: Elephant grass and other types of grass as specialized fodder
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Rforestation
Even though reforestation was not mentioned as a training topic by farmers, the need
for reforesting activities is obvious while considering high level of erosion. In Kembata
Tembaro eucalyptus trees are mainly used by local population as a construction material and
as firewood. The advantage of Eucalyptus lies in its fast growth. Eucalyptus has a strong and
deep root system allowing to get water from lower parts of soil profile and thus impeding the
water availability to other plants. Nowadays, FTCs are trying to introduce new techniques
how to prevent erosion - planting grass between the fields. However, this seems not to be
sufficient in prevention of erosion which endangers whole SNNPR. Originally, the biodiversity
of tree species was much wider in Kembata Tembaro. Most of them were cut off and no new
trees were replanted.
Soil and water conservation
Water shade management and its practical application
Application of fertilizers and improved seeds and system of allocation among the farmers
Farmers have no access to improved seeds or fertilizers usually because of the lack of
financial means. They are dependent on the governmental supply.
Selection of motivated target groups DAs in Kembata Tembaro zone consider low interest of
farmers in extension as a very serious problem. Often the only motivation for participation in
trainings lies in receiving per diems.
Analysis of theoretical and practical education for farmers
The plans for improving the extension services in Ethiopia are based on a combination
of theoretical and practical education designed for farmers. The education is conducted by
the FTCs. The theoretical part of education is not always well accepted by farmers as they are
often illiterate and theoretical lessons are too difficult for them. In some cases, the modular
trainings were interrupted due to a low interest of farmers in the theoretical part. Farmers
would only prefer the practical education and very simple theoretical methods as simple
educating posters. A deeper attention should be given to this topic.
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National level
Strengthening the position of the DAs and their competencies
Although DAs are essential for extension services they are often not well competent.
DAs (and experts) show dissatisfaction with their situation, working position and
competencies even if they are educated at a diploma level and work directly with farmers.
Their feeling of satisfaction could be enhanced by improvement of their competencies and
appreciation of their work from the authorities. DAs have no decision-making competencies
related with financial and budget allocation, demonstrative plot planning etc.
Optimization of the national guideline plan for extension services
The gap between theoretical planning on national level and a real situation in rural
areas is wide and should be noticed by relevant administrators. The National Guideline
should serve as a guideline how to implement new extension strategies and agricultural
techniques, but the effort to fulfill this recommendation or orders leads to insoluble situation.
The national guideline8 is in contrast with real financial situation at woredas level, especially
in the marketing planning, FTC establishment and independency.
Clarifying the DAs education and transparent evaluation
Almost all DAs wish to improve their education status from a diploma level to a BA
level. As it was mentioned, the system of DAs education allows DAs to study on one from 25
ATVETs (in the whole Ethiopia) and choose one from five specializations (crop production,
animal production, animal health, natural resources, cooperatives management). After their
graduation and during their work the education level has been improved by trainings
organized mainly by WARDO.
DAs are not trained in their specialization to become experts and specialists, but they
are trained in different disciplines to become universal DAs. DAs should improve their
knowledge in their specialization rather than in relative specializations. To study BA (Bachelor
degree) is the only possibility how to improve the knowledge in the given specialization. Each
year 10% of DAs are selected and will get opportunity to study BA, but the system of DAs
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selection and evaluation is not transparent for them in all aspects and can be influenced by
personal relations among DAs and experts.
At the beginning of the DAs’ career, in first two years they are regularly evaluated by
SMS experts four times. After the evaluation the experts report and the salary of DAs or other
conditions can be modified. The independent evaluator clear from political issue should
evaluate the DAs work and work of SMS experts transparently with the prepared
methodology and system of evaluation
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