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An investigation of the implications of the inquiry-based learning approach for foreign language learning of secondary school pupils and implications
for learning support
A study submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts in Librarianship
At
THE UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD
By
ANNE MARIE O’DWYER
September 2007
Abstract
This dissertation explores the implications of inquiry-based learning (IBL) for
foreign language learning of secondary school pupils and also examines the
implications for learning support. Over the past 30 years, many studies in foreign
language learning have focused on activity-based, student-centred approaches
to learning. However, research in recent years has progressively included a
more specific emphasis on the inquiry-based learning approach. IBL is based on
the formulation of research questions and inquiries that learners self-select,
explore and interpret. Research has demonstrated that IBL is particularly
effective in students’ learning as it has been shown to develop higher-order
thinking skills, autonomous learning, interpersonal skills, and information
literacy.
The flexibility of the IBL approach has been appealing to educationalists who
seek to adapt to the changing requirements and expectations of young people in
the digital age. While research interest on the role of IBL for foreign language
learning in higher education has been increasing in recent years, studies on IBL
in secondary schools has been particularly limited.
This study investigates the implications of IBL on the foreign language learning
of secondary school pupils by focusing on language skills development,
motivation for language learning, and the quality of work produced by pupils.
The significance of learning support for inquiry-based language learning is also
considered by focusing on two key features of learning support services for
language learning: school library services and assistive learning technologies.
A literature review was carried out to reveal recent developments in research on
IBL, language learning, and learning support services. Evidence was drawn from
interviews at 4 schools with foreign language teachers and school library staff,
as well as focus group discussions with pupils. A qualitative approach was
adopted in the analysis of the data.
2
The findings suggest that IBL can provide many opportunities for secondary
school pupils in their learning of a foreign language. However, it establishes that
certain influencing factors need to be addressed by teachers when implementing
an inquiry-based approach. The study also demonstrates that both the school
library and learning technologies have a key role to play in an inquiry-based
language curriculum.
3
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Phil Levy, my supervisor, for her advice and guidance
throughout the process of my dissertation.
I am very grateful to all the participants who gave their time to take part in this
project, especially the Head of Modern Foreign Languages in each of the four
schools, who introduced me to language teachers, pupils and school library
staff.
I would especially like to thank my parents for their support and encouragement.
4
Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction ...................................................………................... 8
1.1 Background to the research.....................................................…………8
1.2 Explanation of the research topic..........................................………......9
1.2.1 Key terms......................................................................…….......... 9
1.2.2 Primary concerns of the study ...................................…………… 12
1.2.3 Relevance and timeliness...................................................... …....12
1.3 Aims and objectives ......................................................... …………… 13
1.4 Scope and limitations……………………………………………………… 13
1.5 Structure of the dissertation…………………………………………………14
Chapter 2: Literature Review ....................................................................……15
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................…… 15
2.2 Background to inquiry-based learning.......................................…………15
2.3 Recent developments in inquiry-based learning research..............…… 16
2.4 Current issues in research on foreign language learning.....................…18
2.4.1 Language skills development………………………………………… 19
2.4.2 Motivation……………………………………………………………… 19
2.4.3 Quality of work………………………………………………………… 21
2.5 Inquiry-based language learning among secondary school pupils....…. 22
2.6 The role of learning support for inquiry-based language learning .....…23
2.6.1 School libraries………………………………………………………… 23
2.6.2 Learning technologies……………………………………………….. 24
Chapter 3: Methodology..........................................................................…… 26
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................……26
3.2 Methodological approach....................................................................….27
3.3 Research design .............................................................................…… 27
3.3.1 Methods of investigation .............................................................. 27
3.3.2 Research sample……………………………………………………… 29
3.3.3 Interviews and focus groups……………………………………………32
5
3.3.3.1 Subjects……………………………………………………………32
3.3.3.2 Design and Structure…………………………………………… 33
3.3.3.3 Content…………………………………………………………… 33
3.3.3.4 Conduct…………………………………………………………… 34
3.4 Ethical considerations.................................................................……… 34
3.5 Data analysis .......................................................................………….. 35
3.6 Methodological Limitations.......................................................................36
Chapter 4: Findings................................................................................... ... .. 38
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 38
4.2 Language skills development..........................................................…… 38
4.3 Motivation for language learning...................................………………… 42
4.4 Quality of work produced......................................................................... 47
4.5 School libraries.............................................................………………… 52
4.6 Learning technologies........................................................……………… 54
Chapter 5: Discussion..............................................................................…… 57
5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................…… 57
5.2 Language skills development..........................................................…… 57
5.3 Motivation for language learning...................................………………… 61
5.4 Quality of work produced......................................................................... 67
5.5 School libraries.............................................................………………… 71
5.6 Learning technologies........................................................……………… 74
Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations.....................................…… 77
6.1 Introduction .....................................................................................…… 77
6.2 Implications for foreign language learning………………………………... 77
6.2.1 Language skills development.....................................................… 77
6.2.2 Motivation for language learning...........................………………….. 78
6.2.3 Quality of work produced.............................................................… 79
6.3 Implications for learning support........................................................… 80
6.3.1 School libraries.........................................................……………… 80
6.3.2 Learning technologies………………………………………………… 81
6.4 Recommendations for further study .................................................… 83
6
References............................................................................………………… 85
Appendix A ............................................................................................…… 98 Appendix B ....................................................................................... ……… 102
Appendix C ...........................................................................................… 105
Appendix D ...........................................................................................…… 108
Appendix E………………………………………………………………………… 110
7
1
Introduction
1.1 Background to the research
New developments in language learning approaches for school education are
focused on the meanings that pupils give their learning activities and the
development of pupils’ intrinsic motivation for learning. Recent developments in
language learning have emphasised the need for more pupil-centred learning
where the focus is on collaborate work with the aim of fostering ‘whole language’
instead of unrelated linguistic constructs (Schwarzer and Luke, 2001). Indeed, it
may be suggested that an inquiry-based approach to language learning frames
many recent innovations in secondary school education. As inquiry-based
learning (IBL) is a relatively new area of study, it is not limited by a rigid
representation of its ideas or boundaries (Bruce and Bishop, 2001). In an age of
rapidly increasing technological developments such a flexible approach holds
particular appeal.
Since the early 1970s, the nature of teaching and learning approaches have
changed significantly. An emphasis on more scaffolded instruction and the
development of higher-order thinking skills has replaced more didactic methods
(Paris and Paris, 2001). The rapid advances of educational technology, in
addition to the eagerness with which young people are incorporating these
innovations into their learning, have incited many educationalists and
researchers to consider new approaches for secondary school education.
Schools have also recognised the need to direct more focus on learning
outcomes and on providing pupils with life-long learning skills in order to prepare
them for significant changes in employment opportunities in the digital age.
8
Recent developments in the field of cognitive science have provided strong
support for the inquiry-based approach. Metacognitive strategies such as
reflecting, planning, monitoring, evaluating and identifying have been recognised
as necessary for developing competency in a second language (Ortega, 1997),
many of which are developed through IBL.
“IBL induces learners to represent problems, develop their own
hypothesis or designs, come up with evidence, conduct self-directed
investigations, assess their own progress and finally reflect on their
inquiry process”. (Lim, 2004).
As IBL arises from the broader concept of student-centred learning, inquiry holds
a strong relationship with learning support. Learning support services can
provide an ideal platform for engagement in inquiry-based activities as it
advocates the continuation of learning outside the classroom, the provision of
guidance to learners, the development of a wide range of skills, and commitment
to life-long learning. The opportunity to work on real life and meaningful
problems in an inquiry-based environment is recognised as an important
determinant for pupils’ development as self-motivated, autonomous and
‘successful’ language learners.
1.2 Explanation of the research topic
1.2.1 Key terms
Inquiry-based learning
In the broader context, inquiry-based learning (IBL) is an active learning
approach which supports a highly learner-centred perception of learning.
Instructional practices in an inquiry-based pedagogy are facilitative and
supportive of student-driven investigations (Justice et al., 2007). By advocating
the use of media which are meaningful to the learner, IBL aims to strengthen the
relationship between learning in an educational context and learning in everyday
9
life experiences. Pupils are encouraged to develop their research skills in order
to gain more confidence in directing their own lines of inquiry and to have more
control over how and what they learn. The student-focused approach inherent in
IBL is often compared to the more traditional, transmissive approach to learning,
whereby focus is on the teacher rather than the pupil. While the teacher-focused
approach perceives knowledge as ‘static’ (Benson and Bruce, 2001), the
student-centred approach prioritises the process of knowledge building and
understanding.
In an inquiry-based curriculum, pupils are supported in formulating their own
questions, leading their investigation of inquiry, creating new understanding,
reflecting on their learning, and finally, generating a new route of inquiry. The
illustration below, from Justice et al. (2007), clearly outlines the process of
inquiry and its beginnings in self-reflection, self-evaluation and the “active
orientation to searching for information” (Justice et al., 2007).
(Justice et al., 2007: 203)
10
Language learning
Language learning is understood in very broad terms. As Stern (1983) observes,
it may denote native language learning as a child, a second language learned
without the support of formal teaching, or learning through formal language
instruction. It is notable that the term ‘language acquisition’ represents a
subconscious process of language learning and is compared to way in which
children develop language ability in their first language (Krashen, 1982).
However, language theorists draw a distinction between language acquisition
and language learning, whereby language learning is “the conscious knowledge
of a second language, knowing the rules, being aware of them, and being able
to talk about them” (Krashen, 1982: 10).
Learning support
Learning support can be broadly defined as the provision of resources, services
and instruction to learners that support their educational needs. As Theodos
(2004) asserts:
“[Learning support] is the educational support of any individual who needs
help with their learning”
All pupils have different learning needs which can be met by various support
services, resources and structures within a school environment. For the purpose
of this study, the focus will be on two support services: the school library and
learning technology.
1.2.2 Primary concerns of the study This study seeks to explore the implications of the IBL approach in foreign
language learning through inductive and qualitative research. The data has been
collected from four secondary schools in Sheffield. Seventeen teachers, four
11
library staff members and thirty-six pupils participated in the study. The method
for data collection involved interviews with foreign language teachers and school
librarians as well as focus group discussions with pupils. Participants reflected
on their experiences of inquiry-based pedagogy in foreign language learning and
the implications of IBL on learning support.
1.2.3 Relevance and timeliness
Since the turn of the century, much attention in the fields of information science
and education has focused on the needs and expectations of the ‘Internet
Generation’. As technological developments increase exponentially, librarians
and teachers are expressing particular interest in the way in which traditional
learning and teaching methods are perceived by a new, technology-savvy
generation of young people in the digital age. As Kuhlthau (2001) aptly points
out:
“Memorizing simple right answers and reproducing texts are not enough
to prepare students for the information literacy they will need to lead
fulfilled, productive lives in the information society”
Critical evaluative skills (Godwin, 2006) are clearly required by this generation
more than any generation before. However, a paradox appears to exist within
the current education system in relation to the encouragement of a new skill set
for a different type of learner; while educational reform is acknowledging the
need for more inquiry-based approaches in learning to develop critical skills,
state assessment does not wholly reward pupils who adopt inquiry-based
approaches in their learning. In fact, Pardales and Girod (2006) notes that “we
live in times that are hostile towards meaningful learning”.
The relevance of these concerns for the librarianship profession has provided
inspiration for this current study. The study endeavors to address the need for
the development of meaningful learning in schools and the role the inquiry-
based approach for a new generation of pupils.
12
1.2.4 Aims and Objectives This research project will identify teachers’, librarians’ and pupils’ conceptions of
foreign language learning through inquiry-based pedagogy. It will also explore
how learning support services, including school libraries and learning
technologies, assist and facilitate inquiry-based language learning.
The aim of the study is to analyse pupils’ experience of IBL; describe its impact
on their language learning; and discuss the impact of learning support on their
learning experience.
1.4 Scope and limitations This study examines the views and experiences of foreign language teachers,
school librarians and pupils on the inquiry-based learning approach and its
impact on teaching and learning. However, it is not within the scope of the study
to evaluate the extent to which inquiry-based activities are used by teachers in
their teaching approach. Furthermore, while the implications of inquiry-based
learning on the quality of work produced is examined, the study does not
measure the impact of IBL on pupils’ attainment in academic examinations.
Due to limitations on access to pupil participants during the school day, it is not
possible to focus the study on one particular year group of pupils. Additionally, in
order to concentrate on the broader implications of IBL for language learning, it
was not the purpose of this study to draw comparisons between the different
year groups of pupils.
Finally, while the distinction between teaching and learning is evident, this
dissertation will not refer to either one without implicit consideration of the other.
13
1.5 Structure of the dissertation This dissertation is organised into six chapters.
This first chapter, the Introduction, has outlined the broader context of the
research, provided details of the research topic including its aims and objectives,
and highlighted the scope and limitations of the study.
Chapter 2 provides a review of the literature on previous work conducted on the
dissertation topic and establishes the context for the current study.
Chapter 3 describes the methodology for the study by examining the steps that
have been followed to address the research question. It will provide justification
for the methods employed and also explore the limitations of the research
process.
Chapter 4 presents the findings based on the transcripts of interviews with
teachers and librarians, and focus group discussions with pupils. It is made up of
two sections: the first provides data relating to the implications of IBL for
language learning by focusing on three main themes; the second section
presents data from transcripts on the implications of IBL for learning support,
and is divided into two key themes.
Chapter 5 provides an extended discussion of the findings. It relates the findings
of the study to existing theory and research. This discussion of findings will
resemble Chapter 5 in its format in providing two main sections and addressing
three main themes in the first section and two themes in the second.
Chapter 6 draws conclusions based on this study and provides
recommendations for future research.
14
2
Literature Review
2.1 Introduction This review will give an overview of the literature on inquiry-based learning and
its implications for foreign language education and learning support. The
literature is mainly research based and sources are drawn from the disciplines of
education, information science, linguistics and psychology. The focus of this
review will include recent developments in IBL, current issues in language
learning research, language learning among secondary school pupils, and the
role of learning support for IBL in language learning.
2.2 Background to Inquiry-based learning
While the inquiry-based approach is a relatively new field of research, the quest
to make learning more meaningful to the learner is centuries old and is even
evident in the writings of Socrates. A number of educators in Germany in the
early nineteenth century focused more specific attention on the relationship
between research and learning (Healey, 2005). The idea of inquiry in teaching
and learning was also discussed in the late nineteenth century in writings such
as those by the anarchist geographer, Kropotkin (1885). Kropotkin illustrated the
tenets of inquiry for its application in the teaching of geography instead of the
highly transmissive models at the time. Again in the late 1800s, the American
philosopher, Peirce (1839–1914), endorsed the concept of a community of
inquiry and asserted that deep understanding was unlikely to arise from
introspection (Pardales and Girod, 2006). In the last century, new
15
understandings of the learning process stemmed from theories proposed by
educationalists such as Piaget, who established a popular theory on
developmental learning (Schwarzer and Luke, 2001). The famous Russian
educationalist, Vygotsky, created the social constructivist theory of learning
which highlighted the significance of collaborative exploration and active
engagement with content in peer-supported activities (Justice et al., 2007).
However in the twentieth century, more specific interest in IBL became the focus
of researchers such as Dewey, Metcalf and Bruner (Lim, 2004). Indeed, Dewey’s
publications on the role of inquiry in education are among the most prolific. He
explored the value of inquiry-based learning for enhancing the school curriculum
in his work Logic: The Theory of Inquiry (1938), and later addressed the natural
“impulses” of the learner to investigate, reflect and evaluate in the learning
process (Benson and Bruce, 2001). With a growing international research
interest on inquiry in learning, the popularity of IBL in different learning contexts
has progressively increased in recent years.
2.3 Recent developments in inquiry-based learning research
A shift in recent years from a transmission-based pedagogy to a more
constructivist, inquiry-orientated approach has led to increased interest from
researchers in IBL. However, much of this research has been conducted in
higher education. For example, Healey (2005), Humboldt (1970), Jenkins et al.
(2003), Justice et al. (2007), Kahn and O’Rourke (2005), Schwarzer and Luke
(2001), Spronken-Smith et al (2007), and White and Frederiksen (1998) have all
focused their studies on university students. A large proportion of this recent
research has concentrated on the actual process of implementing IBL in various
university departments. The establishment of centres for inquiry-based and
active learning approaches in the UK1 has led to a number of practical IBL case
studies.
1 Examples include the Centre for Active Learning, University of Gloucestershire; the Centre for Excellence in Enquiry-based Learning, Univeristy of Manchester; and the Centre for Inquiry-based Learning in the Arts and Social Sciences, University of Sheffield.
16
It is interesting to note that the focus of research on IBL has been on particular
disciplines; most notably science and social science-related subjects.2
Nonetheless, while research on IBL in higher education has been gathering
pace, few studies have been found to examine the implications of IBL in
secondary schools.
Recent literature has also addressed the need to support teachers who wish to
develop an inquiry-based approach in their classes. A number of researchers
have considered environmental conditions which need to be in place before
teachers implement inquiry (Kuhlthau, 2001; Pardales and Girod, 2006), while
others have examined more specifically the social structures required to support
inquiry-based learning (White and Frederiksen, 1998). The ‘Inquiry Page’3
(Benson and Bruce, 2001) is an interesting social support site which assists
teachers in implementating IBL by encouraging them to engage in the inquiry
process themselves. Dawson and Fichtman (2007) have also addressed the
‘conceptual change’ that occurs among teachers who are part of a community of
inquiry, while Guk and Kellogg (2007) have suggested that inquiry-based
activities can be mediated by those who have greater familiarity with IBL, so that
in their community of inquiry, teachers may learn from one another.
A significant amount of the literature has focused more on highlighting the
potential benefits of IBL while the drawbacks of the IBL approach are discussed
in much fewer studies.4 Indeed, the majority of studies in the discipline of
languages appear to have been focused on establishing the merits of IBL. Luke
(2006) explored how IBL increased learner autonomy in a university Spanish
class, and earlier, Schwarzer and Luke (2001) discussed how IBL could be used
as an innovative approach for a learner-directed foreign language class. Wells
(1995) also illustrated the positive outcomes which inquiry-based approaches
2 For example, White and Frederiksen, 1998 (science); Healey, 2005 (geography); Delaney and Mitchell, 2005, and O’Neville and Britt, 2007 (engineering); Plowright and Watkins, 2004 (social work); Smyth, 2005 (nursing). 3 Web site address: www.inquiry.uiuc.edu 4 Most notably; Berg et al. (2003), White and Fredericksen (1998), and Rapp (2005)
17
could yield in a language classroom, while Healy (2005) explored how
undergraduate students benefit from IBL by the depth of understanding they
acquire. Nevertheless, in more recent years, research has attempted to address
this imbalance and a number of studies on the challenges of inquiry-based
learning have been published, including Arnseth and Säljö, (2007); Brew (2006);
Kanuka (2006); Spronken-Smith et al. (2007) and; Smyth (2005). This current
study will, therefore, seek to establish a more balanced view on the implications
of IBL.
2.4 Current issues in research on foreign language learning
In the research on foreign language learning, there is now a range of
approaches advocated which support pupil-centred learning. Examples include
‘research-based learning’, ‘autonomous learning’, ‘discovery learning’, ‘reflective
learning’ and ‘problem-based learning’. The focus on pupil-centred learning
approaches in language learning has primarily arisen from the philosophy which
stresses the need for learners to experience ‘whole language’ rather than
language in unrelated parts (Schwarzer and Luke, 2001). A greater focus on a
holistic, pupil-centred approach to language learning may be due to the shift
away from more traditional teaching methods in recent years and the pursuit of
an alternative approach. As Benson and Bruce (2001) note:
“As the objects of learning become more complex and the applications
more demanding, the notion that schooling is about the imparting of
simple schemas for knowledge appears less and less tenable”.
In his support for inquiry-based language learning approaches, Valdman (1988)
refers to the “linear structurally oriented” foreign language syllabus and the need
for its “drastic overhall”.
18
2.4.1 Language skills development
The opportunity for foreign language learners to negotiate meaning with other
speakers of the language has been much discussed in literature in relation to
language skills development. In line with the growing popularity of learner-
centred approaches, research interest has also shifted from investigations of
each of the four traditional language skills5 to a focus on the overall
communicative ability of the learner. Long and Robinson (1998) have noted that
language acquisition is better facilitated when learners have to “resolve their
miscommunications” with others (cited in Blake, 2000), while Gass and Varonis
(1994) earlier identified the need for “modified learner-to-learner interactions” to
enhance learners’ communication skills. Donnelly (2005) has also observed that
learning is more meaningful when learners work together on social activities; this
view is reflected in the concept of ‘intersubjectivity’ (Oates and Grayson, 2004),
whereby learners need to have a shared understanding of the learning
objectives in order to progress. More recent studies have delved more deeply
into the patterns and forms of communication between learners and native
speakers of the language. For example, the most recent publication found for
this review on communication skills in language learning was by Watanabe and
Swain (2007), who examined the effects of pair interaction on second language
skills development. The findings of their study implied that patterns of pair
interactions significantly impact on post-test performance of communicative
ability. While earlier studies on the factors influencing learners’ ability to
communicate effectively in a foreign language relied on qualitative data from
participants reported experiences, Watanabe and Swain’s study (2007) is
particularly compelling as both qualitative and quantitative data were used.
2.4.2 Motivation In the past 30 years, there has been a significant amount of research interest in
the role of motivation for foreign language learning. The overall results of studies
5 The four language skills have traditionally included speaking, listening, reading, and writing.
19
show that motivation is associated with success in foreign language learning
(Gardner, 1985). As Ellis (1997) notes:
“Motivation involves the attitudes and affective states that influence the
degree of effort that learners make to learn L2” (p. 75).
While Ellis implies increased effort in learning arising from motivation, Atherton
(2005) goes a step further by asserting that motivation will help foster deeper
learning approaches.
In the literature, the concept of ‘interest’ in learning has also been frequently
related to increased motivation and enhanced learning experiences. Where
material is intrinsically interesting, it is noted that the learner’s attention is more
focused (Dörnyei and Csizér,1998) and despite any difficulties experienced, their
desire to continue is sustained (De Groot, 2002). Notess and Neal (2006) have
also highlighted the significance of ‘interest’ for success in learning, however,
they have added that interest in activities can facilitate students developing
greater ownership over the learning process. Prince and Felder (2006) have
provided a slightly different explanation to the concept of motivation for learning.
They proposed that students will be motivated to learn when, firstly, they
recognise the impact their learning may have later in their lives, and secondly,
when they can make connections between the learning material and what they
already know.
This insight is particularly interesting in relation to computer-assisted learning.
Research is increasingly being conducted on the motivating influence of
computer use for language learning, as educational researchers recognise the
current generation of pupils’ familiarity and competence with technology in
comparison with previous generations. Thorne and Payne (2005), in particular
have provided a very comprehensive overview of language pupils’ motivation for
participating in digital communities in their learning. They consider the use of
podcasting, instant messaging, weblogs, wikis, and text messaging on mobile
phones to support learning of a foreign language. Godwin (2006) has also
examined the current generation of ‘internet creators’ and offers some insightful
statistics on young people’s use of the internet in their daily lives.
20
2.4.3 Quality of work
The way in which ‘quality work’ should be determined has been a much
contested issue in literature. Indeed, a study conducted by De Groot (2002)
noted the distinction between learning in order to produce ‘quality of work’ in an
exam, and ‘quality of work’ which demonstrates mastery in the subject area. In
fact, students in De Groot’s research associated exam-focused study with
memorization tactics rather than actual understanding and deeper learning.
However, other studies have shown how pupils are more comfortable with a
more transmissive learning approach (Po-ying, 2007; Luke, 2006). It has been
shown that this is a method of learning to which they are accustomed, given the
constraints of the school curriculum and methods of assessment used.
Furthermore, other research has illustrated that pupils find it difficult to adjust
from teacher-directed learning to more constructivist approaches (Plowright and
Watkins, 2004; Smyth, 2005; Spronken-Smith et al., 2007). Nevertheless, it has
also been found that learners do in fact appreciate the value of learning through
inquiry-based approaches for deeper learning; Berg et al. (2003) established
that students were better able to recall knowledge when it was acquired through
inquiry-based tasks, while White and Frederiksen (1998) found that the
opportunity for students to reflect on their learning facilitated greater
understanding.
Interestingly, a number of studies conducted in recent years have suggested
that the level of anxiety experienced by language learners can strongly influence
their quality of work produced. Ewald (2007) noted that many foreign language
pupils reported that they experience anxiety and that the level of anxiety
experienced noticeably influenced their learning outcomes. It is notable that
while Ewald’s study reported that the teacher may impact both positively and
negatively on pupils’ anxiety levels, another study by De Groot (1998) identified
teacher support as a wholly positive contribution in relieving anxiety levels (cited
in De Groot, 2002). In their longitudinal study employing a quantitative approach,
Sparks and Ganschow (2007) also investigated the impact of anxiety on
language skills development; secondary school pupils were followed over a
period of 10 years and tested for their foreign language proficiency and anxiety
levels. The findings of the study showed that pupils who experience low anxiety
21
levels score significantly higher on measures of foreign language proficiency
than their more anxious counterparts.
2.5 Inquiry-based language learning among secondary school pupils While studies have been conducted on IBL in other curriculum subjects in
schools, no substantial research has been found which specifically addresses
the use of IBL in secondary school foreign language classes. This may be due in
part to the fact that few language departments appear to have incorporated
inquiry-based activities into their teaching approach. Indeed, Lee and Van
Patten (2003) have established that a transmission-orientated pedagogy is
predominantly used for foreign language learning in schools. Luke (2006) has
also noted that secondary school pupils are taught mainly through highly
teacher-led classes. The study by Luke also observed that many foreign
language learners finish secondary school with low levels of proficiency in their
foreign language. Indeed, more recently Ikpeze and Boyd (2007) have
highlighted the need for language educators in schools to encourage the
development of inquiry skills among pupils rather than allowing the simple
assimilation of knowledge.
As already highlighted, research interest in IBL for foreign language learning has
mainly been conducted in higher education institutions. However, the
conclusions drawn from studies in higher education may not be generalised to
secondary school students, mainly due to the fact that the nature of higher
education requires a certain level of motivation from students, thereby, more
easily facilitating the development of independent learning. In addition, the role
of the school teacher is different from the role of the teacher in higher education.
Furthermore, while many higher level institutions encourage the incorporation of
innovative teaching methods into classes, many secondary school teachers
have less opportunity to engage in IBL activities due to the constraints of the
national curriculum.
22
2.6 The role of Learning support for inquiry-based language learning
“High quality education outside the classroom can stimulate and inspire;
foster independence; aid personal and social development; and can often
motivate reluctant learners.” (Education and Skills Select Committee, 2005 in
DfES, 2006: 11).
Learning support in all its forms has been shown to conform easily to the inquiry-
based approach by its open, collaborative and holistic style. Where language
learning is enhanced through an IBL pedagogy, the development and
incorporation of learning support services into the language curriculum may be a
natural course of progress.
2.6.1 School libraries
Research on school learning support services has generally pointed to the
library as the hub of learning support provision. Its resources may, therefore, be
well exploited when operating within an IBL pedagogical framework. The CILIP
report, Start with the child, (2002), clearly stated that a particular strength of the
school library is its ability to broaden and support a holistic learning experience
for pupils. Indeed, all evidence suggests that the school library has a key role to
play in IBL. A significant amount of literature has identified how school libraries
can support independent learning (Devoy, 2004; DfES 2006; Gardner et al.,
2007; Ofsted, 2006; Williams and Wavell, 2001), critical thinking (School Library
Association, 2007; Williams et al., 2002), and the enrichment of the learning
experience (Devoy, 2004; Williams et al., 2002; Williams and Wavell, 2006).
However, studies by both Kuhlthau (2001) and Branch and Oberg (2004) have
explored how the culture of learning support may require alteration in order to
more successfully implement the IBL approach. Indeed, the library collection is
frequently addressed in discussion about improvements to the library service to
reflect pedagogical developments. A considerable number of studies have
addressed the need for improved quantity and quality of school library stock
23
(Williams et al., 2002; Elkin and Kinnell, 2000; Zweizig and Hopkins, 1999; Elkin
and Lonsdale, 1996). Furthermore, the School Library Association (2007) has
recommended the provision of a range of stock that would reflect the whole
school curriculum and pupils individual learning requirements. Indeed, Elkin and
Kinnell (2000) have noted that the librarian must also recognize the diversity of
young peoples’ needs as regards their different learning preferences. Elkin and
Lonsdale (1996) have also observed:
“It is with the needs of the individual child that service philosophy and
promotion should begin” (p. 176).
As Williams et al. (2001) point out the school library can motivate pupils and
stimulate learning by providing access to a broad range of issues which interest
them.
2.6.2 Learning technologies
Technology-enhanced learning is clearly implicated in the IBL approach.
However, it was found that the bulk of current research on IBL focuses on the
extent to which learning technologies can positively impact on learning in an
inquiry-based environment. Arnseth and Säljö (2007), Dawson and Fichtman
(2007), Ikpeze and Boyd (2007), Kanuka (2006), Salovaara (2005), Thorne and
Payne (2005), Lim (2004), Benson and Bruce (2001), Bruce and Bishop (2001),
and Edelson el al. (1999) have all illustrated the opportunities provided by
educational technology for supporting learners in an inquiry-based activities.
While many of these studies have sought to establish links between internet-
mediated learning and IBL, a number of them have also have focused on how
the inquiry process conducted through the medium of learning technology
influences pupils’ learning outcomes. For example, Salovaara (2005) has shown
that deeper-level cognitive strategies were apparent in learners who took part in
computer-supported inquiry tasks; Bruce and Bishop (2002) demonstrated that
inquiry-based learning through technology enhanced learning activities and
promoted the development of interpersonal skills; and Thorne and Payne (2005)
explored how language learning skills were developed through educational
24
technology. As already illustrated, a number of studies have shown how the use
of technology for learning is a powerful motivating factor for pupils, therefore, it is
not surprising that much research has also clarified pupils’ demand for increased
use of educational technologies (Allen, 2007; Ikpeze and Boyd, 2007; Godwin,
2006; Donnelly, 2005; Dubber, 1999).
It is clear from the literature that learning support services have a key role to
play for effective learning in an inquiry-based environment. Nevertheless, few
studies have been found which specifically focus on how learning support can
provide for foreign language pupils engaging in inquiry-based activities.
Furthermore, while there has much research interest in the role of learning
technologies for language learning, it appears that few studies have been
conducted on the role of another learning support service, the school library, for
foreign language learning. For this project, it was felt that research needs to
address this gap in literature in relation to the relationship between IBL and
foreign language learning among secondary school pupils.
25
3
Methodology
3.1 Introduction In this chapter the aim is to outline the methodological approach of the study.
The research design will be justified and the reasons for choosing the particular
approach will be established. The chapter will also consider ethical issues
concerning this study as well as the methodological limitations.
The stages of the research design involved:
• conducting an initial study of the research topic in order to establish the
research question and the type of information sought
• considering the scale of the research and related practicalities, including
ethical and moral issues
• deciding on an inductive and qualitative research approach to include
semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions for data
collection
• establishing a method of investigation to include a sample of pupils,
teachers and library staff from four secondary schools in the local area
• performing a preliminary literature review to identify themes for interviews
and focus groups and developing questions to form three separate
interview guides for data collection from pupils, teachers and library staff
• fully transcribing each interview and focus group discussion following
data collection, conducting analysis of the data and reformulating the
themes based on emergent findings.
26
3.2 Methodological approach The research question sought to explore the implications of the inquiry-based
learning approach in foreign language learning through inductive and qualitative
research. Due to the singular nature of the research question compared to order
studies conducted on inquiry-based learning, it was felt that the approach should
correspond to an emergent design flexibility. A process of induction was used,
as the focus was on the conclusions that could be drawn from the issues
explored by the participants rather than testing a particular theory.
Qualitative evaluation research was, therefore, employed as the methodological
strategy for this study. It was recognised that the researcher would be reflexive
and active in the generation of data and aim to interpret the data rather than
intending to become a neutral data investigator (Mason, 2002). This approach
was considered most appropriate for the study as the aim was to explore the
development of knowledge and ideas within a social context rather than aspiring
to formulate explanatory laws. It was also acknowledged that it would not be
feasible to collect the research data in any other way than through interviews
and discussions with participants. Furthermore, a qualitative approach would
provide participants with a ‘platform’ to make their viewpoints and perspectives
known (Wellington, 2000) as well as being more likely to “generate a fairer and
fuller representation of the interviewees’ perspectives” (Mason, 2002: 66).
3.3 Research design
3.3.1 Methods of investigation The study used two different qualitative methods to investigate the implications
of IBL on pupils’ foreign language learning: interviews and focus group
discussions.
Interviews were considered particularly useful for obtaining a deeper
understanding of the participants’ understanding and experiences of IBL. It was
felt that interaction with the researcher was necessary in order to elucidate the
27
application of an inquiry-based pedagogy; it was expected that many of the
participants would not have been previously familiar with this learning and
teaching approach. The interviews were semi-structured as this method was
considered preferable to the more structured form which may reduce the ‘flow’ of
personal accounts and experiences.
“[In semi-structured interviews] the interviewer has considerable flexibility
over the range and order of questions within a loosely defined framework”
(Parsons, 1984: 80).
IT was also thought that the semi-structured interview would give the informant
greater opportunity to reflect on their past experiences of learning; as Lincoln
and Guba (1985: 273) note
“ … [the semi-structured interview] permits the respondent to move back and
forth in time – to reconstruct the past, interpret the present, and predict the
future, all without leaving a comfortable armchair” (cited in Pickard, 2007: 172).
An understanding of the participant in context was deemed important to the
study. For this reason, interviews were considered more appropriate than focus
groups for teacher participants as it was recognised that teachers in particular
would be less likely to express opposing viewpoints in the more public platform
of a focus group (De Groot, 2002).
It was noted in the preliminary literature review that focus groups are becoming
increasingly popular for studies involving students. Focus groups were
considered a useful method for gaining the perspective of pupils as it was
believed that younger participants would be more encouraged to share their
individual views when stimulated into discussion by other members of the group;
Benson and Bruce (2001) also note “The exchange of ideas in the group
stimulate new thought which may never be mentioned in individual interviewing”
(p. 120). Indeed, the purpose of a focus group is to encourage self-disclosure
among the participants (Krueger and Casey, 2000). A further advantage of focus
groups for qualitative data collection is that they are both cost-effective and time
efficient (Patton, 2002). This method favoured the context of data collection for
28
this study as pupils were allowed away from their class timetable for a limited
amount of time.
While self-report questionnaires are popular in educational research, it was
recognised that a significant number of the research participants in this study
would not be native English speakers, therefore, the interactive nature of both
the interview and focus group would more easily allow for clarification and
elaboration of questions. As Opie (2004) notes:
“… many respondents are either not keen or don’t feel confident in expressing
their views, thoughts or feelings on paper, particularly if they are being required
to write in what is not their first language” (p.111).
The use of the semi-structured interviews approach in addition to the focus
group discussions facilitated a richer understanding of educationalists’ and
pupils’ perceptions of IBL.
3.3.2 Research sample
A strategy of convenience sampling was employed for data collection. Given the
tight schedule of the final school term, the aim was to simply identify a
population which was accessible. Convenience sampling has been
acknowledged in the literature to be both practical and efficient (Bell, 1987).
Indeed, Wellington (2000) states that the sample should include “accessible,
easy-to-conduct, well-known people (to you) or settings” (p. 63). Schools in the
local area were identified and a ‘key informant’ (Woods, 1986; Wellington, 2000)
was also found in each secondary school. In consideration of time constraints, it
was decided that a sample size of three schools would be appropriate to provide
depth of investigation while within time constraints. Swetnam (2000) illustrates
that “the study has a duty to ensure that the sample is large enough to be
significant [and is] … as representative as possible” (p. 42). Semi-structured,
individual interviews with foreign language teachers and library staff were
planned to be carried out in each school, however, the number of interviews that
would take place was to be determined by ‘the art of the possible’ (Wellington,
29
2000). It was expected that two focus group discussions, each one with six pupil
participants, would be conducted in the three schools. Emails were sent to
secondary schools in Sheffield requesting their participation in the study. The
schools contacted were chosen based on the size of the pupil population and
the number of foreign language teachers in the school.
When interviewing began, however, it was decided that data would also be
collected from a fourth school as one of the other schools was later unable to
provide pupils participants. All schools chosen were mixed secondary schools,
with over 600 pupils on roll, and offered at least two modern foreign languages
as state examined subjects.
Complete anonymity was assured to all participants and their schools remained
unnamed. Each school will, therefore, be identified by the letters A, B, C and D
for the purpose of this study. 6
School A Age range of pupils: 11–16
Interviews: 3 MFL Teachers
English Teacher with responsibility for the library
Focus groups:
No pupil participants in School A
6 Appendix E provides more detailed information about each of the schools.
30
School B Age range of pupils: 11-19
Interviews: 7 MFL Teachers
School Librarian (telephone interview)
Focus groups: First group – Year 10 (6 girls)
Second group – Year 9 (1 girl, 5 boys)
School C Age range of pupils: 11-19
Interviews: 3 MFL Teachers
School Librarian (telephone interview)
Focus groups: First group – Year 12 (5 girls, 1 boy)
Second group – Year 10 (4 girls, 2 boys)
School D Age range of pupils: 11–16
Interviews: 3 MFL Teachers
EAL Teacher
School Librarian
Focus groups: First group – Year 8 (3 girls, 3 boys)
Second group – Year 9 (3 girls, 3 boys)
31
3.3.3 Interviews and Focus Groups 3.3.3.1 Subjects
In all of the schools, the head of the modern languages department became a
‘key informant’ and identified potential participates. Contact was made with a
representative of the library in each school following meeting with the head of
languages. However, librarians in two of the schools were unavailable during the
time of data collection for personal interviews, therefore, interviews were
arranged to be conducted by telephone. While a face-to-face interview was
considered preferable, the telephone interview did not impact significantly on the
quality of data obtained. Indeed the telephone interview is recognised as
providing “significant savings in actual time and cost in contrast to the personal
interview” (Powell and Connaway, 2004: 155). All MFL teachers and librarians
were interviewed individually using semi-structured interviews. In total,
interviews were conducted with sixteen MFL teachers, one EAL teacher, three
school librarians, and a teacher who had responsibility for the library.
In total, thirty-six pupils participated in the six focus group discussions; twenty-
two were female and fourteen were male. Two focus groups discussions were
conducted in each of three schools. Each group consisted of pupils from the
same year group who were taking a foreign language as one of their curriculum-
based subjects. As already noted, the focus groups included pupils from Year 8,
Year 9, Year 10 and Year 12. It was originally felt that senior pupils would be
most suitable participants as it is recognised that older children are being better
able to communicate and reflect upon their experiences (Mason, 2002),
However, due to the constraints of the school schedule, it proved difficult to
organize focus groups which only consisted of older pupils. The data was
subsequently collected from a range of year groups. The focus group
discussions lasted between 25 and 45 minutes; the time limit was determined by
the teachers in order to suit the pupils’ class timetables.
32
3.3.3.2 Design and Structure
A guide was used for both the interviews and group discussions.7 An interview
guide is defined by Wellington (2000) as “a classified list of topics … [which
includes] the issues which the researcher intends to explore” (p. 76). Three
different guides were developed for teachers, library staff and pupils. The guides
were structured according to themes identified in the preliminary literature
review. These broad categories of inquiry (Maykut and Morehouse, 1994)
provided the interviewer with “considerable flexibility over the range and order of
questions (Parsons, 1984: 80). The framework for each guide was loosely
defined and allowed for other categories to emerge during the interviews and
discussions.
3.3.3.3 Content
The themes identified for data collection were the same for both the interviews
and focus group discussions, however, the focus of the questions varied slightly
depending on the participant group: teachers, library staff, and pupils. The first
two questions for all interviews and focus groups were introductory questions
designed to put the participants at ease and facilitate progression to deeper
reflection on the role of IBL for language learning. Open-ended questions were
mainly used during the interviews and discussions as it was believed these
would provide the participants with the opportunity to give more meaningful
responses without being limited to standardized categories (Patton, 2002), while
also allowing for greater spontaneity (Oppenheim, 1992). However, the
questions asked at the beginning were closed questions as it was noted that
these questions would provide the participants with the opportunity to form a
more concrete conception of IBL activities. The soliciting of more basic
information was also believed to be an appropriate way of getting started
(Wellington, 2000). In order to limit the effect of interviewer bias, the final
7 Appendix A, B and C present the guides used for the teacher interviews, library staff interviews, and pupil focus group discussions, respectively.
33
question asked in all interviews and discussions gave participants the chance to
offer their own additional comments.
3.3.3.4 Conduct
The interviews and focus groups took place during school hours at each school
as this was most convenient for participants. They were all conducted in a room
which assured limited interruptions. Once participants gave their consent, all
interviews and focus group discussions were recorded in order to “capture the
actual words” (Patton, 2002: 380) of the participants. In order to encourage
freedom in expressing opinions, participants were informed that all information
provided would be anonymous in the written report. As IBL is a relatively new
concept in many schools, a brief definition of IBL and examples of inquiry-based
activities were included in the participant information packs8, and the
participants were given time before each interview to read through this
information and ask for clarification when required.
3.4 Ethical issues Informed consent was obtained from the teacher and librarian participants.
However, the researcher contacted the schools in advance to determine correct
protocol regarding parent or guardian approval. All of the schools agreed to act
in loco parentis and gave their consent for the focus group discussions with
pupils.
All potential participants were each given an information sheet at the school
detailing the research topic, data collection methods, and the nature of their
involvement in the study. Three different information sheets were provided
according to the participant; teacher, library staff member or pupil. Sufficient time
8 Appendix D provides the definitions of inquiry-based learning which were presented to the participants before each interview. One definition was established for teacher and librarian participants, and the other for pupils (from the perspective of the learner).
34
was given to consider whether or not they wished to participate, and then asked
to sign a written consent form.
To ensure confidentiality of personal issues, none of the participants’ names
were recorded and the names of the schools have remained anonymous. A
sequence of letters and numbers have been used in the typed transcripts for the
names of all participants and schools. Access to the taped recording of the
interviews and focus groups has been limited only to the researcher.
Participants were also assured that in the case of the study terminating earlier
than expected, all data already collected would be destroyed.
3.5 Data Analysis The interview and focus group data were transcribed verbatim immediately after
the data was collected. Transcripts were labelled by assigning a letter, A-D, to
identify each school (S), and a number was used to distinguish between different
participants (P) in each school. For example, SC P1 represented School C,
Participant 1.
Each of the transcripts was read through and important segments in relation to
the research topic were highlighted. Some of the themes presented in the
interview guide emerged again when analyzing the data. Nevertheless, care was
taken in order that the pre-established themes in the interview guide would not
influence the findings of the study or presuppose what these findings would be
(Patton, 2002).
Themes were organized into broader categories, which were then compared
with one another to look for similarities and differences in participants’ views on
IBL. In identifying these larger categories in the data, the method of ‘constant
comparison and contrast’ (Wellington, 2000) was employed to make appropriate
connections between ideas. As there were three different participant groups
(teachers, librarians, and pupils), there was a wide variety of opinions and
perspectives. Care was also taken to conduct the data analysis in a sensitive
35
manner in order that the researcher’s own interpretations would not be imposed
without justification (Mason, 2002).
Once the main categories and sub-headings had been decided upon,
preliminary findings were shown to the supervisor of the study for feedback and
recommendations. In the final stage of analysis, exemplar quotes were identified
in the transcripts and added to each of the main categories and organised into a
suitable sequence of themes.
3.6 Methodological Limitations Due to the descriptive nature of the study and the small sample size, it is difficult
to generalise the findings to other populations. The research was intended rather
to provide a rich description of the perspectives of a smaller number of
participants.
For deeper understanding to be formed, it is important that participants have
enough time to talk until they feel they have made their views clear. However,
due to the constraints of the class schedule, some interviews with teachers had
to be concluded while active discussion was still in progress. In the focus groups
with pupils, on the other hand, younger participants’ attention appeared to
wander after a certain amount of time and quite short responses were given to
the final questions asked.
Although a definition of IBL was provided, it may not be realistic to expect
participants, particularly pupils, to fully grasp the concept of IBL from just a brief
introduction. It was noted that ambiguity arising from any uncertainty about the
meaning of the key issue under discussion may have affected the quality of the
data.
When the opportunity arose to interview an EAL teacher in one of the schools, it
was believed that this data would provide an interesting angle of the discussion
of findings. However, due to the time constraints for this project, it was not
36
possible to draw comparisons between the implication of IBL for foreign
language learning pupils and EAL pupils.
37
4
Findings 4.1 Introduction
This chapter will present the findings of the study based on interviews with
teachers and library staff, and focus group discussions with pupils. The findings
will firstly concern the implications of IBL for foreign language learning by
focusing on language skills development, motivation for language learning, and
the quality of work produced by pupils. Findings relating to the implications of
IBL for learning support will then be investigated by considering two key features
of learning support services: the school library services and assistive learning
technologies.
4.2 Language Skills development
Contribution to the language skills
Teachers and pupils expressed varied opinions regarding the impact of IBL on
the various language skills. While noting that it would probably contribute either
directly or indirectly to all skills, they did emphasise that it would also depend on
the particular activity on which they were working.
“I definitely think it depends on the [language] skill” (SB T1)
“… something like inquiry-based learning empowers them to learn and
use their language skills and it does make a big difference” (SB T1)
38
Speaking was most frequently mentioned as the most difficult skill for which an
inquiry-based approach could be employed.
“Speaking would be the most difficult one I think, ‘cause I think you have
to monitor very carefully what they’re trying to say because they can get
too complicated and then they make too many errors.” (SC T1)
“[In language learning] you actually need to hear the teacher speaking
directly a lot more in language, in MFL than you do in other subjects.” (SA
T2)
The majority of teachers and all of the pupils asserted that interaction with peers,
as implied in IBL, is an important part of developing proficiency in foreign
language skills.
“I think if you can teach somebody else how to do something and show
somebody else how to do something, then that’s part of their learning.”
(SA T2)
“I think if you go to your lesson and just copy something off the board,
you might not take in as much as if you doing it in say like groups or
something.” (SC FG2)
Contribution to the acquisition of vocabulary and understanding of
grammar
With IBL, pupils noted that they remember more vocabulary, as the topics they
cover are ones in which they are particularly interested; this subsequently
appears to help them to remember more for their exams.
“It’s important for learning languages that it’s about something you like,
like sports, and then we’d probably find it more interesting and remember
the words more.” (SB FG2)
39
“… it’s so easy to just listen to a piece of French and just not take any of
it in ‘cause you’re not, you don’t understand it but also because you’re not
interested in what’s happening so you’re not trying to understand it.” (SC
FG1)
Co-construction of meaning in language learning was noted by one pupil as
being effective for understanding grammatical structures.
“Role playing is good, that’s fun. We get into groups and we make the
script ourselves and then perform it to the rest of the class, sometimes it’s
filmed and we watch it again on TV. We often learn a lot more vocabulary
when we do that, having conversations and stuff.” (SC FG2)
Overall, it was noted by teachers that it is less time consuming to tell pupils what
is important to learn rather than pupils discovering this themselves, however, the
vast majority of teachers believed that self-directed learning was more effective
for deeper understanding and progression in language skills development.
Nevertheless, the impact of IBL on language development can depend on a
number of factors:
Ability of students
It was generally felt by teachers and pupils that IBL would be less effective for
beginner level students.
“The difficulty at the start is that students have very limited access to
language so it’s very difficult to try to get them to guess to elicit something
when they’ve got very limited language” (SB T1)
“ … it requires so much knowledge of the structure of the language, children
take a long, long time to acquire the language” (SB T3)
40
Size of the class
Both teachers and pupils believed that class size is also an important factor for
IBL to be effective in language learning:
“ … it’s much easier [as a small group]” (SC FG1)
As many teachers recognised group work as a key feature of IBL for foreign
language learning, they highlighted that a bigger class would hinder the
implementation of an inquiry-based environment since it would be very difficult
for teachers to monitor and support a large number of small groups within a
single class.
“ … when you’ve got such a big group, it’s sometimes hard if you want
them to work in smaller groups” (SC T3)
Another teacher noted that organisation was important with larger classes for
group work:
“I mean you have to think very carefully about how you organise your
groups and who you put into each group” (SA T2)
The opportunity to share ideas openly within the class was also noted by pupils
to be dependent on class size.
“Because we’re a small group, we’re all like a lot closer and everything so
it’s not like embarrassing to talk in front of the class or anything.” (SC
FG1)
Pupils’ behaviour
There was mixed opinion regarding the issue of pupils’ behaviour in relation to
IBL. While a number of teachers noted that by the very nature of inquiry-based
activities, pupils would be less distracted from learning as they become more
interested in completing the task.
41
“I think inquiry-based learning brings a relevance to the work they’re
doing so I think that interests them and they concentrate more” (SD T3)
One focus group also noted:
“I think you probably put more time and effort into it [if it’s a topic that is
interesting]” (SC FG1)
Nevertheless, the majority of teachers felt that good classroom behaviour would
need to be a prerequisite for the implementation of IBL.
“I think a big factor as well is behaviour, because you’ve got to be able to
have confidence that the class will actually be sensible when they do
these sort of activities.” (SC T1)
Interestingly, several teachers expressed concern that IBL may actually
aggravate inappropriate classroom behaviour.
“I mean the group work can cause behavioural problems” (SA T2)
“It … sometimes causes crazy behaviour and you just, you just can’t do it,
you just have to stop and go back to leading it yourself because they’re
not, they’re not working.” (SC T3)
4.3 Motivation for language learning
Relevance of the subject
All participants in this study acknowledged that a subject which was made
interesting for pupils and relevant to their everyday lives was a key to motivation
for learning. Teachers, in particular asserted that IBL could be a strong
motivating factor in this respect.
42
“Rather than actually giving them random vocab, to try and actually give
them vocab that’s relevant.” (SC T3)
“You’ve got to try and get them personally involved” (SA T1)
“I think inquiry-based learning brings a relevance to the work they’re
doing so I think that interests them” (SD T3)
Pupils also noted that they would make a greater effort to understand the
language when they work on a topic for which they have particular interest.
“It [IBL] just helps to be like more motivated ‘cause if you’re enjoying what
you’re doing, you then put in more time.” (SC FG1)
“Yeah it depends on what you’re interested in because some of the stuff
we learn we’re just not interested that’s why people struggle to learn it
and as soon as we come to an interesting topic people start to
concentrate more” (SB FG2)
A number of participants made comparisons between IBL and more teacher-led
approaches in relation to the level of interest which the activities incited.
“It’s better than just been given random things to listen that don’t really
make, you don’t sort of feel the need to listen to them.” (SC FG1)
“We like fun activities, cause we always do revision, memorising words
and it gets so boring and it makes us not interested in the subject.” (SD
FG2)
“Yeah cause when something is boring, I don’t think anyone is like paying
attention to it then.” (SD FG1)
A number of participants believed that much of the material for pupils’ language
learning contains topics that would be more suitable for younger pupils than
themselves.
43
“… some of the topics in languages where we’re asking a sixteen year
old about what his bedroom looks like and what his hobbies are, it’s,
sometimes the language seems basic” (SC T3)
“It’s actually quite difficult to, to have something at the right level, … when
you’re buying an actual real Spanish book, children’s book, it’s either too
complicated or too babyish.” (SC T1)
The opportunity in IBL for pupils to reflect on the application of their learning to
real life situations was also noted as a key motivating aspect in language
learning.
“ … something they find is actually relevant and they’re not learning, you
know, for the sake of learning that rule or something but that they’re
going to use it hopefully in a real life situation.” (SD T3)
“I think magazines are good because it’s the language that normal
French people speak instead of more formal language, because we learn
a lot of stuff in lessons that we might not say anymore.” (SC FG2)
Social activities for language learning
While many teachers did refer to problems with pupils’ behaviour during
collaborative activities, all pupils in the study asserted that they particularly
enjoyed group work, and, that it motivated them to progress in their language
learning.
“You’re more confident discussing with others.” (SB FG2)
“I think if you go to your lesson and just copy something off the board,
you intend to work as much as if you doing it in say like groups or
something.” (SC FG2)
44
The opportunity for pupils to share ideas and learn from one another was noted
by both teachers and pupils.
“ … they learn best from each other really at times” (SD T1)
“ … you can learn from the mistakes that other people make.” (SD FG1)
Technology as a motivating factor
As the support of technology for learning is inherent in the IBL process, pupils
were asked about their experiences of using technology, especially computers,
for their language learning. Indeed, it transpired that use of learning technologies
was an issue which pupils spoke about at most length and with greatest
enthusiasm.
“I mean that is one of the things that really does engage them because
they’re used to computers and video games and everything. They want to
work on the computer all the time. Amm, and in fact it makes other styles
of teaching a little bit, seem a little bit old-fashioned if you don’t use it and
you don’t use the interactive whiteboard and you don’t use the computer,
the kids will complain that they can’t use it, and it is an incentive for them”
(SA T2)
“ … ‘cause it’s interactive fun, it’s a bit more interesting, a bit more
colourful” (SD T1)
In line with the concept of the ‘internet generation’, pupils in the study expressed
particular familiarity with the computers and digital format. They referred to the
fact that since the use of computers accounted for most of their recreation time,
their motivation in class would increase when the activities are similar to their
leisure interests.
45
“I think because like teenagers today are always using the computers so
just sitting down in the classroom reading books, I think it’s like just a lot
harder to learn. Whereas if you’re on a computer like, you’re used to it
so.” (SD FG2)
The appeal of learning technologies was also related to the speed with which
information can be accessed, particularly on the internet.
“Well in the example of the courseworks, it [the internet] is very positive,
they can get a very wide range of information very quickly” (SC T2)
However, the impact of IBL on motivation for language learning can depend on:
Organisation
When asked for their additional comments, a number of teachers referred to the
extra time and effort involved in preparing IBL activities.
“Initially, I think it takes more time, more teacher preparation time” (SC
T1)
“ … they’re quite difficult to organise [additional, up-to-date learning
resources] and you’ve got to collect them and kids have to pay for them
and then they lose them” (SA T2)
However, teachers believed that organisation was the key to overcoming
barriers involved in the implementation of IBL.
“I think you need to be organised” (SB T2)
“You have to consider how you organise the class and the right time of day
to do that sort of work as well, amm and which groups you can do it with and
some groups” (SA T2)
46
Close monitoring by the teacher
The majority of teacher participants believed that learning during inquiry-based
activities needs to be closely monitored, as the tendency for pupils is to go off
task when initially allowed to work independently.
“I did find that some of them, when they were in groups, just took the
opportunity to sit there and very passive or weren’t involved” (SC T2)
“I think if it’s not monitored closely, children could then fall behind, there’s
a balance isn’t there, because they could then get away with slacking off
a bit and not doing too much, as long as it’s monitored properly, I think it
could help with grades definitely.” (SD T1)
A number of teachers pointed out that inquiry-based activities on the computer
required even closer monitoring as pupils’ attention is directed to the exploration
of the technology rather than the actual language. As one teacher observed:
“I think sometimes you’ve got to be careful not to move away from teaching the
language skills themselves, it can engage them, you know, the use of
technology, but also I think it can move them away from it if you’re not careful
they get too involved in the technology and not enough in the learning of the
language.” (SA T2)
4.4 Quality of work
Depth of understanding
Several teacher and librarian participants were keen to point out that IBL allows
pupils to gain deeper understanding of the language as each individual learner
receives the support they require to progress.
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“It stretches the most able, at the other end, children can work at their
level.” (SC T1)
“ … they all achieve their own level doing this, they don’t feel they’ve got
to catch up with anybody else, it’s very much personal, it’s personalised
learning at its best.” (SD L)
Teachers in one school felt that ambitious students require more freedom to
venture beyond the structured curriculum. They noted that it is a useful approach
for maintaining high-achieving pupils’ interest and allowing them work to their full
potential.
“Sometimes in lessons where you’re just teaching a particular thing,
you’re not necessarily stretching the top end” (SC T1)
One pupil in another school commented that the independent work required for
IBL activities can help in achieving higher grades.
“If you’re learning something, but you can do something extra towards it then
you’ll get higher marks cause you’ll know that little bit extra then everyone
else will.” (SD FG1)
Recall of knowledge
Several participants indicated that inquiry-based activities facilitate enhanced
memory recall of the language as the topics they covered are ones in which they
are personally relevant to them.
“If it’s just about ‘Oh, I’m shopping’ and they can’t imagine it, well they won’t
have much detail, but if it’s about imaging themselves in that shop shopping
for that thing, then they add the details, and then it’s better work.” (SD T3)
One pupil suggested that the opportunity for them in IBL to take responsibility for
the own learning can later improve recall of the language learned. Put quite
simply, in this pupil’s words:
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“ … when you do it yourself, you get it in your head better.” (SD FG1)
However, its impact on quality of work produced and exam grades can depend
on:
Stage at which IBL is implemented
The majority of teacher and librarian participants believed that the effectiveness
of IBL would depend to a large extent on the stage in schooling at which it was
first implemented. Most felt that the earlier pupils began learning through inquiry,
the greater the impact this approach would have on their learning.
“I think if it was done from an early age like maybe from primary school
and it was kind of inbuilt into they way that they like learning or are used
to learning, then I think it would work well and they would learn more and
they would make the extra effort.” (SD T1)
“ … the younger they are, if you could get them into this style of learning
then it would be better because they get into the habit. I think by the time
they get to year 9 or 10, they’re becoming a bit more cynical” (SB T3)
One teacher provided an insightful justification for the introduction of IBL at an
earlier stage in the learning process:
“[In] Y7 they’re quite curious and usually they don’t have as much
inhibition and they often they’re all at the same level as well so, you
know, they’re just exploring, they’re at an age I think when they’re just
exploring without you know as many inhibitions so it’s easier for them”
(SD T3)
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Interestingly, while several pupils also observed that IBL would be more useful
for their learning if it were introduced earlier, all pupils expressed a positive
attitude to its implementation at any stage. Indeed, the opportunity to become
more independent learners was also welcomed by many older pupils in the
study:
“I think it [IBL] would be much more interesting and it would make you feel
more mature and independent because you’re doing it by yourself rather
than being just feed everything.” (SC FG1)
“I suppose if you are working on your own then you’ll find a good way that
you’d work then you’d just do better” (SC FG2)
Method of assessment
Pressure to get desired results was noted as the main limiting factor to the
implementation of IBL. A number of teachers noted that more transmissive
teaching approaches were more useful in preparing pupils for exams.
“ … the exams that we do not seem to reward that kind of research at the
moment” (SB T6)
“ … the pressure of exams and the course of getting them through and
you just, you haven’t got time for them to go away and research the topic,
you’ve got to give them the information and then” (SC T3)
Several teachers and librarians referred to the concept of ‘spoon feeding’
information to pupils:
“ … a lot of it is spoon fed to them, you know, to tick the boxes, to get them
through the exam” (SC T3)
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“ … we’ve created a culture in school that’s seen increasingly whereby the
exam results are everything and basically most teaching these days is done
completely spoon feeding them, especially at GCSE and increasingly so at A
Level.” (SC L)
Despite expressing a preference for IBL over a teacher-directed approach, all
pupils in every focus group acknowledged that they feel better prepared for
exams by having worked on teacher-led activities.
“I think you’d do better with the teacher telling you what do learn ‘cause
the teacher would know what would be on the exam” (SB FG1)
A number of pupils expressed concern that they may ‘miss out’ on certain
knowledge required for the exam if the class was completely based on an
inquiry-based approach.
“I think you need guidance for good exam results.” (SB FG1)
“I think it’s better with the teacher telling you because they know what
they’re talking about and what we should be doing and there wouldn’t be
any danger that you’d miss out on learning something important rather
than if you did it on your own.” (SB FG1)
“If you’re doing exams then the teacher has to tell you what to learn.”
- “[With IBL activities] we might revise the wrong thing.” (SB FG2)
However, one pupil observed that if exams did not hold such importance for
their school education, IBL would be a preferable approach.
“ … we have to do specific things for the exams, so maybe if we didn’t
have to do exams, if we were just doing it for a hobby or something it
would be a lot easier to do inquiry-based learning.” (SC FG1)
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4.5 School libraries
Library resources
When asked about their views on the school library resources, pupils stressed a
need for material that is of interest to them. Indeed, one librarian participant
emphasised that the provision of authentic foreign language material in the
library was especially important to language learners.
“ … whenever we go abroad on trips with the school, I always get
members of staff to bring back, you know, newspapers and fun
magazines and things so it’s not just curriculum based material. So you’ll
have French Vogue and that sort of stuff.” (SC L)
A pupil reflected this opinion:
“I think magazines are good because it’s the language that normal
French people speak instead of more formal language, because we learn
a lot of stuff in lessons that we might not say anymore.” (SC FG2)
As the relevancy of learning material is significant for IBL, it is notable that a
large proportion of pupils in the study felt that the stock of language resources in
their school library was uninteresting to them.
“[We would prefer] a broader variety of foreign language books, they’re
not really interesting (SB FG1)
“ … if they were kind of more mature, they’re kind of aimed at younger
people” (SB FG1)
Several teachers noted that the content of many library resources are not at an
appropriate linguistic level for pupils to comprehend.
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“ … no point having novels in there or, you know, big dictionaries but
things that are accessible to young learners, you know, whether it’s
activities or things done in a quiz form or just things, you know, at a level
they can actually look at and see something in it rather than again giving
up because they don’t know any of the words, so things at a very basic
support level I think.” (SA T1)
“ … it’s really difficult, you know, to find bilingual books or books in
foreign language are pitched at the right level and are interesting,
interesting to the pupils and relevant and talk about what they want to talk
about.” (SD T3)
A number of younger pupils also expressed that their reluctance to borrow
foreign language books from the library was due to difficulty in understanding the
texts.
By way of explaining their reluctance to using foreign language books in the
library, one pupil responded:
“‘Cause you can’t read them [language resources]” (SB FG2)
Marketing of resources and services
The school librarians interviewed noted that the main challenge of supporting the
development of IBL approach in the school is to firstly attract the pupils into the
library.
“ … if we can get the students in and find, and get them to see the stuff
that we’ve got, it’s just getting them in to start with.” (SB L)
“ … there are very few students who are studying foreign languages that
actually come and borrow something from us.” (SA L)
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One teacher highlighted that the library could to be marketed more within the
school.
“It could have a bigger impact if it was promoted a bit more to students
and they were aware of what the library can offer.” (SB T2)
Indeed, most pupils appeared to be unaware of the range of services provided
by the school library and how these related to IBL.
“I don’t really go in there cause I don’t really have a reason to.” (SC FG2)
“I think the thing about the library though is I think you don’t always think
to go there, you just don’t think to do these things outside of class time.”
(SC FG1)
4.6 Learning technologies
Demand for further developments and use of most recent advancements in
technology
As already highlighted, pupils’ attitudes to technology was established as a
strong incentive for inquiry-based language learning.
“… whenever we have had the chance of using it [technology], kids find it
fascinating, they want to have a go. There is a motivator, kids want to
experiment with it” (SB T4)
However, it was generally noted by teachers that in order for schools to continue
meeting the needs and expectations of pupils in terms of learning technologies,
innovative ideas for the use and development of technology will have to be
enacted.
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The Spanish department in one school had in fact begun to trial the use of ipods
for language learning.
“ … we’ve given them all a grammar topic, which they’re researching and
then they’re going to record for some podcast so that they can all access
one another’s work and that’s working quite well with the idea that if they
can listen to music on their ipods, they can listen to Spanish grammar.
And they’ve taken to it well really.” (SC T1)
On a more practical level, pupils in several focus groups strongly believed that a
greater number of computers was required in the school library (SB FG1) (SB
FG2) (SD FG2). When asked about what additional library resources they felt
could benefit their learning through inquiry, pupils gave a resounding reply:
“More computers in the library.” (SC FG2)
The majority of pupils also acknowledged the value of language games for
learning:
“I really like the games and stuff that we can use.” (SB FG1)
However, pupils in one focus group did believe that the content of the games did
not interest them and was inappropriate for their age.
“The games [played on the computer in language classes] aren’t much
good, they don’t really help you. They ask you like ‘how do you say
apple?’ It’s just babyish.” (SD FG2)
Incorporation of technology into a coherent inquiry-based approach
Participants generally noted that when using the internet for an inquiry-based
language lesson, more specific guidance needs to be given to pupils. It was felt
that pupils’ initial exploration of the technology could detract from the language
task at hand.
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One librarian reflected:
“…the tendency is, I think, now, is that they just see it as an IT lesson” (SC
T1)
A teacher in another school also noted:
“It mustn’t be seen as a treat to come and use the computer, to use IT, it
must be seen as an integral part of a lesson” (SD L)
It was also highlighted that when using language games on the computer for
learning, pupils may perceive the activity as a break away from learning rather
than as an important part of the learning process. Indeed, two librarians
observed that pupils needed to recognise the computer as a tool for learning and
not simply a source for recreation.
“I’m not sure that sometimes they actually take in the learning that is in the
game, I think sometimes that they concentrate too much on the game as
opposed to the learning.” (SD L)
“I think it [IBL] could have a massive knock on effect if kids see computers
not so much as glorified game systems, so that they can actually see them
as a learning tool.” (SA L)
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5
Discussion
5.1 Introduction This chapter provides a discussion of the key findings from the current study. It
will make comparisons between the findings of the study and existing theory and
research. The structure of this discussion will follow an identical format to the
previous chapter and will use quotations from the interviews and focus group
discussions to guide the flow of the argument.
5.2 Language Skills development
Contribution to language skills development
Language educators have established four basic language skills: listening,
speaking, reading and writing. It may well be presumed that the application of
the IBL approach in foreign language learning would impact either directly and
indirectly on language skills development by way of the flexible nature of IBL
activities. However, many teacher participants in this study believed that the
value of IBL tasks varied depending on the particular language skill.
“it depends on the [language] skill” (SB T1)
“pronunciation is not so, I think that’s something they have to listen to the
model of the teacher” (SA T2)
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“Speaking would be the most difficult one I think, ‘cause I think you have to
monitor very carefully what they’re trying to say because they can get too
complicated and then they make too many errors” (SC T1)
However, it is notable that pupil participants were more aware of the holistic
nature of the IBL approach and most believed it would most likely be equally
beneficial to all language skills.
Proficiency in language skills has been noted as knowing “what to say to whom,
and how to say it appropriately in any given situation’’ (Saville-Troike, 1989: 21
cited in Abrams, 2001). Therefore, IBL may be viewed as enhancing language
skills development by providing the opportunity for pupils to negotiate
understanding with one another. Indeed, the results of this study have
contributed to this view as many pupils mentioned that they were more
“confident”, “intend[ing] to learn more”, “help[ing] one another” and “learn[ing]
from the others’ mistakes” by learning in an inquiry-based environment and,
therefore, facilitating the advancement of their language skills.
Contribution to the acquisition of vocabulary and understanding of
grammar
The majority of participants acknowledged that IBL would enhance and promote
understanding, particularly understanding of grammatical constructs and new
vocabulary. This was compared to the use of memorization tactics in more
traditional learning approaches. One teacher emphasized the importance of
pupils forming their “own explanations in kids’ speak” (SC T2) and as a pupil
poignantly noted:
“isn’t it better to at least understand what you’re learning?” (SD FG2)
A study by De Groot (2002) also found that students make a clear distinction
between learning and simple memorization (De Groot, 2002). The recognition
that inquiry leads to the acquisition of larger amount of vocabulary and deeper
understanding of grammar would, therefore, imply that all four language skills
are enhanced. This idea is in line with that proposed by Benson and Bruce
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(2001) who assert that IBL “moves beyond memorization, recording, and storing
information to the interpretation of phenomena”.
Although IBL offers valuable opportunities for the development of foreign
language skills, its implementation in school classroom can present a number of
challenges to teachers.
Ability
The findings of this study are consistent with the results of research conducted
by Edelson et al. (1999), in which it was found that content-area knowledge was
necessary for the successful implementation of IBL. Justice et al. (2007) have
also emphasised the need for “deep engagement” in the content in order to
maintain “the energy necessary to move through the inquiry process”. Therefore,
the lower a pupil’s ability in foreign language expression, the more difficult it may
be to engage in inquiry activities such as retrieving, analysing and interpreting
information. Almost all teachers and pupils in the study felt that inquiry would be
less useful for beginning and lower ability pupils and that more directed input is
required.
“… it’s difficult to set up because of the lack of broad knowledge that they
have” (SB T6)
“The difficulty at the start is that students have very limited access to
language so it’s very difficult to try to get them to guess to elicit something
when they’ve got very limited language” (SB T1)
“I think at the beginning cause you don’t know anything about the language
it’d be hard to decide where to start” (SC FG2)
As the majority of pupils experience formal instruction in foreign languages for
the first time on entering secondary school, their ability in foreign languages may
be aligned with the class year they are in. Therefore, based on these findings, it
may be suggested that IBL is more effective for advanced language learners.
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However, it should also be noted that the challenge of implementing IBL in lower
ability and beginner level classes may be addressed by strategic use of the
pupils’ first language (Luke, 2006). Furthermore, Prince and Felder (2006) have
suggested the use of a more structured form of inquiry in the first years of
foreign language learning and then steadily moving towards more pupil-centred
learning.
Size of the class
On the basis of these findings, it appears that class size influences the
effectiveness of IBL for pupils’ foreign language learning. While it is recognised
that inquiry is valuable for small groups of pupils to whom the teacher could
provide support, it is considered particularly difficult to monitor groups within a
larger class. In their work, Kahn and O’Rourke (2005) acknowledged the
limitations of a ‘mass system’ for effective social interaction, and proposed that
an inquiry-based environment would facilitate important interaction for learning
within a larger class. However, this study shows that inquiry-based activities
alone will not overcome the problems arising from a large class size, but that the
establishment of an interactive environment may in fact hinder the learning
process when pupils have not yet developed the skills to work independently.
Pupils’ behaviour
A key issue with regard to an inquiry-based environment and class size is pupils’
behaviour in the class. While teachers and pupils may have different
interpretations of inappropriate classroom behaviour, for the purpose of this
research, it is understood as conduct which distracts from learning. The main
stimulants of uncooperative behaviour cited by participants in the study included
tasks which allowed pupils to have more independence, particularly group work
activities. Research by Ikpeze and Boyd (2007) on the implications of web-
based inquiry learning identified distraction as a notable deterrent for effective
inquiry. Nevertheless, Paris and Paris (2001) advocate pupils’ learning of
particular skills and tactics to regulate their behaviour. Ikpeze and Boyd (2007)
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further propose that pupils are given time to reflect on their learning experience
with inquiry-based activities in order to encourage them to be “not only
responsible for their own learning, but also accountable for the learning
process”.
5.3 Motivation for language learning
Relevance of the subject
A key theme that emerged from the literature review and study findings related
to the impact of IBL on pupils’ motivation for language learning. It is long
acknowledged within educational psychology that people are highly motivated to
learn what they feel is relevant to their lives. As has already been identified, IBL
involves activities which are meaningful to the learner, thereby increasing a
learner’s engagement in their work. Indeed, the influential psychologist Carl
Rogers (1969) asserted that, people will only learn what is meaningful to them
(cited in Smyth, 2005). The findings in this study are consistent with the support
for learning activities which are viewed by pupils as valuable and worthwhile.
“… it depends on what you’re interested in because some of the stuff we
learn we’re just not interested that’s why people struggle to learn it” (SB
FG2)
Both Schwarzer (2001) and Luke (2006) have identified that pupils’ freedom to
tailor the topic of inquiry to one that has personal meaning for them increases
their inherent interest in language learning.
“language became a means toward an end and not solely an end in and
of itself” (Schwarzer, 2001)
This ability to channel learning to pupils’ own areas of interest was reflected by
all participants in this study. The following quotes are representative of all pupils’
views in the study:
“as soon as we come to an interesting topic people start to concentrate
more” (SB FG2)
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“[being] able to learn more of what you want, then you’d be more
focused” (SB FG1)
The frequency with which the word ‘boring’ was used by pupils in the study in
reference to set school texts through teacher-directed learning is also revealing.
This has also been noted by Beauvois’ study (1998) which highlighted that
‘superficial’ language exercises did not fuel follow-up discussion. On the basis of
these findings, it appears that the opportunity in IBL to work on authentic
activities (Edelson et al., 1999) (Dörnyei and Csizér,1998) (Spratt et al., 2002)
and study topics which are of personal relevance to learners (Dawson and
Fichtman, 2007) is key to increasing pupils’ motivation for language learning.
It is interesting to note that set school textbooks were a particular point of
contention for pupil and teacher participants in relation to the implementation of
an inquiry-based environment. The contents of textbooks were frequently
referred to as “babyish”, “boring”, “pointless” and “too basic”.
“… some of the topics in languages where we’re asking a sixteen year
old about what his bedroom looks like and what his hobbies are” (SC T3)
“Cause if you went to Spain, it’s not like you’re going to tell them like what
you eat and your daily routine, there’s not really any point” (SD FG2)
The findings of this study clearly illustrate the need for publishers of language
learning material to take into greater account the application and
appropriateness of textbooks in an inquiry-based learning environment. As
Goodman (1991) stated, “Experiences in school must have all the characteristics
of authentic experiences outside the school” (cited in Schwarzer and Luke,
2001).
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Social activities for language learning
“All higher functions originate as actual relations between human individuals”
(Vygotsky, 1978: 57).
Collaborative learning and peer support are key features in the inquiry learning
process. Previous research into foreign language learning has noted that
learning experiences are most effective when they are socially constructed
(Schwarzer and Luke, 2001; Watanabe and Swain, 2007). The findings of the
current study reflect those conducted previously.
“they learn best from each other really at times” (SD T1)
“you can learn from the mistakes that other people make.” (SD FG1)
Pupils, more so than teacher participants, referred to the high level of motivation
gained from collaborative activities in their language learning. While research
carried out by De Groot (2002) revealed that support from peers contributed to
students’ academic achievement, this study noted that peer support was simply
a motivational factor for learning. However, the study by De Groot was
conducted in a school which, at the time, had just undergone school reform
initiatives, whereby as ‘team’ concept was implemented in classes. Therefore, it
may be suggested that pupils in this 2002 study had already been made aware
that team work could contribute to academic attainment.
Previous research and the findings of the current study also present strong
evidence for the role of social activities in increasing pupils’ confidence in the
language learning ability and reducing anxiety.
As one pupil in the study observed:
“You’re more confident discussing with others.” (SB FG2)
This observation is echoed in Ewald’s research (2007) where she notes that
small-group work is used by language teachers to develop higher comfort levels
among learners. Clearly, the social element characteristic of inquiry-based
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activities gives language pupils greater motivation and confidence in their
learning.
Technology as a motivating factor
A key finding that has emerged from both this study and other research on the
impact of various learning approaches on language learning is the impact of
learning technology on pupils’ motivation for learning. Indeed the activity-centred
approach that learning technology provides for learning increasingly appears to
be a pivotal component in inquiry-based activities. As already noted in this study,
social activity in learning is a strong motivating force for pupils, however this
motivation may be extended to technology-based activities which provide a
unique opportunity for social interaction and a positive environment for
collaborative learning (Donnelly, 2005; Abrams, 2003; Blake, 2000).
A number of explanations, nevertheless, are provided for the motivating factor of
technology use for pupils’ learning. One of the key justifications provided by
participants in this study, and also in previous research, is that the current
generation of school pupils are “digital natives” (Presky, 2001 cited in Thorne
and Payne, 2005) as they have grown up with digital technologies and internet
mediated communication. Many participants observed that current pupils are
used to technology and, therefore, are more comfortable learning through that
medium.
“game format so it’s a format that they’re familiar with and so there’re
very powerful in helping their language learning.” (SC T2)
“I think because like teenagers today are always using the computers so
just sitting down in the classroom reading books, I think it’s like just a lot
harder to learn. Whereas if you’re on a computer like, you’re used to it
so.” (SD FG2)
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An interesting observation is the link made between pupils’ natural affinity for
learning technology and difficulties with concentration in a traditional language
class. The majority of pupils believed that a key attraction of the internet-based
investigation over book-based research is the speed with which information is
retrieved. Indeed, in many of their explanations, pupils conveyed irritation with
slow pace at which many traditional, teacher-directed learning activities
proceeded. This finding is supported by Allen (2007), who distinguishes between
‘fast time’ and ‘slow time’, and asserts that internet technologies have given rise
to temporal challenges in learning environments. On the basis of these findings,
it appears that the inquiry-based approach can address the gap between pupils’
preferences for learning technology and traditional educational practices.
Nevertheless, it should also be recognised that the impact of IBL on motivation
for language learning can depend on:
Organisation
While traditional textbook-based activities are readily available to teachers to
use, authentic and relevant material which is up-to-date may be considered
more time-consuming for teachers to prepare. Furthermore, where a class
teacher is the only facilitator in a classroom, collaborative learning activities can
be difficult to implement successfully, especially if the class group is large, as
already highlighted. The introduction of new learning technologies can be an
even greater challenge for a secondary school teacher, despite assurances of its
potential to increase pupils’ motivation for learning. Such concerns were raised
by a number of teachers in this study.
“Initially, I think it takes more time, more teacher preparation time” (SC
T1)
“I mean you have to think very carefully about how you organise your
groups and who you put into each group and the right time of day to do
that sort of work as well, and which groups you can do it” (SA T2)
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While much of the literature considers the practical difficulties for teachers
regarding students’ use of computers for IBL (Ikpeze and Boyd, 2007; Arnseth
and Säljö, 2007; Lim, 2004; Edelson et al., 1999), few studies were found to
have examined the problems teachers encounter in developing IBL activities for
use within a traditional classroom with limited access to learning technologies.
However, based on the findings of the current study, it appears that additional
organization on the part of the teacher is a necessity for establishing an effective
IBL environment. Indeed, Kahn and O’Rourke (2005) note that time, availability
of resources, and the nature of social activities are all important considerations
in planning inquiry activities.
Close monitoring by teacher
Another key finding, which emerged from both the literature review and this
study, was that in order for IBL activities to increase pupils’ motivation for the
longer term, they need to be monitored by the teacher. While this point may
appear self-evident, it is worth discussing as it was noted in the study that when
teachers incorporate a new approach into their class, the focus can easily shift
from learning language to simply using the new approach. This was clearly
elucidated by one teacher who referred to the use of learning technologies in
IBL.
“I think sometimes you’ve got to be careful not to move away from
teaching the language skills themselves, it can engage them, you know,
the use of technology, but also I think it can move them away from it if
you’re not careful they get too involved in the technology and not enough
in the learning of the language.” (SA T2)
This observation reflects a study by Ikpeze and Boyd (2007) who also
considered the impact of technology, specifically, internet use, on pupils’
distractibility. However, it may also be speculated that as pupils get more
accustomed to IBL activities, including those which are internet-based, the
novelty factor will eventually diminish and they will be perceived more as
learning tools rather than sources of entertainment. Nevertheless, the initial
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stages of implementing IBL activities appear to require closer monitoring by the
teacher in order that pupils’ focus remains on achieving the desired learning
outcome.
5.4 Quality of work
Depth of understanding
Ausubel et al.(1968) stated that: “the most important single factor influencing
learning is what the learner already knows” (cited in Berg et al., 2003). As IBL
allows pupils to learn at their own pace and direct their own inquiry, each learner
is given the opportunity to reflect on their learning, on what they know already,
and on what they need to learn in order to progress.
“I’m sure that would improve students’ attainment because each one of
them is working at their level” (SC T2)
By working at their own level, while being supported by peers and their teacher,
it may be reasoned that pupils gain greater depth of understanding. In language
learning, the need for deeper understanding may include, for example,
vocabulary in a text, grammatical constructs, linguistic form, or syntactic
structures. While the focus of more conventional learning approaches is on
‘covering’ the contents of a predetermined syllabus, IBL focuses on developing
deeper learning, whereby meaning is found in the learning content.
In their study on IBL among science students, White and Frederiksen (1998)
found that the opportunity to reflect on their learning was particularly beneficial
for the lower achieving students in developing understanding of learning
concepts. However, it is interesting to note that participants in the current study
appeared to be more aware of such benefits to higher ability learners.
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“If you’re learning something, but you can do something extra towards it
then you’ll get higher marks cause you’ll know that little bit extra then
everyone else will.” (SD FG1)
“these top end kids need to be stretched and this is a really good way to
stretch them” (SC T3)
These findings suggest that by allowing foreign language pupils to work at their
own pace in supportive learning environments, they can achieve deeper
understanding of language content, structure and form, thereby enhancing the
quality of their work.
Recall of knowledge
Memorization tactics are more generally perceived to lie in realm of more
traditional language learning approaches where pupils memorize before
understanding. However, in foreign language learning, when vocabulary is not
‘acquired’ and assimilated from the surrounding environment, pupils must
incorporate a certain degree of memorization when encountering new words.
The literature has shown that IBL can improve pupils’ accurate recall of
knowledge, thereby improving the quality of their language production. The
findings of this study are consistent with previous findings; both teacher and
pupil participants believed that knowledge gained through inquiry activities would
be remembered longer-term than through transmissive approaches. Berg et al.
(2003) also found that students were better able to recall details of a learning
activity when it was inquiry-based approach than an alternative. The reason for
more accurate recall was believed to stem from the fact that knowledge pupils
attained through inquiry was learned in a context which was interesting and
relevant to them.
“If it’s just about ‘Oh, I’m shopping’ and they can’t imagine it, well they
won’t have much detail, but if it’s about imaging themselves in that shop
shopping for that thing, then they add the details, and then it’s better
work.” (SD T3)
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Another reason for improved recall with IBL, which was not found in the literature
review but was identified by participants in this study, concerned pupils’
responsibility for their learning.
“Yeah when you do it yourself, you get it in your head better.” (SD FG1)
The pupils in this focus group were referring to the opportunity to direct their own
learning and afterwards feeling proud of having accomplished a task that they
individually decided to undertake. Within an IBL context, it was noted that both
the extra effort involved in independent work and the personal gratification which
followed would ensure that pupils would remember what they had learned.
However, its impact on quality of work produced and exam grades can depend
on a number of factors.
Stage at which IBL is implemented
The literature review and findings of this study have shown that the age at which
pupils begin learning through an inquiry-based approach is important for the
effectiveness of the approach for producing quality work in language learning.
On the basis of these findings, it seems that the younger pupils are introduced to
IBL, the more effective it is for their learning in subsequent years; however,
when pupils only begin learning through inquiry at Key Stage 4 and above, it is
more difficult to integrate IBL into their learning approach and, therefore, less
likely to be effective for learning.
“I think if it was done from an early age like maybe from primary school
and it was kind of inbuilt into they way that they like learning or are used
to learning, then I think it would work well and they would learn more and
they would make the extra effort.” (SD T1)
It appears that the earlier children get accustomed to a particular learning
approach, the more favorably they will respond to its use throughout their
schooling. The findings of studies in the literature review indicate that pupils are
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more comfortable with a more transmissive approach as this is a method of
learning to which they are accustomed (Po-ying, 2007; Luke, 2006). However,
findings from the current study note that pupils in higher year groups cited
assessment requirements as the main reason for continuing to learn through a
more traditional method. While these pupils expressed enthusiasm for IBL
activities, they felt that more behaviourist learning approaches were more
effective for achieving higher exam grades.
One teacher observed that IBL needed to be introduced as early as possible as
older pupils start “becoming a bit more cynical” (SB T3) about its efficacy as a
learning approach - a view shared by a number of teachers. However, as noted
in the data from the pupil focus groups, it appears that language pupils are more
concerned about its effectiveness for learning what is expected of them in their
exam rather than its effectiveness as a learning approach. Indeed, all pupils
acknowledged that IBL would be more effective for improving their overall
language ability than traditional learning methods. It appears that within the time
constraints of the curriculum, behaviourist learning strategies are more useful for
attaining the required knowledge for assessment.
The literature also suggested that pupils may experience difficulty adjusting to
IBL due to the collaborative nature of the approach (Spronken-Smith et al.,
2007; Smyth, 2005; Plowright and Watkins, 2004), however, based on the
results of this study, pupils actually enjoy the challenge and stimulation of a new
learning approach and appear to embrace change rather than resent it. Dawson
and Fichtman (2007) suggest that such “cognitive conflict with new ideas” is a
factor related to the age of the learner; however, the fact that these cited studies
above were all conducted with university age students may account for the
discrepancy in findings.
Method of assessment
As noted in the previous section, it appears that traditional, textbook-based
learning is more effective for attaining higher grades in language learning
assessment than a learner-centred approach. However, if ‘quality of work’ is
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perceived in terms of knowledge or content (MacDonald, 2005), then
transmissive approaches may be considered more effective than an inquiry-
based curriculum. Indeed, it is widely recognized that the current curriculum for
GCSE, and to a lesser extent the A Level curriculum, do not reward inquiry-
based skills attained in order to produce the end product. As participants in this
study and in other studies in the literature strongly agree that quality learning
experiences are more characteristic of learner-centred approaches, it is peculiar
that the creation of ‘quality work’ is considered to be the product of teacher-led
learning.
While the expression ‘spoon fed generation’ was found in very few of the
previous studies reviewed, it is notable that the majority of teacher participants in
this study referred in some form to the concept of ‘spoon feeding’ pupils in
preparation for exams. Indeed all the participants who referred to this concept
observed that it was not effective for enhancing pupils’ understanding but that it
was the most convincing strategy for achieving good exam grades. Pardales and
Girod (2006) observed how performance on standardized tests was linked to
school funding and the implications this had for the teaching approach promoted
within the school. Similarly, one teacher participant in the study noted how
teachers pay is partly determined by pupil performance in exams and its impact
on the teaching approach adopted.
While learning support is broadly defined, the next part of the discussion will
focus on two key features of support services for language learning: school
library services and assistive learning technologies.
5.5 School libraries
“When there are rich extended sites for learning, young people grasp that the
purpose of school is not to provide an education but to stimulate a thirst for
learning, and to give it life beyond the school gate” (MacBeath in DfES, 2006:
5).
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As already highlighted in the literature review, the school library has a key role to
play in the establishment of an IBL environment for language pupils. The
objectives of IBL are reflected in Start with the child (CILIP, 2002) which notes
the endeavour of the library service: “fostering the enjoyment of learning and
broadening and supporting the learning experience in a more holistic sense”.
Library resources
“Since the resources are critical to inquiry learning, providing quality
resources is important to successful inquiry” (Lim, 2004).
A key theme that emerged from both the research data and the literature
reviewed concerned the quantity and quality of the curriculum related collection
in school libraries. Williams et al. (2001) observed that the availability of
resources in each subject area stimulates greater interest for learning, while the
School Library Association (2007) has recommended provisions of a range of
stock to reflect the whole school curriculum. As already discussed, the IBL
approach clearly advocates that learning resources should be relevant and
appropriate in order to be effective in enhancing pupils’ learning experiences.
The findings of this study are consistent with the abundance of literature
addressing the need for improved quantity and quality of school library
collections (Williams et al., 2002; Elkin and Kinnell, 2000; Zweizig and Hopkins,
1999; Elkin and Lonsdale, 1996); all pupil and teacher participants in the study
felt that their library did not provide sufficient resources to meet the needs of
language learners.
Another issue addressed by participants in this study in relation to library stock,
and one which was not found in the literature reviewed, is the provision of
foreign language resources at a level appropriate for pupils. A number of
teachers and pupils observed that stock for foreign language learners was too
complex and, thereby, discouraged them from exploring further. Based on this
finding, it is evident that school librarians need to become more attuned to the
ability of language pupils and acquire resources accordingly. The
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appropriateness of material is a key factor for effective IBL, as Lim (2004) notes:
“If the task is too complex, the learner may be easily overwhelmed”.
Marketing of resources and services
The need for librarians to develop new skills in the area of marketing has been
widely recognised in the profession in recent years. Despite a large and
attractive stock, it will fail to attract the attention it deserves unless
complemented by active promotion (Blanshard, 1998).
“It is not enough to develop a relevant collection, the librarian must then
promote what the library has to offer.” (Anne-Marie Tarter, Winner of the
School Librarian of the Year Award, 2006 in Tilke, 2002: 194).
Where school authorities endeavour to establish IBL as a whole school learning
approach, it appears that the key role of the library for its successful
implementation should also be promoted.
“I think the thing about the library though is I think you don’t always think
to go there” (SC FG1)
While the library staff interviewed in this study were highly aware of the library’s
contribution to IBL, the majority of teachers and pupils didn’t appear to have
observed the significance of library resources for effective learned-centred
teaching approaches. For example, while the literature provides evidence for the
active role of the library in developing pupils’ autonomous learning skills
(Gardner et al., 2007; Ofsted, 2006), it is interesting that not any of the teacher
or pupil participants in this study noted the relationship between the library and
independent learning. It appears that it is not only the library that needs to be
marketed within the school, but also the relationship between IBL and library
services for enhanced learning opportunities.
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5.6 Learning technologies
Demand for further developments and use of most recent advancements in
technology
As already noted, the use of technology for foreign language learning was
considered one of the key motivating factors for pupils in this study.
Furthermore, all pupils expressed a strong desire for a greater proportion of their
class lessons to involve the use of technology.
“whenever we have had the chance of using it [technology], kids find it
fascinating, they want to have a go. There is a motivator, kids want to
experiment with it” (SB T4)
Indeed, the majority of research on the use of learning technologies in
secondary school education notes pupils’ unrelenting demand for increased use
of their preferred technologies (Allen, 2007; Ikpeze and Boyd, 2007; Godwin,
2006; Donnelly, 2005; Dubber, 1999), and specifically for foreign language
learning (Thorne and Payne, 2005; Bruce and Bishop, 2001; Blake, 2000;
Abrams, 2001; Ortega, 1997; Warschauer, 1996; Beauvois, 1995). As Presky
(2001) has observed:
“Our children today are being socialized in a way that is vastly different
from their parents. The numbers are overwhelming: over 10,000 hours
playing videogames, over 200,000 emails and instant messages sent and
received; over 10,000 hours talking on digital cell phones; over 20,000
hours watching TV (a high percentage fast speed MTV), over 500,000
commercials seen—all before the kids leave college. And, maybe, at the
very most, 5,000 hours of book reading” (cited in Thorne and Payne,
2005).
Based on the findings of this study and previous research, it is apparent that
learning support services need to engage pupils for whom the use of digital
technologies is a natural part of their everyday lives.
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However, while learning technologies are an inherent aspect of inquiry-based
language learning, their impact will undoubtedly depend on both the context and
on the way in which the content is integrated into the overall learning objectives
of the class.
“The games [played on the computer in language classes] aren’t much
good, they don’t really help you. They ask you like ‘how do you say
apple?’ It’s just babyish.” (SD FG2)
It is clear that the use of technology in an inquiry-based environment will not on
its own ensure enhanced learning experiences but that the type of technology
which is best suited to the desired learning outcome needs to be identified.
Incorporation of technology into a coherent inquiry-based approach
As already noted in the literature, schools face the challenge of incorporating
new technologies into the curriculum without learning being replaced by
technology as the main focus of the lesson (Mullen, 2007). The results of this
study are consistent with Mullen’s account of new technologies driving the
curriculum.
“…the tendency is, I think, now, is that they just see it as an IT lesson”
(SC T1)
Based on these findings, it emerged that another challenge concerning the use
of computers in language classes is that pupils may perceive their use as a
reward for good behaviour or good learning and not as a learning tool in their
own right. Librarian participants, in particular, expressed concern about the
limitations of technology use in the classroom.
“it mustn’t be seen as a treat to come and use the computer, to use IT, it
must be seen as an integral part of a lesson” (SD L)
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Another library staff participant also referred to the fact that learning
technologies are frequently perceived by pupils as “glorified game systems” (SA
L), while a librarian in different school similarly observed that pupils “concentrate
too much on the game as opposed to the learning.” (SD L). These findings may
suggest that language learning pupils need to be made clearly aware of the way
in which computer-based activities do not simply represent an escape from
learning but can actually enhance their learning in an inquiry-based
environment.
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6
Conclusion
6.1 Introduction
This study has analysed pupils’ experience of IBL in language learning by
presenting and analyzing the accounts of pupils, teachers and library staff. The
discussion section has highlighted the extent to which pupils’ experiences of
language learning is developed and enhanced by this learning approach. This
has been achieved by focusing on three key areas which were believed to
impact on pupils’ experience of language learning: development of language
skills, motivation for learning, and the quality of work produced. This study has
also explored how two learning support services, the school library and learning
technologies, can help facilitate inquiry-based foreign language learning.
This chapter will now present a number of conclusions based on the findings of
this study and on evidence already outlined in the literature review. A reflection
on recommendations for future research will also be provided.
6.2 Implications for foreign language learning
6.2.1 Language Skills development
The opportunity IBL provides for social interaction and negotiation of meaning is
recognised as one of its key strengths in the development of foreign language
skills. As this study demonstrated, school pupils especially welcome this
opportunity to work together on interactive learning activities and improve their
77
understanding and communicative competence in the language. Indeed, Luke
(2006) notes:
“As learners come to better understand themselves, accept invitations for
new roles and responsibilities, and learn how to learn, their language
learning experiences will undoubtedly be enhanced and enriched” (Luke,
2006).
It is important that foreign language educators also recognize the holistic nature
of IBL and its transferability to the development of all language skills.
The extent to which scaffolding is provided to pupils also needs to be considered
when initially implementing an inquiry-based environment in foreign language
learning. It was noted in this study that the strategic use of the learners’ native
language may be a practical approach to supporting pupils of different learning
abilities. The size of language classes also appears to influence the
effectiveness of inquiry-based language learning in schools. A number of
participants in this study identified the need for smaller classes when working on
inquiry-based activities. It was widely acknowledged that this more active
learning approach required additional support and monitoring from the teacher in
order to maintain pupils’ focus on the learning objectives.
6.2.2 Motivation for language learning
IBL is seen to bring foreign language learning to life by motivating students to
become more engaged in the learning content and actively participate in
meaning construction. Participants in this study observed that IBL allowed
learners to make their learning more personal and relevant to their lives, thereby
increasing their inherent interest in learning the language. When compared with
more traditional learning approaches, IBL is believed to make foreign languages
more accessible to a wider range of pupils than teacher-directed learning. The
social relations established in the community of inquiry is also identified as a
strong motivating factor for school pupils; the opportunity to share personal
78
information through the medium of the language may especially influence the
level of pupils’ motivation for foreign language learning.
Educational technology has increasingly been recognised for its ability to
enhance pupils’ foreign language learning, presumably by providing pupils with a
learning space with which they are naturally comfortable and confident. This
study has noted that the implementation of IBL as a framework for the use of
learning technologies can encourage pupils to integrate the knowledge received
via technology into deeper learning processes.
This study has suggested that additional planning and organisation are initially
required when implementing an inquiry-based approach. It has also been
recognised that close monitoring is required when pupils explore language
activities on new technologies, as their attention may wander from the actual
learning process to the distractions inherent in the innovative learning tool. The
objective for teachers, therefore, is to determine the most appropriate way of
supporting pupils as they gain independence in identifying their own paths of
inquiry and constructing their own knowledge.
6.3 Quality of work
The implications of IBL for the quality of work produced are difficult to determine
as evidence of improved learning cannot be proposed without taking into
account what pupils already knew before learning through inquiry. Nevertheless,
by highlighting participants’ reflections on their previous learning experiences,
the current research has given an insight into the impact of IBL on quality of
work. It has been recognised that the opportunity in IBL for pupils to work at their
own pace in language learning allows them the time to make stronger
connections between language components. Therefore, as each pupil is working
to their own potential, participants in the study noted that the work produced by
each individual pupil could be enhanced. It was noted that there is a relationship
between deeper understanding and the recall of knowledge. However, improved
recall of language was also attributed to the fact that IBL activities are of
79
personal interest to the pupils and, therefore, more likely to be reproduced in
assessed work.
This study also demonstrated that assessment methods may not be aligned with
the development of new learning approaches. As Wilbur (2007) comments:
“Currently, we are talking the talk but not yet walking the walk”
It was noted that assessment appears to reward more behaviourist learning
approaches, indeed the majority of pupils in this study asserted that teacher-
directed learning is more effective for achieving higher exam grades. The
challenge for educationalists, therefore, is to consider redevising the curriculum
around inquiry-based approaches and incorporate assessment in the overall
inquiry learning process.
The stage at which pupils are at in their school education was also recognised
as factor to be considered when implementing IBL. It is noted that when pupils
become accustomed at an early age to learning in an IBL environment, inquiry-
based activities may make a greater contribution to their language learning as
they have already developed the skills required to engage in inquiry. However,
as pupils expressed enthusiasm for this learner-centred approach in all years, it
may be suggested that the practice of inquiry can be beneficial to all foreign
language pupils.
6.3 Implications for learning support
6.3.1 School libraries
The findings of this study confirm the need for greater recognition of the role of
the school library in the implementation of an IBL approach in foreign language
education. Participants believed that the current provision of library resources in
foreign languages did not meet the needs of learners. This perception was
reflected in an Ofsted report (2006) which considered the effectiveness of school
libraries for learning.
80
“Schools need to improve evaluation of their library, taking account of the
full range of evidence to assess its impact on pupils’ learning and
requiring librarians to report formally” (Ofsted, 2006).
It appears that the availability of stimulating and meaningful foreign language
resources in school libraries requires particular attention from librarians in order
to support the establishment of an IBL environment. Indeed, Blanshard (1998)
provides a valuable suggestion; that children should be involved in the process
of deciding on library resources to acquire. She also emphasizes that children
are clear about what they require in order to satisfy both their psychological and
emotional needs. Recommendations provided by a CILIP report (2002), Start
with the child, further highlight pupils’ needs when learning through inquiry:
“Libraries must develop modern services which reflect and support
children’s view of culture, recreation and information, if they are to be
successful in meeting their needs” (CILIP, 2002).
This study also highlighted the limited awareness among pupils of the library
services and how they could benefit their learning. It was established that in
order to ensure that library services are effectively used to support IBL, library
staff must engage in more active marketing of their services within the school. It
may also be noted that collaboration between and library and teaching staff is
important for effectively supporting pupils in their inquiry and ensuring that
resources are stimulating, relevant and appropriate to the needs of language
learners. Cooperation and the sharing of ideas among all school staff can not
only facilitate the promotion of library resources but also the effective promotion
of IBL.
6.3.2 Learning technologies
This study has demonstrated that educational technology can have a profound
impact on pupils’ motivation for foreign language learning and, therefore, needs
to be given particular attention in the development of an inquiry-based
81
pedagogy. However, designers of language learning technologies must also
consider how technology can be developed in a way that facilitates more
effective approaches to IBL. Clearly, collaboration between developers of
computer-assisted learning resources and teachers is crucial in order to
ascertain the appropriateness of learning material with regard to pupils’ ages,
abilities and interests. Learning support needs to meet pupils’ expectations so
that libraries are seen as relevant and valuable to their learning experiences.
A number of participants in this study, particularly librarians, noted that pupils
become more involved in exploring the actual technology that supports the
learning activity rather than focusing on the learning objective itself. It is
important that teachers are attentive to the context in which they introduce
computer-based inquiry activities and ensure that such activities are viewed by
pupils as part of their language learning progress rather than simply a retreat
from learning.
Current technology provides pupils with access to a vast amount of information
and wide flexibility in the way in which they access it. This can be of particular
concern to language learners in an inquiry-based environment as they are in a
weaker position to evaluate and synthesise information found in a foreign
language. However, it may be suggested that the “information overload” and
“navigational disorientation” (Ikpeze and Boyd, 2007) in language learning can
be controlled by the integration of information literacy skills training into the
curriculum. With a keen awareness of issues in information literacy, librarians
have a key role to play in the incorporation of information literacy training into the
curriculum and, more generally, in providing solid support for IBL.
82
6.4 Recommendations for further study
Inquiry-based learning approach in foreign language learning is a relatively new
area of study and, therefore, more research is required to gain a fuller
understanding its implications for language learners. While the main focus of
research on IBL is currently in university education, more studies also need to
be conducted in secondary schools.
This study relied on participants’ reflections on previous learning and teaching
experiences, however, in order to examine the implications of IBL in situated
actions, future studies could involve classroom observation of pupils engaging in
inquiry-based activities in a language learning context.
A more informative approach to examining the implication of IBL on language
learning would be to make comparisons between the age of pupils and their
perceptions of inquiry-based activities.
As Arnseth and Säljö (2007) have highlighted, there is considerable discrepancy
the organization and structure of learning activities. Indeed, the development of
an inquiry-based classroom environment may be characterised by either full or
partial implementation (Schwarzer and Luke, 2001). It would, therefore, be
interesting to examine more closely the extent to which IBL activities are
incorporated into language classes and how they are actually carried out in
practice by foreign language teachers. However, it should be noted that when
the IBL approach is found to produce positive leaning outcomes, determining
how much of this is a consequence of the approach itself and how much has
arisen from other approaches imbedded in it may be difficult.
Although a substantial amount of literature suggests that IBL can improve
outcomes for pupils, future studies may need to adopt more quantitative data
analysis methods in order to provide concrete evidence for improved learning
outcomes in IBL. Conducting longitudinal studies on the implications of IBL for
learning could also substantiate evidence for the impact on language learning.
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Appendix A
Guide for teacher interview
Guide to structure:
I. Awareness of inquiry-based learning
II. Use of inquiry-based language learning activities
III. Implementation of the inquiry-based learning approach in language classes
IV. Impact of inquiry-based learning on each of the four main language skills
V. Influence of learning support on inquiry-based language learning
VI. Implications of the inquiry-based approach for foreign language learning
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Questions:
Awareness of inquiry-based learning
1) Were you previously aware of the tenets of inquiry-based learning?
2) When did you first become aware of this approach?
For example, was it through your initial teaching training; professional
training days; school management; work colleagues; or elsewhere?
Use of inquiry-based language learning activities
3) To what extent to you think you use an inquiry-based approach in
teaching a foreign language?
4) What are the main ways in which you feel you facilitate inquiry-based
learning among pupils in their language class?
5) With what purpose do you use these activities in class?
6) Do you consciously incorporate activities which involve inquiry and active
learning into your lesson plans?
Ease of implementation in language classes
7) How easy or difficult is it to implement an inquiry-based environment in
your typical language class?
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8) In what way do you think its use depends on the particular year and age
of the pupils?
Impact of inquiry-based learning on each of the four main language skills
9) How useful do you think an inquiry-based approach is for particular
aspects of language acquisition?
For example, vocabulary acquisition, learning and understanding
grammar, oral expression, or written expression.
On which particular language skills do you feel inquiry learning impacts
the most – speaking, listening, reading, or writing?
10) In comparison to a more transmissive teaching approach, how do you
think the creation of an inquiry-based classroom environment contributes
to language acquisition?
11) To what extent do you think a focus on inquiry-based learning in the
classroom influences pupils’ independent study?
12) To what degree do you feel the physical environment of the classroom
has an influence on pupils’ learning in class?
Influence of learning support on inquiry-based language learning
13) How do you think learning support facilities feature in facilitating pupils’
language learning through inquiry?
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14) As technology-supported learning is particularly featured in the inquiry-
based approach, how do you think pupils’ language learning through the
medium of computers and other technology supports language
acquisition?
15) Keeping with learning support, in what way do you think the services
provided by the library impact on pupils’ inquiry-based learning?
Implications of the inquiry-based approach for foreign language learning
16) How do you think an inquiry-based learning approach influences both the
quality of work produced and exam grades?
17) What impact do you believe inquiry-based activities have on motivation
and enthusiasm for language learning?
Additional comments
18) Overall, what, in your personal opinion, are the main implications of
inquiry-based learning for pupils’ language acquisition?
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Appendix B
Guide for librarian interview
Guide to structure
I. Awareness of inquiry-based learning
II. Library services and resources for inquiry-based language learning
III. Impact of the school library on the development of language skills
IV. Support for a) learner autonomy and b) motivation in language learning
102
Questions:
1) Were you previously aware of the concept of inquiry-based learning?
2) When did you first become aware of this approach?
For example, was it through your initial librarianship training, professional
training days, school management, work colleagues or elsewhere?
3) To what extent do you think the library aims to promote an inquiry-based
environment?
4) Do you think the school library is a useful resource for supporting
language students?
5) What are the main ways in which you think the library resources and
services could facilitate inquiry-based learning, in particular, among
pupils in their learning of a foreign language?
6) To what extent do you think the library can support particular language
skills (speaking, listening, reading, or writing)?
7) As technology-supported learning is implicated in the inquiry-based
approach, how do you think pupils’ language learning through the
medium of computers and other technology supports language
acquisition?
8) In what way do you think inquiry-based learning depends on the
particular year and age of the pupils?
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9) How do you think a focus on inquiry-based learning in the library
influences a) pupils’ independent home study and b) pupils’ motivation
and enthusiasm for learning?
10) Are there any additional comments you would like to add on inquiry-
based learning?
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Appendix C
Guide for pupil focus group discussion
Guide to structure:
I. Introductory questions to inquiry-based learning
II. Progression in language skills
III. Autonomy in learning
IV. Influence of learning support on inquiry-based language learning
V. Motivation for language learning
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Questions: Introductory questions to inquiry-based learning
1) What types of inquiry-based language learning activities do you use in
your foreign language classes?
2) What do you think of a class in which you learn through inquiry activities?
Progression in language skills
3) As you progress from one class year to another, how is it either easier or
more difficult to learn a foreign language through inquiry-based learning?
4) Which language skills do you think inquiry learning helps the most -
speaking, listening, reading, or writing? Why?
5) What ways of learning do you think are best to produce good work and to
do well in exams?
Autonomy in learning
6) What do you do outside of class time to improve your language learning?
Influence of learning support on inquiry-based language learning
7) How does the use of computers in your language classes influence your
learning?
8) In what way do you use other learning facilities, such as services
provided by the library, to support your language learning?
106
Motivation for language learning
9) What types of learning activities help you become more motivated and
enthusiastic about learning a language?
107
Appendix D
Teacher and library staff interview
Definition of inquiry-based learning
Inquiry-based learning is an active learning approach which supports a highly
learner-centred perception of learning. It is rooted in the practice of research and
inquiry, particularly through collaboration with others.
Inquiry-based learning involves supporting students in their investigation of a
number of different solutions rather than teaching with a more transmissive
approach.
Examples:
• Allowing the pupils to explore open-ended questions and engage in
deeper thought and discussion
• Using resources and activities which have a ‘real life’ interest for the
pupils
• Giving pupils the opportunity to freely explore an issue in collaboration
with others
• Allowing pupils to learn at their own pace
• Teacher taking a more facilitative and supportive role
108
Pupil focus group discussion
Definition of inquiry-based learning
Inquiry-based learning is an approach to your learning which:
- is a very pupil-centred perception of learning – you direct your own
learning
- focuses on learning through your own inquiry and research
- allows you to investigate a number of different solutions to a learning task
- emphasises the importance of working with your classmates on learning
activities
Examples:
• Opportunity to freely explore issues and questions without the need to
come up with one correct answer
• Interaction with classmates on learning activities
• Chance to work on activities which have a ‘real life’ interest
• Opportunity to learn at your own pace
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Appendix E
School A
Three MFL teachers were interviewed. As they is no librarian employed at the
school, an English teacher has had responsibility for the library for the past eight
years, and, therefore, was interviewed regarding the role of the library in IBL.
There were no pupil participants in School A.
Type of school: Mixed comprehensive school
Age range of pupils: 11–16
School population: A small number of pupils speak English as an additional language.
The proportion of pupils with special educational needs is above the national
average.
The socio-economic backgrounds of pupils are varied, however are generally a
little below average.
Pupils’ attainment: On entry to the school, it is below average.
The standards achieved by pupils are also below average.
Languages offered: French - provided from Years 7 to 11
German – provided from Year 8
ICT resources: Laptop computers
Interactive whiteboards
E-learning
110
School library: Equipped with learning technology
Does not provide resources in foreign languages
School B Seven MFL teachers were interviewed. A telephone interview was conducted
with the school librarian, who was only available to be contacted by phone. Two
focus group discussions were carried out with six pupils in each group. One
group was with Year 9 pupils and the other with Year 10 pupils.
Type of school: Mixed comprehensive school
Age range of pupils: 11–19
School population: A significant number of pupils speak English as an additional language.
It has a very large, multi-ethnic student population.
The proportion of pupils with special educational needs is below the national
average.
Pupils’ attainment: On entry to the school, attainment is above average.
There are significant numbers of high attaining pupils.
Languages offered: French - provided from Year 7
German – provided from Year 8
Latin – provided from Year 8
Spanish – provided from Year 8
Urdu – provided from Year 8
111
ICT resources: Computers
Interactive whiteboards
School library: Equipped with learning technology and language learning software Language dictionaries
Text books in foreign languages
Foreign language magazines
Foreign language DVDs
School C Three MFL teachers were interviewed. A telephone interview was conducted
with the school librarian, who was unavailable to meet for a face-to-face
interview. Two focus group discussions were conducted, again with six pupils in
each group. One group was with Year 10 pupils and the other with Year 12
pupils.
Type of school: Mixed secondary school
Age range of pupils: 11–18
School population: There is a very large student population, which is culturally and socially diverse.
The number of students with learning difficulties is broadly average.
A significant number of pupils speak English as an additional language.
Pupils’ attainment: Attainment on entry is a little above the national average.
Attainment on entry to the sixth form is also above the national average.
112
Languages offered for GCSE and A level: French
German
Spanish
Urdu
ICT resources: Laptop computers
Interactive whiteboards
E-learning
ipods (trial use)
School library: Equipped with learning technology and language learning software
Language dictionaries
Text books in foreign languages
Foreign language magazines and newspapers
Foreign language tapes and videos
Separate area provided in the library for language learning
School D Three MFL teachers, an EAL teacher, and the school librarian were interviewed.
Two focus group discussions were conducted, each with six pupils. One group
was with Year 8 pupils and the other with Year 9 pupils.
Type of school: Mixed secondary school
Age range of pupils: 11–16
113
School population: It is a smaller than average school with a truly diverse ethnic population.
The proportion of pupils with learning difficulties is higher than average.
A very large proportion of pupils are from minority ethnic backgrounds.
Over 30% of pupils have English as an additional language.
Pupils’ attainment: Attainment on entry is below the national average.
Standards at Key Stages 3 and 4 have progressively improved in recent years.
Languages offered: French - provided from Year 7
German – provided from Year 8
Urdu – provided from Year 7
Spanish - provided from Year 7
ICT resources: Information Technology suites
Laptop computers
Interactive whiteboards
E-learning
Digital cameras
The school places particular emphasis on the promotion technology use across
the curriculum.
School library: Equipped with learning technology and language learning software
Language dictionaries
Text books in foreign languages
Foreign language magazines
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