AN ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ ERROR IN WRITING

RECOUNT TEXT (A Case Study in the Second Grade Students of SMP Trimulia Jakarta Selatan)

A Skripsi

Presented to the Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers’ Training in a Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Strata 1 (Bachelor of Art) in

English Language Education

By:

Cholipah

207014000542

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION

THE FACULTY OF TARBIYA AND TEACHERS’ TRAINING

SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

JAKARTA

2014

i

ABSTRACT

Cholipah, 2014, An Analysis of Students’ Error in Writing Recount Text (A

Case Study in Second Grade Students of SMP Trimulia Jakarta

Selatan), A ‘skripsi’ of English Education Department, Faculty of

Tarbiya and Teachers’ Training, State Islamic University Syarif

Hidayatullah Jakarta.

Advisor : Drs. Bahrul Hasibuan, M.Ed.

Key Words : Error Analysis, Writing, Recount Text.

This study was carried out to find empirical evidence of the most common

errors and the source of errors in recount text writing made by the second grade

students of SMP Trimulia Jakarta. The method used in this study was a case study

included as qualitative research. The data was presented in descriptive analysis

way and the procedure of Error Analysis used is according to Ellis and

Barkhuizen theory.

The result of the study showed that there are the highest-three and the

lowest-three errors made by the students. The highest-three common errors are

capitalization with the number is 200 or 23.90% errors, word choice with the

number is 110 or 13.14% errors and verb tense with the number is 105 or 12.54%

errors. The lowest-three errors are 3 or 0.36% incomplete sentence errors, 13 or

1.55% meaning not clear errors and 21 or 2.51% singular-plural errors.

Based on the total result types of errors, the writer found that the number

of total source of errors are communication strategy has 428 or 51.14% source of

errors, interlingual transfer has 295 or 35.24% source of errors, intralingual

transfer has 94 or 11.23% source of errors, and context of learning has 20 or

2.39% source of errors.

ii

ABSTRAK

Cholipah, 2014, Analisa Error Siswa dalam Menulis Teks Recount, (Studi

Kasus pada Siswa Kelas Dua SMP Trimulia Jakarta Selatan), Skripsi

Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Fakultas Ilmu Tarbiyah dan

Keguruan, Universitas Islam Negri Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta.

Pembimbing : Drs. Bahrul Hasibuan, M.Ed.

Kata Kunci : Analisa Error, Menulis, Teks Recount.

Penelitian ini dilakukan untuk menemukan bukti empiris kesalahan yang

paling sering umumnya dilakukan oleh siswa kelas dua SMP Trimulia Jakarta dan

menemukan sumber dari kesalahan tersebut. Metode yang digunakan dalam

penelitian ini adalah studi kasus yang termasuk ke dalam penelitian kualitatif.

Data disajikan dalam bentuk deskriptif analysis dan prosuder Error Analysis yang

digunakan menurut teori Ellis and Barkhuizen

Hasil dari penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ada tiga teratas dan tiga

terbawah error yang dilakukan oleh siswa. Tiga teratas error yang umumnya

sering dilakukan adalah capitalization dengan jumlah 200 atau 23.90% error,

word choice dengan jumlah 110 atau 13.14% error dan verb tense dengan jumlah

105 atau 12.54% error. Tiga terbawah error yang jarang dilakukan siswa adalah 3

atau 0.36% incomplete sentence, 13 atau 1.55% meaning not clear dan 21 atau

2.51% singular-plural.

Berdasarkan hasil keseluruhan dari jenis error tersebut, penulis

menemukan bahwa jumlah total sumber error adalah communication strategy

memiliki 428 atau 51.14% sumber error, interlingual transfer memiliki 295 atau

35.24% sumber error, intralingual transfer memiliki 94 atau 11.23% sumber

error, dan context of learning memiliki 20 atau 2.39% sumber error.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the name of Allah, the beneficent and the merciful.

All praise be to Allah the lord of this universe, by the grace of Allah the

highest finally the writer is able to finish her ‘skripsi’ after long effort of writing.

Peace, blessing and salutation be upon our great prophet Muhammad, his family,

his descendants, and his followers who strived in Islam.

In this precious occasion, the writer would like to express her greatest

gratitude and honor to her beloved parents, Rohmat and Nur Mutiah who have

been supporting and encouraging the writer to finish this ‘skripsi’.

The writer also would like to address her greatest thanks and appreciation

to her kind advisor, Drs. H. Bahrul Hasibuan, M.Ed., who has guided, helped,

suggested, and corrected during developing until accomplishing this ‘skripsi’.

May Allah always bestow blessing along his life.

Her gratitude and appreciation are also addressed to:

1. Nurlena Rifa’i, M.A., Ph.D., as the Dean of Faculty of Tarbiya and

Teachers’ Training of State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah

Jakarta.

2. Drs. Syauki, M.Pd., as the chairman of English Education Department.

3. Zaharil Anasy, M.Hum., as the secretary of English Education

Department.

4. All lecturers of English Education Department who have taught and

educated the writer during her study.

5. The principal of SMP Trimulia Jakarta Selatan and also especially Eri

Fathony Handoyo, S.Pd. and Ulfianti Ulfa, S.Pd. who accompanied the

writer when she asked the school’s permission to conduct the research

in the school.

iv

6. My friends of English Education Department who have encouraged,

motivated and given to the writer memorable times during her study.

Hopefully, this ‘skripsi’ can be beneficial in broadening the perception of

Error Analysis for the writer particularly and for anyone who read this ‘skripsi’

generally. The writer realizes that this ‘skripsi’ is still far from being perfect.

Hence, she accepts any constructive suggestions to make this ‘skripsi’ better.

Jakarta, July 18th

2014

The Writer

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................ i

ABSTRAK .............................................................................................................. ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................... iii

TABLE OF CONTENT .......................................................................................... v

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................. vii

LIST OF CHARTS ................................................................................................. viii

LIST OF APENDICES ........................................................................................... ix

CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION

A. The Background of the Study ................................................. 1

B. The limitation and Formulation of the Problem ...................... 3

C. The Objective of the Study ..................................................... 4

D. The Significance of the Study ................................................. 4

CHAPTER II : THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A. Error and Error Analysis

1. The Understanding of Error Analysis ............................... 5

2. The Distinction between Error and Mistake ..................... 7

3. The Source of Error ........................................................... 9

4. The Cause of Error ............................................................ 12

5. The Types of Error ............................................................ 12

6. The Procedure of Error...................................................... 28

7. The Goal of Error Analysis ............................................... 30

B. Writing

1. The Understanding of Writing .......................................... 31

2. The Purpose of Writing ..................................................... 33

3. The Types of Writing ........................................................ 36

4. The Stage of Writing Process ............................................ 41

5. The Principles of Writing .................................................. 45

C. Recount Text

1. The Definition of Recount Text ........................................ 47

2. The Types of Recount Text ............................................... 48

3. The Schematic Structures of Recount Text ....................... 49

4. The Language Features of Recount Text .......................... 50

D. Previous Study ....................................................................... 51

vi

CHAPTER III : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A. The Place and Time of the Research ....................................... 54

B. The Method of the Research ................................................... 54

C. The Population and Sample of the Research........................... 54

D. The Instrument of the Research .............................................. 55

E. The Technique of Data Analysis ............................................. 55

F. The Procedure of the Research ............................................... 55

CHAPTER IV : RESEARCH FINDINGS

A. The Description and Analysis of Data ................................ 57

1. The Description and Analysis of Grammatical Errors ... 57

2. The Description and Analysis of Sources of Errors ....... 64

B. The Data Interpretation ........................................................... 72

CHAPTER V : CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

A. Conclusion .............................................................................. 74

B. Suggestion ............................................................................... 74

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

vii

The List of Tables

1. Table 2.1 : The Distinction between Error and Mistake………………... 9

2. Table 2.2 : A Sample Linguistic Category Taxonomy…………………. 13

3. Table 2.3 : Example of Regularization Errors………………………….. 16

4. Table 2.4 : Simple Addition Errors……………………………………... 16

5. Table 2.5 : Capitalization Rules……………………...…………………. 25

6. Table 2.6 : The Types of Error Based on Betty Schampfer Azar………. 26

7. Table 2.7 : The Types of Writing Texts…...……………………………. 36

8. Table 2.8 : The Types of Writing……………………………………….. 40

9. Table 2.9 : The Schematic Features of Recount Text……..……………. 49

10. Table 2.10 : The Language Features of Recount Text….………………... 51

viii

The List of Charts

1. Figure 4.1 : The Students’ Types of Errors..……………………………... 59

2. Figure 4.2 : The Students’ Sources of Errors….………………………….. 67

ix

List of Appendices

1. The Description of Students’ Error

2. Surat Bimbingan Skripsi

3. Surat Keterangan Penelitian dari Sekolah

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. The Background of Study

As an international language, English plays an important role as a means

of communication among people in the world for business, science, economy,

technology, etc. Realizing the importance of English as spoken and written

international communication, the Ministry Education of Indonesia includes

English as a compulsory subject to learn in Junior High School up to Senior High

School. In learning English, there are certain skills that students need to learn,

namely: listening, speaking, reading and writing. Listening and reading skills that

involve receiving messages are regarded as receptive skills. Speaking and writing

skills which involve language production are considered to be productive skills.1

As productive skill, writing is not like speaking skill nor other receptive

skills. Writing is the most difficult skill for not only it needs a lot of vocabularies

in composing paragraph, but also grammatically correct in order to be

comprehensible besides other writing’s rules. Therefore, composing paragraph in

writing activity takes a lot of time. As Harmer states that, “Writing is often not

time-bound in the way conversation is. When writing, students frequently have

more time to think than they do in oral activities. They can go through what they

know in their minds, and even consult dictionaries, grammar books or other

reference material to help them.”2

Especially for second language (L2) or foreign language (FL) learners, the

difficulty in writing doesn’t only lie in creating and organizing ideas but also

translating the ideas into readable writing, as Richards and Renandya explain:

There is no doubt that writing is the most difficult skill for L2 learners to

master. The difficulty lies not only in generating and organizing ideas, but

also in translating these ideas into readable text. The skills involved in

writing are highly complex. L2 writers have to pay attention to higher

1Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, (New York: Longman,

1989), p. 16. 2Jeremy Harmer, How to Teach Writing, (Essex: Pearson Education Limited, 2004), p.

31.

2

level skills of planning and organizing as well as lower level skill of

spelling, punctuation, word choice, and so on.3

It can be summed up that writing is a hard work which needs a plenty of

time for it not only generates and organizes the ideas but also must translate the

ideas into understandable writing by using grammatical rules correctly, and it

takes a process which needs a lot of practices to be good writing. Therefore, it is

inevitable for students of L2 or FL not making mistakes and committing errors in

their English writing because it is the most complex skill.

The explanation above is supported by the writer’s unstructured interview

result with the English teacher of SMP Trimulia Jakarta Selatan that the main

problem faced by students in writing activity is grammatical rules. Most of

students are getting difficult in choosing the verb to write, so they got much

mistakes, for instance in writing recount text the students had difficulties in

choosing the right form verb for past events.

The writer also got such the case above when she was in her PPKT

(Praktik Profesi Keguruan Terpadu) in a Public Junior High School, most of the

students were not correct in using the verb of past tense and some other

grammatical rules when the writer gave them a task to write their personal

experience for a recount text. The writer thought that the students’ mistakes are

caused by some factors; first they translated their ideas in Indonesian sentences

word by word into English sentences and it often made their sentences read

unusual and wrong in English way.

The other factor is the students’ knowledge. Probably they didn’t know the

correct changing form of verb tense they wrote in their writing and they were

confused to put to be in the non-verbal or verbal sentence they wrote. It could be

caused by the interference of the students’ first language or their deficiency

competence that reflected on how much the students had learnt the grammatical

rules of the target language.

3Jack C. Richards and Willy A. Renandya, Methodology in Language Teaching: An

Anthology of Current Practice, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 303.

3

Students need to learn certain kinds of texts in Secondary School. It is

based on KTSP (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan) School-Based

Curriculum that mentions in SK (Standar Kompetensi) Competence Standard and

KD (Kompetensi Dasar) Basic Competence that there are five kinds of writing

texts to learn in Secondary School, namely: Narrative, Recount, Procedure,

Descriptive, and Report Text. One of the texts that close to the student’s life is

recount text because it is a text that retells past events which the place and

occurred events flow smoothly based on the sequence of time,4 it differs from

narrative text which the climax and the resolution of problem must be created in

the story. Therefore the students can explore their interesting or unforgettable

experiences they already had or people around them in recount text. Due to the

events they already went through smoothly, so they don’t need to struggle on how

to make it happen, and it could have motivated them in writing. In fact, most of

them considered writing as a burden because of some reasons related in using the

proper lexical and grammatical rules. Therefore, the writer decided to choose

recount text as students’ writing activity in this research.

The above explanation stimulates the writer to conduct research in

analyzing students’ grammatical error in their writing and finding out the sources

of errors. The writer decided to undertake a study which explores grammatical

errors that students have done in writing recount text. This issue would be

discussed in her paper entitled “An Analysis of Students’ Error in Writing Recount

Text”. This research is conducted by using a case study in the second grade

students of SMP Trimulia Jakarta Selatan.

B. The Limitation and Formulation of Problem

It is necessary to make limitation in order to clarify the problem. The

writer focused on analyzing grammatical errors in writing recount text made by

the second grade students of SMP Trimulia Jakarta Selatan. She classified the

errors based on Betty S. Azzar’s classification of errors and analyzing the errors to

4 Mark Anderson and Kathy Anderson, Text Types in English 3, (South Yarra: Macmillan

Education Australia PTY LTD., 1998), p. 24.

4

find out the sources of errors using Brown’s theory. In a hypothetical sentence, the

study will answer these questions:

1. What are the most common errors which students made in their

recount text writing?

2. What are the sources of errors in their recount text writing?

C. The Objective of Study

Based on the formulation of the problem above, the objectives of this

study mainly intend as follow:

1. To find empirical evidence of students’ grammatical errors in second

grade of SMP Trimulia in their recount text writing.

2. To find the sources of errors made by the students in their recount text

writing.

D. The Significance of Study

Particularly, this paper is expected to be beneficial in improving the

writer’s perception in Error Analysis and generally for anyone who is interested in

reading about Error Analysis field. Especially for students of English Education

Department, they can read this study as one of their references for additional

information.

5

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A. Error and Error Analysis

1. The Understanding of Error Analysis

In the middle of the twentieth century, one of the most pursuits of applied

linguistic branches was the study of two languages in contrast. Eventually, the

backlog of comparative and contrastive data on a myriad of pairs of languages

yielded Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH).1 The main focus of Contrastive

Analysis (CA) was on comparing the mother tongue (MT) and the target language

(TL) in order to predict or explain the errors made by learners.2 CA lasted until

late 60‘s affected by behaviorist theory which considered second language

acquisition as learning new sets of habits and transferring the learner‘s native

language as the basic process of second language learning. Therefore errors were

considered as being the result of the persistence of existing mother tongue habits

in the new language.3

Vecide Erdogan states in his journal that Error Analysis (EA) appeared in

the sixties to demonstrate that learner errors were not only because of the learners‘

native language but also they reflected some universal learning strategies.

According to him, ―EA deals with the learners‘ performance in terms of the

cognitive process they make use of in recognizing or coding the input they receive

from the target language. Therefore, a primary focus of EA is on the evidence that

learners‘ errors provide with an understanding of the underlying process of second

1 H. Douglas Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching 5

th Edition, (New

York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2007), p. 248. 2 Namiko Sakoda, Error Analysis within Newspaper Reporting Written by Japanese

Secondary School Students, 広島経済大学研究論集 Departmental Bulletin Paper, 27, 2004, p.

42. 3 Vecide Erdogan, Contribution of Error Analysis to Foreign Language Teaching, Mersin

University Journal of the Faculty of Education, Vol. 1, Issue 2, December 2005, p. 262.

6

language acquisition.‖4

EA achieved considerable popularity in the 1970s,

replacing CA.5

Dulay, et al have in line idea such the opinion above that, ―The EA

movement can be characterized as an attempt to account for learner errors that

could not be explained or predicted by CA or behaviorist theory, and to bring the

field of applied linguistics into step which current climate of theoretical opinion‖.6

It can be summed up that EA emerged to change the place of CA perception about

learner‘s errors which the CA was affected by behaviorist theory.

Some experts give their opinions about EA. According to Gass and

Selinker EA is a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners

make. EA compares between the errors a learner makes in producing the TL and

the TL form itself. They explain that, ―Error analysis provides a broader range of

possible explanations than contrastive analysis for researchers/teachers to use to

account for errors, as the latter only attributed errors to the NL –Native Language

(By the writer)—.‖7 It means that EA which concerns in learners‘ error can

explain more about learner‘s error what CA can‘t predict.

While Corder points out that ―Error analysis (EA) is part of methodology

of the psycholinguistic investigation of language learning. It aims at telling us

something about the psycholinguistic process of language learning.‖8

The

Corder‘s opinion is in line with other experts‘ opinion about EA such as Ellis who

states that EA is used as a tool to investigate how learners acquire a second

language (L2).9 Ellis and Barkhuizen further explain that ―Error Analysis (EA)

consits of a set of procedures for identifying, describing, and explaining learner

4 Ibid., pp. 262—263.

5 Rod Ellis, The Study of Second Language Acquisition 2

nd Edition, (New York: Oxford

University Press, 2008), p. 62. 6 Heidi Dulay, et al., Language Two, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 141.

7 Susan M. Gass and Larry Selinker, Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory

Course: An Introductory Course 3rd

Edition, (New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group,

2008), pp. 102—103. 8 S. P. Corder, Error Analysis and Interlanguage, (New York: Oxford University Press,

1981), p. 35. 9 Ellis, Op. Cit., p. 45.

7

errors.‖10

Gorbet also explains that, ―The basic task of error analysis is to describe

how learning occurs by examining the learner‘s ‗output‘.‖11

James furthermore

argues that, ―Error analysis is the process of determining the incidence, nature,

causes and consequences of unsuccessful language.‖12

It seems that the use EA is

such a tool that investigates student‘s learning process in acquiring second

language by identifying, describing, analyzing, and explaining the learner‘s error.

It can be concluded that the presence of EA was to explain what CA

cannot predict about learners‘ error. CA considered error as interference of mother

tongue affected by behaviorist theory and lasting until late sixties. EA which

regarded error was not only because of the learner‘s native language but also it

reflected some universal learning strategies, is as a tool to investigate the learner‘s

error in acquiring language which consists of identifying, describing, analyzing,

and explaining the errors.

2. The Distinction between Error and Mistake

Some people have overlapping perception between Error and Mistake, so

do some teachers. Then further dealing with Error and Mistake becomes

inappropriate treated and then it gives negative impact to the students to know and

to measure their competence in language learning process. Therefore, a systematic

elaboration of the distinction between Error and Mistake is necessary in order to

have sound explanation.

Inevitably the learner will make Mistakes and Errors in the language

acquisition process. As Dulay hints that, ―Making error is an inevitable part of

learning. People cannot learn language without first systematically committing

errors.‖13

Brown also states that, ―Learning is fundamentally a process that

involves the making of mistakes. Mistakes, misjudgments, miscalculation, and

10

Rod Ellis and Gary Barkhuizen, Analysing Learner Langaue, (Oxford : Oxford

University Press, 2008), p. 51. 11

Frances Gorbet, ‗To Err is Human‘: Error Analysis and Child Language Acquisition,

English Language Teaching Journal, XXXIV, 1979, p. 24. 12

Carl James, Errors in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis,

(London: Longman, 1998), p. 1. 13

Dulay, Op. Cit., p. 138.

8

erroneous assumptions form an important aspect of learning virtually and skill or

acquiring information.‖14

It means that making Mistakes and Error is naturally

happened for learner because it is a part of learning in language acquisition

process.

Further Brown distinguishes between Mistake and Error. He explains that:

A mistake refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or a

‗slip‘, in that it is a failure to utilize a known system correctly. All people

make mistakes, in both native and second language situations. Native

speakers are normally capable of recognizing and correcting such ―lapses‖

or mistakes, which are not the result of a deficiency in competence but the

result of some sort of temporary breakdown or imperfection in the process

of producing speech. An error is a noticeable deviation from the adult

grammar of a native speaker, reflecting the competence of the learner.15

It means that Error reveals the learner‘s knowledge of the target language,

while Mistake is the learner‘s temporary impediment or imperfection in process of

utilizing the language.

Corder in Larsen-Freeman and Long give more explanation about Error

and Mistake.

Corder made a distinction between a mistake and an error, i.e.: Whereas a

mistake is a random performance slip caused by fatigue, excitement, etc,

and therefore can be readily self-corrected, an error is a systematic

deviation made by learners who have not yet mastered the rules of the L2.

A learner cannot self-corrected an error because it is a product reflective of

his or her current stage of development, or underlying competence. Rather

than being seen as something to be prevented, then errors were signs that

learners were actively engaged in hypothesis testing which would

ultimately in the acquisition of TL rules.16

It can be concluded that Mistake is related to the students‘ quality

performance caused by some factors such as fatigue, lack of attention and

motivation, carelessness and some other factors but it can be self-corrected

because actually the students know the language‘s rule when they focus on. Error

14

Brown, Op. Cit., p. 257. 15

Ibid., pp. 257—258. 16

Diane Larsen-Freeman and Michael H. Long, An Introduction to Second Language

Acquisition Research, (London & New York: Longman Group UK, 1991), pp. 58—59.

9

is student‘s deficiency competence, it means that students don‘t know about the

knowledge of the language at all because they have not mastered it yet therefore it

can‘t be self-corrected. The explanation above can be summarized in the table

below.

Table 2.1

The Distinction between Error and Mistake

Mistake Error

Related to the students‘

quality performance.

Related to the students‘ deficiency

competence.

Reflected the students‘

temporary impediment or

imperfection when utilizing

the target language.

Reflected the students‘

understanding or competence in

the target language.

Inconsistent deviation. Consistent deviation.

Caused by some factors

such as fatigue, lack of

attention and motivation,

carelessness, etc.

Caused by learners who have not

mastered yet the L2 rules.

Can be self-corrected when

students pay attention.

Cannot be self-corrected because

the students do not know the

correct of the L2 rules.

3. The Sources of Error

It‘s necessary to know the source of error in order to identify the troubles

that faced by students in language learning process. Taylor in Ellis points out the

source of error into four categories:

a. Psycholinguistic sources concern the nature of the L2 knowledge

system and the difficulties learners has using it in production.

b. Sociolinguistics sources such matters as the learners‘ ability to adjust

their language in accordance with the social context.

c. Epistemic sources concern the learners‘ lack of world knowledge.

d. Discourse sources involve problems in the organization of information

into a coherent ‗text‘.17

17

Ellis, Op. Cit., p. 53.

10

Different from Ellis, Brown categories the source of error into interlingual

transfer, intralingual transfer, context of learning and communication strategies.

a. Interlingual transfer is the negative influence of first language. Before

the second language system is familiar for the learner. The first

language is the only previous linguistic system which can be referred

by the learner.

b. Intralingual transfer is the negative transfer within the target language

itself. In other words, it‘s the incorrect generalization of rules within

the target language.

c. Context of Learning is Context refers, for example, to the classroom

with its teacher and its materials in the case of school learning or the

social situation in the case of untutored second language learning. In a

classroom context the teacher or the textbook can lead the learner to

make faulty hypotheses about the language. In other words, the

learners have wrong hypotheses of the teacher‘s explanation or the

textbook which lead them to make errors.

d. Communication strategy is related to the learning style. Learners

obviously use production strategies in order to enhance getting their

messages across. However, at times these techniques can themselves

become a source of error.18

James‘ idea parallels with Brown in talking about the source of error as

follows:

a. Mother-tongue Influence: Interlingual Errors. The error caused by

the mother tongue interference. The learners are influenced by the

persistence of their native language in using the target language.

b. Target Language Causes: Intralingual Errors. The learners in

ignorance of a TL form on any level and of any class can do either of

two things:

18

Brown, Op. Cit., pp. 263—266.

11

1) The learner can set about learning the needed item, engaging

the learning strategies.

2) The learner can try to fill the gap by resorting to

communication strategies.

c. Communication Strategy-Based Errors. The error includes holistic

strategies and analytic strategies.

1) Holistic strategies, the term ‗holistic‘ refers to the learners‘

assumption. The most general term for this is approximation.

2) Analytic strategies express the concept indirectly, by allusion

rather than the direct reference: this is circumlocution.

d. Induced Error refers to learner errors that result more from the

classroom situation than from either the students‘ incomplete

competence in English grammar (intralingual error) or first language

interference (interlingual error). They are the result of being misled

by the ways in which the teachers give definitions, examples,

explanations, and arrange practice opportunities. Errors are caused

by material-induced error, teacher-talk induced error, exercise-based

induced error, errors induced by pedagogical priorities, and look-up

errors.19

It can be highlighted that Taylor classifies the source of error based on the

learners‘ linguistic development stage. While Brown and James classify the

source of error into four main categories, namely: interlingual transfer,

intralingual transfer, communication strategy and context of learning or in James

called induced error. The writer uses the four main categories sources of error

based on Brown‘s idea to find out the students‘ sources of error in her research.

19

Carl James, Op. Cit., pp. 179—200.

12

4. The Causes of Error

John Norrish exposes three causes of errors:

a. Carelessness: It is often closely related to lack of motivation. Many

teachers will admit that it is not always the students‘ fault if he loses

interest; perhaps the materials and/or the style of presentation do not

suit him.

b. First language interference: Learning a language (mother tongue or a

foreign language) was a matter of habit information. The learners‘

utterances were thought to be gradually ‗shaped‘ towards those of the

language he was learning.

c. Translation: Probably the most students make errors is translation.

This happens because a student translates his first language sentence of

idiomatic expression in to the target language word by word.20

It can be highlighted that Norrish divides the cause of errors into three

categories, those are Carelessness, First Language Interference and Translation

which those are from the learners themselves or the teacher, and the method.

5. The Types of Error

Some experts give their idea about kinds of error. They classify it into

several types. Corder in Ellis distinguishes three types of error according to their

systematicity:

a. Pre-systematic errors occur when the learner is unaware of the

existence of a particular rule in the target language. These are random.

b. Systematic errors occur when the learner has discovered a rule but it is

the wrong one.

c. Post-systematic errors occur when the learner knows the correct target-

language rule but uses it inconsistently (i.e. makes a mistake).21

20

John Norrish, Language Learners and Their Errors, (London: Macmillan Press, 1983),

pp. 21—26. 21

Rod Ellis, Op. Cit., p. 51.

13

The other type of errors is elaborated by Dulay et al who classify error into

four descriptive classifications of errors. They are linguistic category, surface

strategy taxonomy, comparative taxonomy, and communicative effect taxonomy.

a. Error Types Based on Linguistic Category

These linguistic category taxonomies classify errors according to

either or both the language component or the particular linguistic

constituent the errors effects.

Language components include the phonology (pronunciation),

syntax and morphology (grammar), semantic and lexicon

(meaning and vocabulary), and discourse (style).

Constituents include the elements that comprise each language

component. For example, within syntax one may ask whether

the error is in the main or subordinate clause; and within a

clause, which constituent is affected, e.g. the noun phrase, the

auxiliary, the verb phrase, the preposition, the adverb, the

adjectives, and so forth.22

Table 2.2

A Sample Linguistic Category Taxonomy23

No. Linguistic Category and

Error Type

Example of Learner

Error Explanation

1. Morphology

a. Indefinite article

incorrect

b. Possessive case

incorrect

c. Third person

singular verb

incorrect

d. Simple past tense

incorrect

e. Past participle

incorrect

f. Comparative

adjective/adverb

A ant

The man feet

The bird help man.

He putted the cookie

there.

He was call.

He got up more

higher.

a used for an before

vowels

Omission of ‘s

Failure to attach -s

Regularization by adding

–ed

Omission of -ed

Use of more + er

22

Dulay, Op.Cit., pp. 146—147. 23

Ibid., pp. 148—150.

14

incorrect

2. Syntax

a. Noun Phrase

b. Verb Phrase

c. Verb-and-Verb

Construction

d. Word Order

e. Some

Transformations

He put it in the his

room.

He is in water.

I go play

The bird (object) he

was gonna shoot it.

He not play anymore.

Use of possessive with

the article

Omission of to be

Omission of to in

identical subject

construction

Repetition of the object

Formation of no or not

without the auxiliary do

b. Surface Strategy Taxonomy

Learner may omit necessary any morphemes or words, add

unnecessary ones, misform items, or misorder them. Therefore, Dulay

et al divide the error based on surface strategy taxonomy into four

categories. There are Omission, Addition, Misformation, and

Misorder.

1) Omission

Omission errors are characterized by the absence of an item

that must appear in a well-formed utterance. Content morphemes

carry the bulk of the referential meaning of a sentence: Nouns,

verbs, adjectives, adverbs.24

Language learners omit grammatical

morphemes much more frequently than content words.25

For

example:

Mary is the president of the new company.

Mary, president, new, company. (Content Morpheme)

Is, the, of, the. (Grammatical Morpheme)

Marry the president of the new company. (Omission of

Grammatical Morpheme ‘is’)

Marry is the president of the new. (Omission of Content

Morpheme ‘Company’)

24

Ibid., p. 154. 25

Ibid., p. 155.

15

2) Addition

Addition errors are the presence of an item which must not

appear in a well-formed utterance.26

There are three types of addition errors, namely: double

marking, regularization, and simple addition.

a) Double Marking

Many addition errors are more accurately described

as the failure to delete certain items which are required

in some linguistic construction, but not in others.27

Double marking is two items marked for the same

feature. Learners who have acquired the tensed form for

both auxiliary and verb often place the marker both, as

in;28

He doesn’t knows my name.

We didn’t went there.

Which the correction of the sentence above is;

He doesn‘t know my name.

We didn‘t go there.

b) Regularization

Regularization errors that fall under the addition

category are those in which a marker that is typically

added to a linguistic item is erroneously added to

exceptional items of the given class that do not take a

marker.29

It means that regularization error occurs when

learners add morpheme to the exceptional words, for

example:

26

Ibid., p. 156. 27

Ibid. 28

Ibid. 29

Ibid., p. 157.

16

Table 2.3

Example of Regularization errors

No. Regularization Errors Correction

1. Sheeps Sheep

2. Putted Put

3. Deers Deer

4. Hitted Hit

5. Beated Beat

c) Simple Addition

No particular features characterize simple additions

other than those that characterize all addition errors—

the use of an item which should not appear in a well-

formed utterance.30

Table 2.431

Simple Addition Errors

Linguistic Item Added Example

3rd

person singular –s The fishes doesn‘t live in the water

Past tense (irregular) The train is gonna broke it

Article a a this

Preposition in over there

3) Misformation

Misformation errors are characterized by the use of the

wrong form of the morpheme or structure. In misformation

errors the learner supplies something, although it is incorrect.32

For example:

The dog eated the chicken.

There are three types of misformation errors, they are

regularization errors, archi-forms, and alternating forms. The

explanation is elaborated as follows:

30

Ibid., p. 158. 31

Ibid. 32

Ibid.

17

a) Regularization Errors

Regularization errors that fall under the

misformation category are those in which a regular

marker is used in place of an irregular one, as in runned

for ran or gooses for geese.33

b) Archi-forms

The selection of one member of a class of forms to

represent others in the class is a common characteristic

of all stages of second language acquisition.34

For

example;

Give me that.

Me hungry.

That dog.

That dogs.

c) Alternating Forms

As the learner‘s vocabulary and grammar grow, the

use of archi-forms often gives way to the apparently

fairly free alternation of various members of a class

with each other.35

For example;

Those dog.

I seen her yesterday.

4) Misoreder

As the label suggests, misordering errors are characterized

by the incorrect placement of a morpheme or group of

morphemes in an utterance. For example, in the utterance:36

He is all the time late.

What Daddy is doing?

I don‘t know what is that.

The correct utterances are:

He is late all the time.

What is Daddy doing?

I don‘t know what that is.

33

Ibid. 34

Ibid., p. 160. 35

Ibid., p. 161. 36

Ibid., p. 156.

18

c. Comparative Taxonomy

The classification of errors in a comparative taxonomy is based on

comparisons between the structure of L2 errors and certain other types

of constructions.37

These comparisons have yielded the two major

errors categories in this taxonomy: developmental errors and

interlingual errors. Two other categories that have been used in

comparative analysis taxonomies are derived from the first two:

ambiguous errors, which are classifiable as either developmental or

interlingual; and of course, the grab bag category, other, which are

neither.38

1) Developmental Errors

Developmental errors are errors similar to those made by

children learning that target language as their first language,

take for example:39

Dog eat it.

2) Interlingual Errors

Interlingual errors are similar in structure to a semantically

equivalent phrase or sentence in the learner‘s native language.40

Interlingual errors simply refer to L2 errors that reflect native

language structure, regardless of the internal processes or

external conditions that spawned them.41

For example the word order of Spanish adjectival phrase

(e.g. el hombre flaco) which converted in English to be:

The man skinny.

3) Ambiguous Errors

Ambiguous errors are those that could be classified equally

well as developmental or interlingual. That is because these

errors reflect the learner‘s native language structure, and at the

same time, they are of the type found in the speech of children

acquiring a first language. For example, in the utterance:42

I no have a car.

37

Ibid., p. 163. 38

Ibid., p. 164. 39

Ibid., p. 165. 40

Ibid., p. 171. 41

Ibid. 42

Ibid., p. 172.

19

4) Other Errors

Few taxonomies are complete without a grab bag for items

that don‘t fit into any other category. For example, in the

utterance;43

She do hungry.

d. Communicative Effect Taxonomy

The communicative effect classification deals with errors from the

perspective of their effect on the listener or reader. It focuses on

distinguishing between errors that seem to cause miscommunication

and those that don‘t. Errors that affect the overall organization of the

sentence hinder successful communication, while errors that affect a

single element of the sentence usually do not hinder communication.44

It means that the errors of communicative effect taxonomy can

lead to be misunderstood by the listener or reader to get the intended

message. Some of the learner‘s speaking or writing errors can be

comprehended because there is a minor infraction in the sentence

therefore the intended meaning can be guessed but some of the errors

prevent the information to be comprehended.

Burt and Kiparsky in Dulay et al discover two types of errors

based on communicative effect taxonomy.

1) Global Error

Errors that affect overall sentence organization significantly

hinder communication.45

It means that Global Error is happened in the sentence

which has a big portion of violation therefore it‘s difficult to be

comprehended.

The most systematic global errors include:46

a) Wrong order of major constituents

e.g. English language use many people

43

Ibid. 44

Ibid., p. 189. 45

Ibid., p. 191. 46

Ibid.

20

b) Missing, wrong, or misplaced sentence connectors

e.g. (if)

not take this bus, we late for school

He will be rich until he marry.

(when)

c) Missing cues to signal obligatory exceptions to pervasive

syntactic rules

e.g. the student’s proposal (was)

looked into (by)

the principal

d) Regularization of pervasive syntactic rules to exceptions

e.g. We amused that movie very much

(That movie amused us very much)47

2) Local Error

Errors that effect single elements (constituents) in a

sentence do not usually hinder communication significantly.

These include errors in noun and verb inflections, articles,

auxiliaries and the formation of quantifiers.48

It means that Local Error is the error that can be

comprehended by the hearer or reader by guessing the intended

meaning because there is a bit violation in a part of the

sentence.

For example:49

Why like we each other?

and

Why we like each other?

Further Corder in Brown gives another view of errors, he talks about Overt

and Covert Errors that:

Overtly erroneous utterances are unquestionably ungrammatical at the

sentence level. Covertly erroneous utterances are grammatically well

formed at the sentence level but are not interpretable within the context of

communication. Covert errors, in other words, are not really covert at all,

if you attend to surrounding discourse (before or after the utterance). ―I‘m

47

Ibid. 48

Ibid.,pp. 191—192. 49

Ibid., p. 192.

21

fine, thank you‖ is grammatically correct at the sentence level, but as a

response to ―who are you?‖ it is obviously an error.50

It can be highlighted that Overt Error is incorrect grammatically at the

sentence level and Covert Errors is correct grammatically at the sentence level but

inappropriate in the context of communication, e.g.; ―Who are you? I‘m fine,

thank you.‖

Meanwhile, Betty Schrampfer Azar explains the type of errors into

fourteen kinds. The explanation is elaborated as follows:

a. Singular-Plural

Number is the form of word to show whether it is singular or

plural. Singular number is when a noun denotes one object e.g. I have

one pen. Plural number is a noun denotes more than one object e.g. I

have two pens. In addition, singular can be identified by putting a or

an before noun e.g. I has a bird. Generally, plural nouns can be added

by –s (as in friends) or –es (as in classes) after noun. Moreover, in

irregular noun form, plural has various types e.g. child-children, ox-

oxen, foot-feet, man-men, wife-wives, etc.51

b. Word Form

―Word form is the phonological or orthographic sound or

appearance of a word that can be used to describe or identify

something; the inflected forms of a word can be represented by a stem

and a list of inflections to be attached‖.52

It means that word form is the change form of word based on the

grammatical rules, for example, beautiful (adjective), beautifully

(adverb). The error word form in a sentence e.g. I saw a beauty picture.

(See table 2.6)

50

Brown, Op. Cit., p. 260. 51

J. C. Nesfield, M.A., Outline of English Grammar, (New York: St. Martin Press, Inc.,

1957), pp. 6—7. 52

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/word+form, retrieved on November, 5th

2013.

22

c. Word choice (Diction)

Diction will be effective only when the words you choose are

appropriate for the audience and purpose, when they convey your

message accurately and comfortably. The idea of comfort may seem

out of place in connection with diction, but in fact words can

sometimes cause the reader to feel uncomfortable.53

Word choice is to use the word that suits to the context of

utterance, the error in word choice for example in the sentence; I am

looking at you.

d. Verb tense

Tense means time. However, it should be pointed out that time in

relation to action is a concept that exists in the mind of the speaker,

reader, or listener. Tense, in actual usage, refers consistently only to

grammatical forms. Often tense and time do not correspond at all. In

addition to denoting time relationship, the verbs tenses may indicate

whether an activity has been completed, has extended over a period of

time, or still in progress.54

Verb tense indicates the relationship between an action or state of

being and the passage of time. The present tense indicates that

something is taking place now. The past indicates that something was

completed in the past. The future indicates that something will take in

the future.55

It means that verb tense is the changing form of verb as symbol

which expresses or tells about activity or condition and statement

happened in the past, present and future.

e. Add a word

Add a word has slight similar example with the term of Omission

in Dulay, et al. According to Dulay et al, Omission is the absence of an

item of morphemes that must appear in a sentence or utterance56

, e.g.

They want ^ go to the museum. The absence preposition is to, the

sentence called Omission Error of preposition to according to Dulay et

53

http://grammar.about.com/od/d/g/disctionterm.htm, retrieved on November, 15th

2013. 54

George E. Wishon and Julia M. Burks, Let’s Write English, (New York: Litton

Educational Publishing Inc., 1980), p. 192. 55

Linda C. Stanley, et al., Ways to Writing: Purpose, Task and Process, (New York:

MacMillan Publishing Company, 1988), p. 427. 56

Dulay et al., Op. Cit., p. 156.

23

al, while according to Betty S. Azzar e.g. They want ^ go to the

museum is categorized as error Add a word, because the preposition to

must be added in the sentence.

f. Omit a word

Omit a word is same as Addition in Dulay et al theory in the term

of example. Betty S. Azzar gives example the error of Omit a word e.g.

She entered to the university. The preposition to is not a necessary

morpheme in the sentence therefore the morpheme must be omitted

and it called as Error of Omit a Word. While according to Dulay et al

e.g. She entered to the university is categorized as Addition Error

which the preposition to considered as a morpheme that mustn‘t be

added in the sentence.

g. Word Order

In linguistic, word order typology refers to the study of the order of

the syntactic constituents of a language, and how different language

can employ different orders.57

It means that word order is to place the word correctly based on the

rules, the error in word order e.g. I saw five times that movie. (See

table 2.6)

h. Incomplete Sentence

―Incomplete sentences are missing necessary words or phrases.‖58

The incomplete sentence happens when a necessary morphemes of

words or phrases is missing in a sentence or utterance.

There are causes and examples of incomplete sentences:

1) In a compound construction, a word that functions as but

differs grammatically from a preceding word should not be

omitted. For example,

The car was given an oil change, and its wheels (?)

aligned.

57

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_order/, retrieved on November, 5th

2013. 58

Stanley et al., Op. Cit., p. 439.

24

2) An incomplete sentence also results when a comparison is

made completely or illogically. For example,

My car is faster (?)59

i. Spelling

Spelling rules apply to a relatively small number of words, and

unfortunately almost all rules have exceptions. Nevertheless, some of

the rules may help you to spell common words especially those words

form with suffixes.

1) Final Silent –e

Drop a final silent –e before suffixes beginning with a

vowel (ing, age, able). Keep a final silent –e before suffixes

beginning with a consonant (ful, ly, ness).

Hope + ing = Hoping Hope + ful = Hopeful

Dot + age = Dotage Late + ly = Lately

Love + able = Loveable Pale + ness = Paleness

Learn the following exceptions: dyeing, hoeing, gluey,

awful, ninth, truly, duly, wholly.

The -e is retained in such words as the following in

order to keep them soft sound of c and g: noticeable,

peaceable, courageous, and outrageous.

2) Doubling Final Consonant

When adding a suffix beginning with a vowel to words

ending in one consonant proceed by one vowel (Red, Redder),

notice where the word is accented. If it is accented on the last

syllable or if it is a monosyllable, double the final consonant.

Prefer + ed = Preferred Benefit + ed = Benefited

Omit + ing = Omitting Profit + ing = Profiting

Occur + ance = Occurrence Differ + ence =

Difference

Red + er = Redder Travel + er = Traveler

Note that in some words the accent shifts when the

suffix is added.

Referred Reference

Preferring Preference

There are a few exceptions to this rule, like transferable

and excellent; and many words that should follow the rule have

alternate spellings: either worshiped or worshipped; traveling

or travelling; traveler or traveler.

59

Ibid.

25

3) Words Ending in –y

If the –y is preceded by a consonant, change the –y to –i

before any suffix except –ing.

Lady + es = Ladies Lonely + ness = Loneliness

Try + ed = Tried Accompany + es =

Accompanies60

Another example,

He won the game successfully.

j. Punctuation

―Punctuation can help a reader to follow the separations or links

that you wish to make between sentences and parts of sentences are the

same.‖61

According to Stanley et al., there are 12 types of punctuations.

They are period (.), the question mark (?), the exclamation point (!), the

comma (,), the semicolon (;), the colon (:), the dash (- or – ), the

parenthesis (( )), the brackets ([ ]), the ellipsis (…), the quotation mark

(―‖), and the apostrophe (‗).62

k. Capitalization

Capitalization is to capitalize the first letter of a word. In English

there are many rules for using capital letters. Notice the following

table:

Table 2.5

Capitalization Rules63

No. Rule Example

1. The first word in a sentence My best friend is my dog.

2. The Pronoun I He and I never argue.

3. Abbreviations and acronyms formed

from the first letters of words

USA, IBM, AIDS.

4. All proper nouns. God, New York City, Asian,

etc.

60

Langdon Elsbree and Frederick Bracher, Heath’s College Handbook of Composition,

(Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1967), pp. 493—496. 61

Ibid., p. 458. 62

Ibid., pp. 458—474. 63

Alice Oshima and Ann Hogue, Introduction to Academic Writing 3rd

Edition, (New

York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2007), p. 7.

26

l. Article

The articles are a, an and the. They modify noun. A and a are

indefinite; a car could mean any car. The is indefinite: the car indicates

a specific car. The article a precedes nouns that start with a consonant

sound (a rocket). The article an precedes noun that start with a vowel

sound (an astronaut).64

m. Meaning Not Clear

Meaning not clear happens when a sentence or utterance is not

interpretable, for example: He borrowed some smoke. (See table 2.6)

n. Run-On Sentence

A run-on is two complete thoughts that are run together with no

adequate sign given to mark the break between them. Some run-ons

have no punctuation at all to mark the break between the thoughts.

Such run-ons are known as fused sentences: they are fused, or joined

together, as if they were only one thought.65

It means that run-on sentence is two simple sentence joined

together without a comma and without a connecting word.

The example of error sentences based on the type of errors above as

follows:

Table 2.6

The types of Error based on Betty Schampfer Azar66

No. Types of Error Example

1. Singular-plural Incorrect: He have been here for six month.

Correct : He has been here for six months.

2. Word form Incorrect: I saw a beauty picture.

Correct : I saw a beautiful picture.

64

Stanley, Op. Cit., pp. 431—432. 65

John Langan, College Writing Skill with Readings 5th

Edition, (New York: McGraw-

Hill, 2001), p. 432. 66

Betty Schrampfer Azar, Understanding and Using English Grammar, (New Jersey:

Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1989), pp. A29—A30.

27

3. Word choice Incorrect: She got on the taxi.

Correct : She got into the taxi.

4. Verb tense Incorrect: He is here since June.

Correct : He has been here since June.

5. + Add a word Incorrect: I want ^ go to the zoo.

Correct : I want to go to the zoo.

6. Omit a word Incorrect: She entered to the university.

Correct : She entered the university.

7. Word Order Incorrect: I saw five times that movie.

Correct : I saw that movie five times.

8. Incomplete Sentence Incorrect: I went to bed. Because I was tired.

Correct : I went to bed because I was tired.

9. Spelling Incorrect: An accident occured.

Correct : An accident occurred.

10. Punctuation Incorrect: What did he say.

Correct : What did he say?

11. Capitalization Incorrect: I am studying english.

Correct : I am studying English.

12. Article Incorrect: I had a accident.

Correct : I had an accident.

13. Meaning Not Clear Incorrect: He borrowed some smoke.

???

14. Run-on Sentence

Incorrect: My roommate was sleeping, we didn’t

want to wake her up.

Correct : My roommate was sleeping. We didn’t

want to wake her up.

There are several types of errors according to some experts as elaborated

above. The writer decides to use the types of error based on Betty S. Azar‘s

classification of errors to measure the error of students‘ writing in grammatical

aspect.

28

6. The Procedure of Error Analysis

It needs some steps or stages of procedure in conducting Error Analysis.

Theo Van Els, et al., states that there are some procedures in Error Analysis,

namely:

a. Identification of errors. The first step in the process of analysis is

recognition/identification of errors. In this step, teachers recognize the

students‘ errors from the task given by the teachers.

b. Description of errors. The next step is describing errors; it begins

when an identification stage has taken place. The description of student

errors involves classification of kinds of errors made by the students.

c. Explanation of errors. The third step in the process of analysis is the

explanation of error that can be regarded as a linguistic problem. This

step attempts to account for how and why the students‘ errors occur.

d. Evaluation of errors. In this step, the teacher gives evaluation from the

task done by the students depends on the task that the teacher will be

giving to the students.

e. Preventing/correcting of errors. The last step is correction of errors;

the teacher checks the errors and then gives the correct one. It is done

to make the students realize with their errors in order to prevent the

students make the same errors later.67

Carl James in his book ―Error in Language Learning and Use: Exploring

Error Analysis‖ explains that there are five procedures in identification of errors:

a. Error detection. It‘s a stage which the errors are detected, so the

researcher becomes aware of its presence.

b. Locating error. The researcher locates the errors, but error location is

not always so straightforward. Not all errors are easily localizable in

this way. Some are diffused throughout the sentence or larger unit of

the text that contains.

67

Theo Van Els, et al., Applied Linguistics and the Learning and Teaching of Foreign

Languages, (London: A Division of Hodder & Stoughton, 1983), p. 74

29

c. Describing error. The grammar used for describing them must be the

most comprehensive we have, and the one capable of maximum

‗delicacy‘ of descriptive detail.

d. Classifying error. The errors are classified based on the errors

classification.

e. Counting error. The last stage is counting error that the researcher

counts the errors made by learner.68

Gass and Selinker state that the great deal of the work on Error Analysis

was carried out within the context of classroom. Therefore, there are a number of

steps taken to conduct error analysis.

a. Collect data. Although this typically done with written data, oral data

can also serve as a base.

b. Identify errors. What is the error (e.g., incorrect sequence of tenses,

wrong verb form, singular verb form with plural subject)?

c. Classify errors. Is it an error of agreement? Or is it an error in irregular

verbs?

d. Quantify errors. How many errors of agreement occur? How many

irregular verb forms of errors occur?

e. Analyze source. See later discussion.

f. Remediate. Based on the kind and frequency of an error type,

pedagogical intervention is carried out.69

According to Corder in Ellis and Barkhuizen the procedure of Error

Analysis includes the following steps:

a. Collecting a sample of learner language. Collecting a sample of

learner language provides the data for the EA. The researcher needs to

be aware that the nature of the sample that is collected may influence

the nature and distribution of the errors observed.

b. Identification of Errors. The identification of errors involves a

comparison between what the learner has produced and what a native

speaker counterpart would produce in the same context. The basic

produce is as follow:

1. Prepare a reconstruction of the sample as this would have been

produced by the learner‘s native speaker counterpart.

68

Carl James, Op. Cit., pp. 91—114. 69 Gass and Selinker, Op. Cit., p. 103

30

2. Assume that every utterance/sentence produced by the learner is

erroneous and systematically eliminate those that an initial

comparison with the native speaker sample shows to be well-

formed. Those utterances/sentences remaining contain errors.

3. Identify which parts of each learner utterance/sentence differs

from the reconstructed version.

c. Description of Errors. The Description of errors is essentially a

comparative process, the data being the original erroneous utterances

and the reconstructed utterance. Thus, description of learner errors

involves specifying how the forms produced by the learner differ from

those produced by the learner‘s native-speaker counterparts.

d. Explanation of Errors. Explaining errors involves determining their

sources in order to account for why they were made. From the point of

view of SLA research this is the most important stage in an EA.

e. Error Evaluation. It involves determining the gravity of different

errors with a view to deciding which ones should receive instruction.70

Based on the detail explanation of the procedure of EA above it can be

summed up that actually in the procedure of EA has the same stages to conduct,

firstly is collecting the data, next the data is identified to find the errors made by

students, thirdly the researcher describers the error based on the error

classifications and then she/he explains the sources the students‘ error and the last

stage the errors are counted to get the total of errors made by students as

evaluation. In her study, the writer chooses the procedure of EA which identified

by Corder cited in Ellis and Barkhuizen to conduct the research.

8. The Goal of Error Analysis

Some experts reveal their opinions of the goal of EA. According to

Norrish, ―Error Analysis can give a picture of the type of difficulty learners are

experiencing. If carried out on a large scale such a survey, it can be helpful in

drawing up a curriculum.‖71

It means that EA has significant to check the

students‘ difficulty in learning. Then the teacher can rearrange the curriculum that

70

Ellis and Barkhuizen, Op. Cit., p. 57—67. 71

Norrish, Op. Cit., p. 80.

31

suits for the students. While Corder has parallel opinion with Norrish, he divides

the significant of EA in three aspects:

1) The teacher. EA gives information of the learners‘ progress in

acquiring the language, and it tells him what remain for him to teach.

2) The researcher. EA give evidence to the research of how the learner

learn and acquire the language, what strategies or procedures they use

in discovering the language.

3) The learner. Making error can be used for the learner as device to

learn.72

He further explains that EA as branch of applied linguistic activity has two

functions, they are: theoretical and practical.

a. The theoretical aspect of error analysis is part of the methodology of

investigating the language learning process.

b. The practical aspect of error analysis is its function in guiding the

remedial action we must take to correct an unsatisfactory state of

affairs for learner or teacher.73

Based on the explanation above, the writer sums up that the goal of EA in

theoretical aspect is as a tool to investigate the language learning process and it

also gives information of the learners‘ progress in the process of acquiring

language in the practical area. It can be a very useful feedback for the teacher, the

researcher, the learner and the curriculum in how to overcome the students‘

difficulty and how to deal against the error.

B. Writing

1. The Understanding of Writing

Writing has a significant function as a medium of communication to

express our ideas, to share knowledge and to exchange information. As Ann

72

Jack C. Richards (ed), Error Analysis: Perspective on Second Language Acquisition,

(London: Longman, 1973), p. 25. 73

Corder, Op. Cit., p. 45.

32

Brown states that ―Writing is important in our lives and as a communicative act

that transmit information and link people together‖.74

Related to the opinion,

Raymond points out that, ―Writing is more than a medium of communication. It is

a way of remembering and a way of thinking as well. Write makes words

permanent, and thus expands the collective memory of human beings from the

relatively small store that we can remember and pass on orally to the infinite

capacity of a modern library‖.75

It can be summed up that writing develops

human‘s lives by informing the knowledge and the idea. People can forget spoken

information in second but writing makes it permanent.

Writing skill for foreign learners is the most challenging activity because it

is a complex skill that involves knowledge, concepts and writing‘s rules.

Moreover, for second language (L2) or foreign language (FL) learners, the

difficulty in writing does not only lie in creating and organizing ideas but also

translating the ideas into readable writing, Richards and Renandya explain that:

There is no doubt that writing is the most difficult skill for L2 learners to

master. The difficulty lies not only in generating and organizing ideas, but

also in translating these ideas into readable text. The skills involved in

writing are highly complex. L2 writers have to pay attention to higher

level skills of planning and organizing as well as lower level skill of

spelling, punctuation, word choice, and so on.76

Celce-Murcia and Olshtain give their idea about writing that:

Writing is the production of the written word that results in a text but the

text must be read and comprehended in order for communication to take

place. The writer, in order words, communicates his/her ideas in the form

of a written text from which known or unknown reader will eventually

extract the ideas and their meanings.77

74 Ann Brown, Helping Children‘s Write, (New York: Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd.,

1993), p. 2. 75

James C. Raymond, Writing: Is an Unnatural Act, (New York: Harper & Row

Publisher Inc., 1980), p. 2. 76

Jack C. Richards and Willy A. Renandya, Methodology in Language Teaching: An

Anthology of Current Practice, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002) p. 303. 77

Marianne Celce-Murcia, Elite Olshtain, Discourse and Context in Language Teaching,

(United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 142.

33

In means that writing is a hard skill for foreign learners because the

learners don‘t only concentrate in communicating and composing the idea into

comprehended writing but also must pay attention to the writing‘s rule.

English teacher can use writing as a means of learning or evidence of

successful learning. A good writing reflects a plenty of practicing because it needs

processes of thinking and then evaluating and revising it. White highlights that

―Writing can be viewed as involving a number of thinking process which is drawn

upon in varied and complex ways as an individual composes, transcribes,

evaluates, and revises‖.78

Richards hints that ―Writing is used either as evidence

of successful learning or as a means of learning‖.79

It can be summed up that

writing can be as a tool for learning feedback.

It can be concluded that through writing many information and knowledge

can be shared, therefore writing can develop human‘s life. While, writing in the

sense of learning English is a challenging activity for foreign language learners

because the FL learners not only have to interpret the idea into comprehended text

but also they have to pay attention to the writing‘s rules. However, writing reflects

the FL learners competency because it can be such a tool that gives feedback in

the learning process.

2. The Purpose of Writing

There are some purposes of writing that many experts have explained,

according to Penny Ur the ―The purpose of writing, in principle, is the expression

of ideas, the conveying of a message to the reader.‖80

Diestch states that ―The

general purpose of writing may be primary to inform, to persuade, to express and

to entertain. The specific purpose involves responding to a certain need for

78

Ronald V. White, New Ways in Teaching Writing, (Bloomington, Teachers of English

to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc., 1995) p. 15. 79

Jack C. Richards, The Language Teaching Matrix, (New York: Cambridge University

Press, 1990), p. 100. 80

Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching, (UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991),

163.

34

writing.‖81

It can be summed up that the purpose of writing is to express the idea

or entertaining the audience.

While according to Miller that the purpose of writing is ―A writer‘s

purpose is essentially the same as a writer‘s motive both terms are used to

describe what a writer hopes to accomplish. The benefit of having a clear sense of

purpose is obvious; the writer is much likely to accomplish his objective.‖82

He

divides the purpose of writing into ten points as follows:

a. Writing to understand experience.

Writing to understand experience thus achieves at least two goals:

Writers come to a better understanding of themselves, and readers

come to understand experience different from their own….Writing to

understand experience relies on thought and reflection more than on

emotion and confession.…Writing to understand experience means

finding a truth that is conveniently stored somewhere in your head,

some secret knowledge that, once uncovered, will explain everything

you want to understand. Writing often leads to new perceptions. If you

write thoughtfully about experience, you will be constructing

knowledge as you proceed.83

b. Writing to report information.

Writing to report information is arranged in a pattern so that readers

can make sense of it.84

c. Writing to explain information.

Writing to explain information needs to analyze or classify

information, examine causes and consequences and define concepts by

distinguishing them from other.85

d. Writing to evaluate something.

Evaluation requires that the writer determines the nature or the quality

of what he/she is judging. Evaluation also means determining

importance, benefit, or worth. When writing an evaluation, the writer

81

Betty Matix Diestch, Reasoning and Writing Well 3rd

Edition, (New York: McGraw-

Hill Companies, Inc., 2003), pp. 4—5. 82

Robert Keith Miller, Motives for Writing 5th

Edition, (New York: McGraw-Hill

Companies, Inc., 2006), p. 4. 83

Ibid., pp. 47—48. 84

Ibid., p. 98. 85

Ibid., p. 173.

35

also needs to assure that he/she has credentials to make judgments

about the subject he/she is addressing.86

e. Writing to analyze images.

Like writing to evaluate, writing to analyze images requires the ability

to discern the difference between the effective and the ineffective and

to explain why the writer has made the judgment. Moreover, analysis

is almost always instructive to some extent. As in writing to explain

information, as well as in writing to evaluate something, writing an

analysis helps readers to increase their understanding of the subject.87

f. Writing to analyze texts.

Writing to analyze texts is not really different from writing to analyze

images. Writing to analyze the texts is aimed to analyze the certain

text.88

g. Writing to persuade others.

Writing to persuade others means that the aim of the writing is to

persuade the readers to act or to convince the reader to adopt the

particular view or action.89

h. Writing to inspire others.

Writing to inspire others means being able to elevate the human spirit

by reminding people of what is most important in life and what it is

possible to achieve.90

i. Writing to amuse others.

Writing to amuse gives you an opportunity to bring pleasure to others.

Seize the opportunity, and make the most of it.91

j. Writing to experiment with form.

Writing to experiment with form is different from the previous

purpose. It is about inventing something. Then, the invention is

documented through writing.92

86

Ibid., p. 241 87

Ibid., p. 304. 88

Ibid., p. 381. 89

Ibid., p. 451. 90

Ibid., p. 531. 91

Ibid., p. 569.

36

It seems that writing has its own purpose which it depends on the author‘s

goal in composing the text.

Based on the explanation above the main purpose of writing is to express

the idea. The idea of writing can be delivered in different ways depended on the

author‘s intention.

3. The Types of Writing Text

Students of Secondary School need to learn five kinds of writing texts.

They are Narrative, Recount, Procedure, Descriptive and Report Text. In order to

understand each of the type of writing texts easily, the explanation is drawn up

into a table as follows:

Table 2.7

The Types of Writing Texts93

Text Type Example of Text Explanation

Narrative 1) Orientation

Once upon a time there was a

beautiful girl called Cinderella. She lived

with her stepsister and stepmother. They

were very bossy. She had to do all the

housework.

2) Complication

One day an invitation to the ball came

to the family. Her stepsister didn‘t let her

go, so Cinderella was very sad. The

stepsister went to the ball without her.

3) Resolution

Fortunately, the fairy came and

helped her to get to the ball. At the ball,

Cinderella danced with the prince. The

prince fell in love with her then he married

her.

4) Coda

They lived happily ever after.

Narrative text is

text type that tells a

story.

Its purpose is to

present a view of the

world that entertains or

informs the reader or

listener.

92

Ibid., p. 610. 93

Mark Anderson and Kathy Anderson, Text Types in English 2, (South Yarra:

MacMillan education Australia PTY LTD, 2003), pp. 3—5.

37

Recount Earthquake

1) Orientation

I was driving along the coast when

the car suddenly lunched to one side.

2) Sequence of Events

At first I thought a tire had gone but

then I saw telegraph poles collapsing like

matchsticks. The rocks came tumbling

across the road and I had to abandon the

car.

3) Reorientation

When I got back to town, well, as I

said, there wasn‘t much left.

Recount text is a

piece of text that retells

past events, usually in

the order in which they

happened.

The purpose is to

give the audience a

description of what

occurred and when it

occurred.

Procedure How to Make Jelly

1) Goal

Jelly can be very simply by following

these directions.

2) Materials

You will need one packet of jelly

crystals, a 500 ml jug, 250 ml boiling

water, 200 ml of cold water, a bowl.

3) Steps

1. Empty contents of a packet of jelly

crystals into the jug.

2. Add boiling water.

3. Stir well until crystals dissolve.

4. Add the cold water and stir.

5. Pour mixture into a bowl.

6. Refrigerate until firm.

Procedure text is a

piece of text that gives

instruction for doing

something.

The purpose is to

explain how something

can be done.

Descriptive My Pet

1) Identification

I have a pet. It is a dog and I call it

Brownie.

2) Description

Brownie is a Chinese breed. It is

small, fluffy and cute. It has got thick

Descriptive text is

a piece of text that

describes living things

or non-living things.

Its purpose is to

describe to audience

the characteristics of

38

brown fur. When I cuddle it, the fur feels

soft. Brownie doesn‘t like bones. Every

day it eats soft food like steamed rice, fish

or bread. Every morning I give her milk

and bread. When I am at school, Brownie

plays with my cat. They get along well, and

never fight maybe because Brownie does

not like bark a lot. It treats the other

animals in our house gently, and it never

eats shoes. Brownie is really a sweet and

friendly animal.

people, things, animals,

or places. 94

Report

(Information

Report)

1) General Classification

For many years people believed that

the cleverest animals after man were the

chimpanzees. Now, however there is proof

that dolphins may be even cleverer than

these big apes.

2) Description

Although a dolphin lives in the sea, it

is not a fish. It is a mammal. It is in many

ways, like a human being.

Dolphins have a simple language.

They are able to talk to another. It may be

possible for man to learn how to talk to

dolphins. But this will not be easy because

dolphins cannot hear the kind of sounds

man can make. If man wants to talk to

dolphins, therefore, he will have to make a

third language with both he and the

dolphins can understand.

Dolphins are also very friendly

toward man. They often follow ships.

There are many stories about dolphins

guiding ships through difficult and

dangerous waters.

An information

report text is a piece of

text that presents

information about a

subject. The text

usually contains facts

about the subject, a

description and

information on its

parts, behavior and

qualities.

Its purpose is to

classify, describe or to

present information

about a subject.

Meanwhile, Hedge has more thorough classification of the writing activity

types in general. He divides the writing types into six kinds as follows:

94

Pradiyono, Pasti Bisa! Teaching Genre-Based Writing: Metode Mengajar Writing

Berbasis Genre Secara Efektif, (Yogyakarta: C.V. Andi Offset., 2007), p. 33.

39

a) Personal writing is writing for oneself, and includes various kinds of

aide-memories, as well as diaries and journals. These writing activities

would normally be carried out in the first language but there may be

good motivational reasons for using them in the foreign language

classroom. As we have seen, keeping journals in English provides

valuable practice opportunities.

It seems that personal writing is individual writing which used to write the

important things in the person‘s activity.

b) Study writing is also for oneself and may never be shown to others.

The student makes notes while reading, takes notes in lectures, and

makes summaries for exam revision. All of these types require skills

which can usefully be taught to students learning English for study

purpose.

It means that study writing is writing used as note for the students in their

study.

c) Public writing is writing as a member of the general public to

organizations or instructions, so that there are certain conventions to

keep to in the writing. It includes such activities as writing letters of

enquiry, complaint, letter to the editor, form filling, and applications.

Different from the two kinds of writing above, in public writing the author

shares his/her writing to public area. The writing‘s rule in public writing must be

applied appropriately by the author.

d) Creative writing can includes poems, stories, rhymes, drama, all types

of writing which again are mainly for oneself but which may be shared

with others. It is a kind of writing most commonly found at primary and

lower secondary levels in mother-tongue classroom. In these contexts it

has the values of helping personal and social development, building

confidence and self-esteem, and developing writing skills through

narrative. Some teachers report great success with creative writing in

general-purpose English classes to adults, but careful decisions are

necessary about its appropriateness and likely success with particular

groups of adults.

It can be summed up that creative writing is used as development stage to

write which mostly the content of writing is related on the literacy.

40

e) Social writing is a category which includes all the writing that

establishes and maintains social relationships with family and friends.

Social writing is used for people who want to send a message in order to

establish or maintain communication with other people.

f) Institutional writing relates to professional roles and is needed by

business executives, teachers, engineers, and students in these and other

fields. It may well be possible to draw up a core of this type of writing

which all professional people need to be able to write, e.g. reports,

summaries, minutes, memos, etc. however, each area of activity well

have its own specialized texts, such as legal contracts or academic

essays. Language students in these more specialized groups can usually

draw up specifications of their own needs in writing English, and

provide authentic products.95

Institutional writing is used for people in the institution or professional

area, this kind of writing is regarded as formal writing which the author has to

concrete to the writing‘s conventions. The types of writing above can be specified

into table as below:

Table 2.8

The Types of Writing96

Personal Writing

Diaries.

Journals.

Shopping List.

Reminders for

oneself.

Packing Lists.

Addresses.

Recipes.

Public Writing

Letter of:

1) Enquiry.

2) Complaint.

3) Request.

Form Filling.

Applications/Memberships.

Creative Writing

Poems.

Stories.

Rhymes.

Drama.

Songs.

Autobiography.

Social Writing

Letter.

Invitations.

Notes.

1) Of condolence.

Study Writing

Making notes while

reading.

Taking notes from

lectures.

Institutional Writing

Agendas.

Minutes.

Memoranda.

Reports.

95

Tricia Hedge, Writing, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 95—96. 96 Ibid., p. 96.

41

2) Of thanks

3) Of

congratulations.

Cablegrams.

Telephone messages.

Instructions to:

1) Friends

2) Family

Making a card index.

Summaries.

Synopses.

Reviews.

Reports of:

1) Experiments.

2) Workshops.

3) Visits.

Essays.

Bibliographies.

Reviews.

Contracts.

Business letters.

Public notice.

Advertisement.

Posters.

Instructions.

Speeches.

Applications.

Curriculum Vitae.

Specifications.

Note-making

(doctors and other

professional).

4. The Stage of Writing Process

According to Oshima and Hogue there are roughly four steps in writing

process, namely:

Step 1: Prewriting

The first step is called prewriting. Prewriting is a way to get ideas. In this

step, you choose a topic and collect ideas to explain the topic.

There are several techniques you can use to get ideas. In this chapter, you

will practice the technique called listing. Listing is a prewriting technique in

which you write the topic at the top of a piece of paper and then quickly make a

list of the words or phrases that come into your mind. Don‘t stop to wonder if an

idea is good or not. Write it down! Keep on writing until the flow of ideas stops.

In prewriting step, the student start to write by gaining the ideas, there are

several tips to get ideas, one of them suggested by Oshima and Hogue is listing

technique.

Step 2: Organizing

The next step in writing process is to organize the ideas into a simple

outline.

In this step the idea is organized into a simple outline to choose the

specific angle or part to develop into paragraph.

42

Step 3: Writing

The next step is to write a rough draft, using your outline as a guide. Write

your rough draft as quickly as you can without stopping to think about grammar,

spelling, or punctuation. Just get your ideas down on paper. You will probably see

many errors in your rough draft. This is perfectly usual and acceptable-after all,

this is just a rough draft. You will fix the error later. Notice that the writer added

some ideas that were not in his outline. Notice also that he added a concluding

sentence at the end.

After getting the specific idea and then the student can start writing. This

step of writing can be called as rough draft because the student probably makes

many errors.

Step 4: Polishing

In this step, you polish what you have written. This step also called

revising and editing. Polishing is most successful if you do it in two steps. First,

attack the big issues of content and organization (revising). Then work on the

smaller issues of grammar, punctuation, and mechanics (editing).97

This is the last step of writing process. The student edits and fixes the

rough draft in the aspect of grammatical rules, punctuation, etc. The student has

finished the writing process after revising, editing stage.

It seems similar slightly with Oshima and Hogue, Dietsch categories the

writing process into four steps as follows:

1. Strategies for Prewriting

The first stage of writing is simply setting forth ideas in whatever

shape or form that is handy for you—fragments, lists, sentences, or

clusters. The purpose of prewriting is to capture and preserve ideas.98

There is no need to think about order or correctness in the prewriting

stage—the objective is to produce as many ideas as possible.

In prewriting stage is the step to catch as many as idea. The

students don‘t need to worry about correctness or order. The point is to

keep writing. There are five techniques to get idea in prewriting stage,

97

Oshima and Hogue, Op. Cit., pp. 15—18. 98

Betty Mattix Dietsch, Reasoning and Writing Well: A Rhetoric, Research Guide,

Reader, and Handbook, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), p. 11

43

namely: Freewriting, Brainstorming, Clustering, Questioning, and

Keeping a Journal. The explanation as follows:

a. Freewriting

Freewriting, uncensored writing in fragments or sentences, is a

good way to find a topic and details.99

When you freewrite, you

write ―freely‖—without stopping—on a topic for a specific

amount of time. You just write down sentences as you think of

them without worrying about whether your sentences are

correct or not. You also don‘t have to punctuate sentences or

capitalize words. You can even write incomplete sentences or

phrases. The main goal in freewriting is to keep your pencil

moving across the paper.100

b. Brainstorming

You can brainstorm to find a topic for a paper, to narrow a

topic, and to find supporting details. The secret of success in

brainstorming is to think fast and forgo criticism.

c. Clustering

To begin, take a fresh sheet of paper and write a general subject

in the center. Then circle the word. As each new thought bursts

forth, jot it near the word that prompted it. Circle the new

word. Next, draw a line between the two. Repeat the procedure.

When you cluster, you start by writing your topic in a circle in

the middle of your paper. As you think of related ideas, you

write these ideas in smaller circles around the first circle. The

related idea in each small circle may produce even more ideas

and therefore more circles around it. When you have run out of

ideas, your paper might look something like the following

model.

d. Questioning

By questioning and thoughtful reflection, you can take notes on

a significant incident or event and transform them into an

essay.

e. Keeping a Journal

Some instructors require that students keep journals to store

ideas for writing. When you conduct firsthand research, a

journal is useful for recording observations, impressions,

reactions to a piece of literature, or incidents. In some ways a

99

Ibid., p. 39. 100

Oshima and Hogue, Op. Cit., p. 34.

44

journal is similar to a diary, but journals often include a wider

range of material. A journal can be a private account of

conversation, events, perceptions, reactions, or anything else

you care to record. Some writers save quotations, funny stories,

or poems. Any of these items may jump-start ideas for

writing.101

2. Drafting

The second stage of the writing process, drafting, is the time to

develop ideas and start thinking about focus and order. With each new

draft, you will discover more details the reader might desire to know.

You can begin by scanning your prewriting notes and selecting core

ideas.102

In this stage is to develop the idea in freewriting to be a good

paragraph. It needs to focus on a core idea and discover the detail of

the main idea.

3. Revision

The goal of revision is to rethink and reshape your writing so that it

effectively reaches your audience and accomplishes your purpose.

Revision involves the larger aspects of the draft: the organization and

presentation of idea. The smaller items within the sentences—word

choice, grammar, spelling, and punctuation—are treated in the final

stage of the writing process, editing and proofreading.103

Revision is to revise or sharpen the idea. So the writing can be

a effective paragraph to read with clear purpose.

4. Editing and Proofreading

During editing and proofreading, you attend to matters within the

sentence. Editing refers to correcting the sentence structure and

improving the word choice. Proofreading means examining grammar

and punctuation. The goal in the stage four is to clarify meaning and

eliminate grammatical distractions so that the writing purpose can be

achieved.104

101

Dietsch, Op. Cit., p. 42. 102

Ibid. 103

Ibid., p. 62. 104

Ibid., p. 71.

45

In editing and proofreading stage is the strict stage to correct

the all aspect, starting grammatical rules, word choice, punctuation,

etc.

Basically the two opinions above have same points in writing process, it

started by gaining any ideas using some suggested technique called prewriting and

then developing the idea called organizing and writing stage in Oshima and

Hogue and drafting in Dietsch. After developing the idea, the writer or student

draw up the idea by writing it on paper as rough draft. The last step is revising the

rough draft, editing and proofreading the rough draft to be good and correct

writing which the process involved examining the grammar and eliminating

grammatical distractions.

5. The Principles of Writing

Idea within a paragraph should flow smoothly from one to the text and

subordinate ideas should be related to the main idea presented in the topic

sentence. Based on Dietsch‘s book there are distinctive features of principles

writing in order the paragraph to be effective, those are:

a. Interest

To write an effective paragraph that is worth reading, choose a topic

you know and care about. Consider how you might arouse interest.

Scan your prewriting; you may find an overlooked gem that will be

just the hook for your opening. Can you approach the topic in an

unusual way? What might readers like to know? A secret of good

essay writing is to remember that readers like to be entertained; include

anecdotes and offbeat examples. Supply action verbs and concrete

nouns that enable the reader to share your vivid impression.105

It means that the writer should choose a good topic to read. An

interesting title or topic can encourage the reader to know the whole of

paragraphs. Try to make interest topic sentence. So, the reader will be

eager to continue their reading. The readers like to be entertained. The

105

Dietsch, Op. Cit., p. 78.

46

way to catch readers‘ attention of the paragraph is to stimulate

curiosity by choosing an interesting topic.

b. Unity

To unify a paragraph, focus on one major idea in the topic sentence.

The relate all of the support sentences in the paragraph to the topic

sentence. Support sentences may amplify the major idea with

examples, facts, statistics, opinions, or reasons. If a sentence lacks a

connection to the topic sentence, either establish one or discard the

sentence.106

Unity is the paragraph explains one idea. It means that the

supporting sentences/supporting details in the paragraph correlate to

the major idea in the topic sentence, therefore the paragraph has unity.

c. Completeness

To be complete, a paragraph must supply adequate and appropriate

information.107

A paragraph must have complete information. Lack of

information can cause to illogical analysis or gambling information.

The audience will be bored and uninterested in reading the paragraph.

d. Coherence

You might think of a paragraph as a jigsaw puzzle—each piece must

fit. If not, the paragraph lacks coherence; it does not flow smoothly.

During revision, you rearrange any words, phrases, or sentences that

are in the wrong places. If there are still gaps between details, you can

add transitions, either signpost or embedded, to bridge the gaps, or you

might devise parallel structure. Transitions are parallelism show

relationships.108

It can be summed up that coherence is to connect one

paragraph to the next paragraphs smoothly. The writer can use

transitions to cohere sentences in the paragraph.

106

Ibid. 107

Ibid. 108

Ibid., p. 79.

47

e. Clarity

… the main idea should be clear the first time. Clarity is the end result

of knowing your purpose, correctly assessing the audience and

occasion, selecting appropriate words, being complete, and connecting

details to a central idea.109

Clarity prevents the audience to read the paragraph several

times to get the purpose or intended information. An unclear paragraph

will puzzle the audience therefore clarity in delivering information in a

paragraph is needed to have.

C. Recount Text

1. The Definition of Recount Text

Based on School-Based Curriculum or KTSP, there are some kinds of text

that Students of Junior High School need to learn, one of them is Recount Text.

The writer believes that recount text is the text which is so close to the students‘

life. The students do not need to think hard to find the ideas in creating the story,

because they went through with the events, so they can write the story smoothly.

According to Anderson and Anderson ―speaking or writing about past events is

called recount.‖110

They further explain that, ―A recount is a text that retells past

events, usually in the order in which they occurred. Its purpose is to provide the

audience a description of what occurred and when it occurred.‖111

Furthermore according to Derewianka recount is a text that retells events

or experiences in the past which its purpose is either to inform or to entertain the

audience. Recount is very similar Narrative, so the thing that differentiates both

of them is the schematic structure of the body paragraph. There is no complication

among the participants in recount text instead in recount text explores the series of

events which happened to the participants. However, it just focuses on the events

109

Ibid., p. 81. 110

Mark Anderson and Kathy Anderson, Text Types in English 1, (Malaysia: Macmillan,

1997), p. 48. 111

Mark Anderson and Kathy Anderson, Text Types in English 3, (South Yarra:

Macmillan Education Australia PTY LTD., 1998), p. 24.

48

themselves. The events will be told chronologically based on the time and place.

While in narrative the body paragraph is complication which the story has the

climax of problem and the story ended by solving the problem.112

It can be

summed up that recount text is a kind of text that retells about events or

experiences in the past chronologically based on the sequence of events. The

purpose is to give the audience information or to entertain.

2. The types of Recount Text

Derewianka explains that there are five types of recount text, namely:

1. Personal recount is retelling an event that the writer was personally

involved in for example: personal experience, personal letter, diary,

entries, journal, anecdotes, and postcard. Personal recount is usually

written in the first person (I and We) and often to entertain and to

inform.

2. Factual recount is concerned with recalling events accurately. It can

range from the everyday task such as accidents, structured research,

science, news recording and police report. The emphasis is on using

language that is precise, factual, and detailed, so that the reader gains a

complete picture of an event, experience or achievement.

3. Imaginative or literary recounts entertain the reader by recreating the

events of an imaginary world as though they are real such as fiction.

4. A procedural recount records the steps taken in completing a task or

procedures. Example: include a flow chart of the actions required for

making bread and the steps to solve a mathematical problem.

5. A biographical recount tells the story of a person‘s life using a third

person narrator (He, She, and They). In this case, of autobiography,

first person narration (I, We) is used.113

112

Beverly Derewianka, Exploring How Texts Work, (Newtown: Primary English

Teaching Association, 1990), p. 14. 113

Ibid., p. 10.

49

Hardy and Klarwein have a bit different type of recount text. There are

two types of recount text according to them. They divided two kinds of recount

text, namely; Personal Recount as in personal letters and excursion write-ups and

Historical Recount which attempts to retell past experience in the objective view,

such as report of science experiment and police reports.‖114

3. The Schematic Features of Recount Text

A recount text usually has three main sections: Orientation, Sequence of

Events and Reorientation.

Table 2.9

The Schematic Features of Recount Text115

The Stage Function

Step 1 : Orientation Introductory paragraph that tells who, what, where

and when.

Step 2 : Sequence of Events A sequence of events in the order in which they

occurred.

Step 3 : Reorientation A conclusion.

It can be elaborated the three section of recount text as follows:

Step 1: Orientation

Orientation introduces the participants, place and time. It

provides all the necessary background information to make

sense of the text. 5W questions (Who, What, Where, When

and Why) are used in order to have systematic and thorough

information. Therefore, what happened, who or what was

involved in the story, why, where and when the events occurred

needed to write.

Step 2: Sequence of Events

This step tells the sequence events that happened in the past

based on the time and place when it occurred.

114

Judy Hardy and Damien Klarwein, Written Genres in the Secondary School,

(Brisbane: Department of Education Queensland, 1990), p. 12. 115

Anderson and Anderson, Op. Cit., pp. 24—25.

50

Step 3: Reorientation

It consists of optional closure of events or it can be stating

personal comment of the writer to the story.

Model of a recount text116

A Postcard

Dear Nan,

We are having a great holiday here on the Gold Coast. Yesterday we

went to Movie World.

When we got up in the morning it looked like rain. After a while the

clouds disappeared and it became a sunny day. We then decided to go

to Movie World.

The first ride I went on was Lethal Weapon. Next I saw the Police

Academy show. After that I had lunch as I was really hungry.

Meanwhile, Mum and Kelly queued for the Batman ride.

About one o‘clock we got a light shower of rain but it cleared up soon

after. We then went on all the other rides followed by the studio tour.

It was a top day. See you when we get back.

Love

Sam

4. The Language Features of Recount Text

Recounts usually include the following language features:

1. Proper nouns to identify those involved in the text.

2. Descriptive words to give details about who, what, when, where,

and how.

3. The use of the past tense to retell the events.

4. Words that show the order of events (for example, first, next,

then).117

116

Ibid., p. 25. 117

Ibid., p. 24.

Ori

enta

tio

n

Seq

uen

ce o

f ev

ents

R

eori

enta

tion

Event 1

Event 2

Event 3

51

The points above can be summed up in table below:

Table 2.10

The Language Feature of Recount Text

No. Language Features of

Recount Text Example

1. Proper Noun Andy, Jakarta, The Statue of Liberty, etc.

2. Descriptive Word Walking, hairy, clever, etc.

3. Past Tense Went, ate, learned, etc.

4. The word of order of events First, second, last, etc.

The language features has significant role to help in getting the point of the

story. The audience can identify those who involved in the story by finding the

proper nouns. The descriptive words will give more details about the person, time,

place, setting and the plot of the story. The kind of text easily can be identified by

looking for the tense used, the use of past tense directly showed that the text is

recount which retell past events always used past tense. The words that show the

sequence of events will make the story read systematically. It can be concluded

that language features convey the story to be more interesting, alive and

systematic to read.

D. The Previous Study

The writer takes three previous studies related her research which the title

is an analysis of students‘ error in writing recount text. The detail explanation is

below.

The first previous study was written by Nur Elah Amaliah entitled An

Error Analysis on Students‘ Writing Recount Text a Case Study at Second Grade

of SMP Al-Kholidin Kebayoran Baru, Jakarta Selatan. The objective of her

research was to analyze the students‘ error in writing recount text and to know the

highest frequency of the students‘ types of error made by Second Grade of SMP

Al-Kholidin. The Errors Classification in her research covers error in Article,

52

Capitalization, Omission, Punctuation, Spelling, Tenses, Word Choice, and Word

Order. The result of the research was 5.4% errors in Article, 0.5% errors in

Capitalization, 11.4% errors in Omission, 1.6% errors in Punctuation, 5.4% errors

in Spelling, 55.4% errors in Tenses, 4.4% errors in Word Choice, 15.2% errors in

Word Order. It can be concluded that the highest error made by students was in

Tenses area and the lowest was error in Article.118

The second pervious study was conducted by Nurwahid which the title is

Grammatical Error Analysis of Students‘ Writing Recount Text a Case Study at

Second grade Students of SMP Nusantara Plus. The objective of his study was to

analyze the common error on students‘ writing made by the second grade students

of Junior High School. He used Betty Schrampfer Azzar‘s Errors Classification to

analyze the students‘ errors. The research finding showed that the common kind

of errors that the students made was error in Verb Tense which received 93 errors

from 301 errors or 30.89%. The other students‘ error was in Add a Word which

the result was 59 errors or 19.60%, and 33 or 10.96% errors in Spelling. Those

were the top-three errors made by students. Most of the errors were detected

caused by Interlingual Transfer which the total was 180 causes or 67.66%.119

The third previous study was An Analysis of The Second Grade Students‘

Grammatical Errors in Writing written by Roghibah at SMP YMJ Tangerang

Selatan. Her study was to analyze and to classify the types of students‘

grammatical errors in writing. Besides, the purpose of the study was to find out

the frequency of occurrence and to find out the causes of errors which students

made in paragraph. The Grammatical Error covered into six areas, namely: Tense,

Subject Verb, Word Choice, Spelling, Capitalization, and Noun Phrase which

adapted from Azar‘s Grammatical Error theory. The highest frequency was Tense

which the total was 56.48% or 61 errors. The result of the Error Analysis process

118

Nur Elah Amaliah, ―An Error Analysis on Students‘ Writing Recount Text (A Case

Study at Second Grade of SMP Al-Kholidin Kebayoran Baru, Jakarta Selatan)‖, Skripsi in UIN

Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, Jakarta, 2012, tidak dipublikasikan. 119

Nurwahid, ―Grammatical Error Analysis of Students‘ Writing Recount Text (A Case

Study at Second grade Students of SMP Nusantara Plus)‖, Skripsi in UIN Syarif Hidayatullah

Jakarta, Jakarta 2013, tidak dipublikasikan.

53

showed that students committed errors into four types: Omission, Addition,

Misnformation/Miselection and Misorder. Misformation was the highest error

made by students which the total was 62.04% of all the total errors made by

students. Intralingual Transfer which the result was 89 or 82.40% was the highest

cause of error of students‘ writing.120

120

Roghibah, ―An Analysis of The Second Grade Students‘ Grammatical Errors in

Writing‖. Skripsi in UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, Jakarta, 2013, tidak dipublikasikan.

54

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODLOGY

A. The Place and Time of the Research

The writer conducted this research started from 4th

—6th

of December 2013

at SMP Trimulia which is located on Jl. H. Adam Malik No. 1, Petukangan

Selatan, Pesanggrahan, Jakarta Selatan.

B. The Method of Research

Error Analysis is considered as qualitative research. A qualitative research

can be conducted by using a case study. In this study, the writer used a case study

to do the research and she employed descriptive analysis to deliver the result of

research. There are several procedures in conducting Error Analysis and she chose

the procedure of Error Analysis based on Ellis and Barkhuizen. She classified the

students’ errors in writing recount text by using Betty S. Azar’s classification of

errors, and then she analyzed the errors to find the sources of students’ errors and

using Brown’s theory to reveal them. After she calculated the data to get the result

of total errors and then she interpreted the data descriptively. Finally, she could

have a conclusion based on the result of students’ total errors.

C. The Population and Sample of Research

The subject in this research is the second grade students of SMP Trimulia

Jakarta Selatan. The second grade students are divided into five classes A, B, C,

D, E and the writer took a class to conduct the research using purposive cluster

sampling used for specific purpose to generate a more efficient probability sample

in term of monetary and/or time resources.1 The class was VIII-A. There were 30

students’ who took part in the research.

1 Charles Teddlie and Fen Yu, Mixed Method Sampling: A Typology with Examples, Journal of

Mixed Methods Research, 1;77;2007, pp. 79—80.

55

D. The Instrument of the Research

The writer collected the data by giving test to the students. The test

instrument was to write recount text. She gave a writing test for a recount text

telling their unforgettable moment. Then she distributed the test papers to all

students. When the students finished their writing, the papers were collected and

then the writer circled in the incorrect words. Then, the writer asked them to

correct and revise the circling words and collecting the papers again. After all the

data have been collected, the writer analyzed them.

E. The Technique of Data Analysis

The writer used qualitative research in her study which the method is

conveyed in descriptive analysis way to describe and to interpret the result of

qualitative data. To get the qualitative result, the data will be calculated and drew

up in the table of percentage which the formula as follows:

P= Percentage

F= Frequency of error occurred

N= Number of cases (total frequent / total individual)

F. The Procedure of Research

Conducting research needs a process or some stapes. The writer did some

procedures to conduct her research as a process. The procedures are elaborated

below:

1. The writer needs to collect the data. Therefore before conducting the

research she already prepared an instrument or a test for the students.

The instrument/test consists of instruction to compose a recount text.

2. She came to school to ask the principle’s permission who has the

authority to allow the writer conducted the research. After getting the

56

permission, the writer was allowed to meet the English teacher to

arrange time for doing the research.

3. The writer did her research in the class VIII-A, and she got the class as

sample of her research based on purposive cluster sampling. Before

giving the writing test she watched the teaching learning process. The

English teacher gave explanation to the students which the topic was

recount text. After explaining the material, the writer gave instruction

and guidelines how to do the writing test.

4. Next, she collected the students’ writings test and checking it by

circling the wrong words or sentences and returning it to the students

to correct their writing by themselves.

5. Then, the students’ writings were collected again and the writer

checked it once more to find whether the students could correct the

words or not, if students could correct it that means he/she did a

mistake and vice versa means he/she did an error and then she

identified the errors.

6. Next, the writer analyzed the writing test to find the most common

grammatical errors made by students based on Betty S. Azar’s

classification of errors.

7. She calculated the total errors by drawing it up in a table based on the

classification of errors then she made the result of total errors into

percentages and charts.

8. The writer analyzed and classifying the sources of errors based on

Brown’s theory and then she explained the sources of errors made by

the students. The total number of the sources of errors is drawn up in a

table and converted into percentages and chart.

9. Then she interpreted all of the data descriptively.

10. The last step was she made conclusion of her research.

57

CHAPTER IV

THE RESEARCH FINDING

A. The Description and Analysis of Data

1. The Description and Analysis of Grammatical Errors

The writer has identified the students’ error and she has calculated the

number of each error. She draws up the result of calculation into table and

converting them into percentages. Then, she makes a pie chart based on the result.

After that, she interprets the data after processing the result. This table below is

the recapitulation of the students’ recount text writing errors.

Table 4.1

The Classification of Errors

The

Students

The Classification of Error

Total

Sin

gu

lar

- P

lura

l

Word

Form

Word

Ch

oic

e

Ver

b T

ense

Ad

d a

Word

Om

it a

Word

Word

Ord

er

Inco

mp

lete

Sen

ten

ce

Sp

elli

ng

Pu

nct

uati

on

Cap

itali

zati

on

Art

icle

Mea

nin

g n

ot

Cle

ar

Ru

n-O

n S

ente

nce

Student 1 1 1 9 4 7 3 4 1 0 0 9 0 4 2 45

Student 2 0 0 2 4 1 2 2 0 4 1 6 1 0 3 26

Student 3 7 1 9 11 2 3 5 0 0 3 10 0 1 3 55

Student 4 0 1 3 18 4 0 1 0 5 3 8 0 0 10 53

Student 5 1 1 3 2 5 1 2 0 1 3 8 3 1 0 31

Student 6 1 1 5 3 2 2 2 0 0 1 8 1 0 3 29

Student 7 0 0 1 4 1 0 2 0 3 4 12 1 0 3 31

Student 8 1 0 4 16 3 2 1 0 6 4 9 0 0 12 58

Student 9 0 3 10 0 5 2 0 0 1 1 4 1 0 2 29

Student 10 0 11 15 4 9 6 1 0 4 3 2 0 0 0 55

Student 11 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 7 3 10 0 0 0 23

Student 12 1 0 5 0 2 2 4 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 16

Student 13 0 0 4 0 1 0 0 0 4 0 2 0 1 0 12

58

Student 14 1 1 3 4 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 14

Student 15 0 0 2 4 1 0 0 0 1 2 6 0 0 0 16

Student 16 0 0 1 1 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 9

Student 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 9 1 0 0 11

Student 18 0 0 0 0 2 0 3 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 8

Student 19 0 1 6 0 4 1 1 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 19

Student 20 0 0 1 11 3 3 1 1 10 2 1 0 2 0 35

Student 21 4 1 5 1 4 1 1 0 1 0 8 0 0 0 26

Student 22 0 2 5 5 4 2 3 0 5 3 4 1 1 1 36

Student 23 0 0 2 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 14 0 0 0 20

Student 24 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 2 5 16 1 0 7 34

Student 25 1 0 7 1 3 1 8 0 3 0 6 0 0 1 31

Student 26 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 0 0 0 0 6

Student 27 0 2 3 2 3 1 0 0 1 1 11 2 0 0 26

Student 28 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 7 0 0 0 12

Student 29 0 2 2 5 1 0 0 0 3 0 7 3 0 1 24

Student 30 3 5 0 3 7 3 2 0 4 2 12 3 2 1 47

Total 21 34 110 105 81 38 45 3 71 45 200 22 13 49 837

Percentage

of Error 2.5

1%

4.0

6%

13.1

4%

12.5

4%

9.6

8%

4.5

4%

5.3

8%

0.3

6%

8.4

8%

5.3

8%

23.9

0%

2.6

3%

1.5

5%

5.8

5%

100

%

59

The precentages of the recapitulation of students’ errors are converted into

a pie chart. The pie chart covers the highset until the lowest rank as follows.

Figure 4.1

The Students’ Types of Errors

The pie chart above based on the students’ writing data explains the

varieties of errors that students made. The writer would like to elaborate the result

of the pie chart above started from the highest error number until the lowest rank.

1) Capitalization

Most of students made error in capitalization which the error is

200 or 23.90%. An example sentence of it is “First, we Look The

Elephants.” It should be “First, we look the elephants.” (See

appendix table 4.9, p.8). The other example of it is “On monday I

24%

13%

13% 10%

8%

6%

5%

5%

5% 4%

3% 2%

2%

0%

The Types of Errors

Capitalization

Word Choice

Verb Tense

Add a Word

Spelling

Run-On Sentence

Word Order

Punctuation

Omit a Word

Word Form

Article

Singular-Plural

Meaning not Clear

Incomplete Sentence

60

went to malioboro with my uncle.” it should be “On Monday I went

to Malioboro with my uncle.” (See appendix table 4.19, p.35). The

writer assumes that the error caused by communication strategy.

Writing is different from speaking. When speaking the students don’t

pay attention to the capital letter and in writing the students have to

pay attention in capital letter. Therefore, capitalization error occurred

because the students didn’t capitalize the letter properly.

2) Word Choice

The students made 110 word choice errors or 13.14%. An

example sentence of it is “next ^ me ^ exit from animal’s garden….”

It should be “next to me was the exit of zoo….” (See appendix table

4.3, p.3). Other example of error in word choice is “On sunday 12th

mei.” It should be “On Sunday 12nd

Mei.” (See appendix table 4.3,

p.1). The writer thinks that the errors are caused by interlingual

transfer. It may occur when the students didn’t know the appropriate

word to compose in the paragraph because they translated the

Indonesian language into English directly and it becomes error.

Intralingual transfer also can be the cause of this error. The students

generalize one rule because they have not mastered yet the knowledge.

3) Verb Tense

Verb tense has 105 errors or 12.54%. The example is “The

driver could not controls his car because he drove fast.” The correct

sentence is “The driver could not control his car because he drove

fast.” (See appendix table 4.17, p.32). The other example is “We were

go a half past six.” The correct sentence is “We went at half past six.”

(See appendix table 4.9, p.17). The writer assumes that the error

caused by interlingual transfer because Indonesian language has

different grammatical rules from English. Verb doesn’t have to change

from the present to past or future and in English verb needs to change

from the present to past or future to express the tense. Especially for

61

the past verb which is divided into regular and irregular verb is

confusing enough for the students because it is not available in

Indonesian language. Sometimes it happened when students have

learnt a rule of grammar and they apply it the rule for all other rules

and this source of error called intralingual transfer.

4) Add a Word

The students made 81 add a word error or 9.68%. The example

of the error is “my friends and I went ^ camping.” which it should be

“my friends and I went to camping.” (See appendix table 4.20, p.36).

The other example of this error is “We walked down ^ got on the bus.”

which the correct sentence is “We walked down and got on the bus.”

(See appendix table 4.21, p.37). The writer predicts that the error is

caused by interlingual transfer and communication strategy. The

students can be influenced by their mother tongue language and also it

can be that the students create an easy strategy to write their story but

instead the strategy is not appropriate and it becomes error.

5) Spelling

Spelling has 71 errors or 8.48%. The example of error is “he

and I first meat ^ kidergarten…” which the correct is “he and I first

met in kindergarten….” (See appendix table 4.10, p.19). This error

can be caused by context of learning and communication strategy.

English is a language which has different in spoken and written, when

the student listen or talk in English they don’t think of the spelling but

when they have to write a paragraph they approximate the spelling and

unfortunately their strategy to approximate sometimes can be an error.

The error that caused by context of learning can be happened from the

students themselves or the teacher. Probably the teacher ever gave a

wrong spelling or the students don’t look carefully the English word

they learn, so the write incorrect spelling.

62

6) Run-On Sentence

Run-On sentence has 49 or 5.85% errors. The example of this

error is “we were go at half past six ^ my father drove The car and my

mother sat in front seat ^ mean while I and my sister sat at the back

sedt.” which the correct sentence is “We went at half past six. My

father drove the car and my mother sat in front seat, meanwhile my

sister and I sat at the back seat.” (See appendix table 4.9, p.17). The

writer assumes that the major of this error is context of learning. The

students didn’t pay attention to the coherence of sentence they wrote.

Therefore they ignore how to connect one sentence to the other

sentences correctly and it produced run-on sentence error.

7) Word Order

The writer believes that the source of word order error is

interlingual transfer. It can be proved in this sentence “Next we took

some pictur beautiful.” That it must be “Next we took some

beautiful pictures.” (See appendix table 4.27, p.49). The error caused

the students used Indonesian language to transfer their sentence into

English and it doesn’t appropriate with English rule therefore it

becomes error. The students made 45 or 5.38% word order errors.

8) Punctuation

The students made 45 or 5.38% punctuation error. The writer

assumes that this error can be caused by communication strategy. Most

of them didn’t pay attention to use the correct punctuation because

perhaps the students didn’t realize yet the importance punctuation in

writing. Therefore, they sometimes missed and misused punctuation or

even ignored to use it. The example is “though I was tired ^ it was

fun^” “Though I was tired, it was fun.” (See appendix table 4.26, p 47)

63

9) Omit a Word

Omit a word has 38 or 4.54% errors. The example of this error

is “after that we went to for a walk.” That it should be “After that we

went for a walk.”(See appendix table 4.25, p.45). The writer assumes

that intralingual transfer is the source of omit a word error. The

students wrote the word that didn’t need in the sentence. It happened

because the students had over-generalization and it turned to be error.

10) Word Form

There is 34 or 4.06% word form error. The writer thinks that

the caused is intralingual transfer because the students generalized the

rule that it’s not correct to apply to other word class. It occurred

because the students haven’t mastered the rule yet. For example of this

error is “…with my family ^ finished bathing and taking picture.”

That it should be “…with my family after finished taking a bath and

taking picture.”(See appendix table 4.24, p.43).

11) Article

Article has 22 or 2.63% errors. This kind of error can be caused

by interlingual transfer and intralingual transfer. Interlingual transfer

source of error happened when student didn’t use article in the word

that should use article because in Indonesian language the rule of using

article is not available. Intralingual transfer occurred when the students

used article for all of the words which do not need to use article. The

example of this error is “I and my family went to the cibodas.” which

it should be “my family and I went to Cibodas.” (See appendix table

4.32, p.56).

12) Singular-Plural

The students made 21 or 2.51% singular-plural error. It is

caused by interlingual transfer which in Indonesian language is not

available singular-plural noun. It differs from English which the

64

singular and plural nouns are different divided into uncountable and

countable plural noun, and regular and irregular plural noun. This is

the example of singular-plural error “Suddenly, I have cramps in my

foot.” That it should be “Suddenly, I had cramp in my foot.” (See

appendix table 4.14, p.32).

13) Meaning Not Clear

In this type of error the students made 13 or 1.55% errors. The

writer predicts that this error caused by interlingual transfer. The

students used inappropriate word to express their feeling. Therefore the

meaning becomes not clear. The example is “my family and five

brother go to animal garden, with climb onto something a car.”

That probably the intended sentence is “My family and five brothers

went to the zoo by a car.” (See appendix table 4.3, p.1).

14) Incomplete Sentence

The lowest rank error that made by the students is incomplete

sentence. It has 3 or 0.36% errors. This error is caused by

communication strategy. The students didn’t know how to write the

proper words to interpret their intention and then they tried to write

everything on their mind based on their version and this strategy

becomes error. For example is “The scenery was very interesting along

winding road. After we felt satisfied.” That it could be “The scenery

was very interesting along winding road. We were satisfied.” (See

appendix table 4.28, p.51).

2. The Description and Analysis of Sources of Errors

Based on the description of data above, the writer would like to analyze

the data by presenting the sources of students’ errors. She analyzes the students’

sources of error according to Brown et al theory. Brown divides the sources of

error into four categories. They are interlingual transfer, intralingual transfer,

65

context of learning and communication strategy. After analyzing the data, she

calculated them and then she draws up the total calculation into table. After that

she makes the percentages based on the total result and converting the percentages

into a pie chart. The table below is the recapitulation of students’ sources of

errors.

Table 4.2

The Recapitulation of Students’ Sources of Errors

The

Students

The Sources of Error

Total Interlingual

Transfer

Intralingual

Transfer

Context

of

Learning

Communication

Strategies

Student 1 24 4 0 17 45

Student 2 8 3 2 13 26

Student 3 34 4 0 17 55

Student 4 22 0 3 28 53

Student 5 13 4 1 13 31

Student 6 13 3 0 13 29

Student 7 5 6 0 20 31

Student 8 19 6 0 33 58

Student 9 12 6 0 11 29

Student 10 22 12 2 19 55

Student 11 2 0 0 21 23

Student 12 10 2 1 3 16

Student 13 4 1 0 7 12

Student 14 6 5 0 3 14

Student 15 2 2 0 12 16

Student 16 5 2 0 2 9

Student 17 0 1 0 10 11

Student 18 4 1 0 3 8

Student 19 9 2 0 8 19

Student 20 12 0 1 22 35

66

Student 21 10 2 4 11 27

Student 22 12 2 3 19 36

Student 23 3 2 0 15 20

Student 24 1 2 0 31 34

Student 25 16 3 0 12 31

Student 26 0 0 0 6 6

Student 27 8 4 0 14 26

Student 28 2 1 0 9 12

Student 29 7 6 0 11 24

Student 30 10 9 3 25 47

Total 295 94 20 428 837

Percentage

Source of

Error 35.24% 11.23% 2.39% 51.14% 100%

67

After getting the percentages from the recapitulation of students’ sources

of errors above, the writer displays them into a pie chart started from the highest

until the least rank as follows.

Figure 4.2

The Students’ Sources of Errors

The writer would like to elaborate the pie chart of the students’ sources of

errors above into explanation started from the highest until the lowest rank as

follows.

1) Communication Strategy

The major source of the students’ error is communication

strategy which the total result is 428 or 51.14%. Communication

strategy related to the students’ learning style. The students made a

strategy to comprehend the material easily. They try to explore a way

in delivering their intended message in writing based on their version.

Unfortunately, their strategy leads them to produce the error. These are

some examples of communication strategy:

Communication Strategy

51% Interlingual Transfer 35%

Intralingual Transfer 11%

Context of Learning 3%

The Sources of Errors

68

a) “After ^ some souvenirs we went to for a walk and how much to

meet new friend she is Lisa name.” it should be “After buying

some souvenirs we went for a walk and we met many people, I

had a new friend, her name is Lisa.” (See appendix table 4.30,

p.58). The student omitted a word “buying” and adding a word

“to” but the intended message still can be comprehended. It’s so

much different from the last sentence “how much to meet new

friend she is Lisa name.” which the intended meaning must be

comprehended hard. This is the student’s strategy to express the

idea in his/her mind in writing based on his/her version.

b) “I visited my family. She lived in water park.” (See appendix

table 4.15, p.13). The student had inappropriate word choice “my

family” that it should be “my relative”, “in water park” which it

should be “near Water Park.” and having incorrect word choice

“She” for the pronoun of my “my family (my relative)” which it

should be “They”. The student tried to communicate his/her idea

about his/her relative but the strategy leads him/her to the error.

c) “I and ^ family ^ so very-very happy.” It should be “My family

and I were very happy.”(See appendix table 4.18, p.34). The

student’s intention is to deliver his/her happiness but the

inappropriate word choice turns it into error. The word “so very-

very” must be omitted becomes “very” because both of them has

same meaning. The student also had add a word error, that is

possessive adjective “my” and to be “were”.

2) Interlingual Transfer

Interlingual transfer is the second highest common source of

error made by student which the total result is 295 or 35.24% error.

Interlingual transfer occurred when the students are influenced by the

first language in using the target language. It’s commonly happened

69

for the foreign learners when they learn second language or foreign

language, the interference of first language involved in language

learning process. These are the example errors caused by interlingual

transfer:

a) “At night, we held a fire camp night.” it should be “At night, we

held a camp fire night” (See appendix table 4.20, p.36). The

student’s error is caused by interlingual transfer which in

Indonesian language has different formation of noun from English.

It can be seen by his/her word order which it is the word order in

Indonesian language rule.

b) “I and family went to home grandmother.” that the correct

sentence is “My family and I went to grandmother’s home.”

(See appendix table 4.37, p.48). The student was influenced by the

interlingual transfer because in Indonesian language the possessive

of noun is different from English and the student still used

Indonesian language way in the sentence.

c) “That ^ a unforgettable moment and happy.” It should be “That

was an unforgettable and happy moment.” (See appendix table

4.7, p.14). The student didn’t use to be, proper article and also

having incorrect word order. Due to in Indonesian language the

rule of using article and to be are not available therefore the student

misused the article, and didn’t use to be in the sentence. Moreover,

he/she had incorrect word order which in Indonesian language

adjective word put after noun but in English adjective word put

before noun. It reflects that the student was still influenced by

mother tongue language or called interlingual transfer.

70

3) Intralingual Transfer

Intralingual transfer has 94 or 11.23% error. When students

who learnt a rule of target language but they haven’t mastered it yet

and they applied it in the new rule, it is called intralingual transfer.

Therefore the students had incorrect sentence structure because they

generalized one rule to others. These are the examples of intralingual

transfer:

a) “And me ^ happy” which the correct is “And I was happy.” (See

appendix table 4.3, p. 3). The student misused object pronoun

“me” therefore he/she used it in subject pronoun. The student also

didn’t use to be in the sentence.

b) “We were go at half past six” which it should be “We went at half

past six.” (See appendix table 4.9, p. 17). The student misused the

verb of past tense (to be) “were”. It caused by intralingual transfer

because the student generalized that the word “we” must be

followed by “were”.

c) “On Sunday my grandma and I went to the Tangkuban Perahu”

it should be “On Sunday my grandma and I went to Tangkuban

Perahu” (See appendix table 4.18, p.33). The student made over-

generalization of using article the, therefore he/she applied it in the

proper noun which do not need to use article the.

4) Context of Learning

The lowest source of error is context of learning which the

error is 20 or 2.39%. Context of learning can be caused by the teacher,

textbook material, or the student itself. Sometimes, the teacher mislead

explanation improperly contextualized based on the textbook when

he/she explains the pattern in the classroom or the textbook itself gives

hardly comprehensible explanation for the students, and may be the

71

students have misperception of teacher’s explanation from the

materials given that leads them to make the error. These are the

examples of context of learning:

a) “…and the next day morning we went to the recreation area is a

very beautiful waterfall.” which the correct “…and the next

morning we went to the recreation area which has a very beautiful

waterfall.” (See appendix table 4.24, p.42). The student didn’t use

the relative clause to connect word in the sentence and it can be

caused by the teacher’s explanation which didn’t have wide

coverage therefore the student wrote inappropriate sentence. The

student also had incorrect word “day morning” it can be caused

the student’s perception related using the word “day”.

b) “…we went a look the Tiger, Elephant, Snake, Bird, etc.” it

should be “…we went a look the tigers, elephants, snakes, birds,

etc.” (See appendix table 4.23, p.41). The student didn’t use the

plural noun, it can be caused in teaching learning process the

student only was familiar with the singular noun, therefore the

student didn’t use the singular-plural noun properly in the topic

he/she write related the number of animals in zoo.

72

B. The Interpretation of Data

The writer would like to interpret the data based on the description

and analysis data above. The result shows that the three most common

grammatical errors made by the students in recount text writing. The first

is capitalization which has 200 or 23.90% error. The major source of

capitalization errors is communication strategy. English is a language

which has difference in spoken and written. When the students speak in

English they didn’t think about the capital letter but when they write a

paragraph they have to pay attention to the capital and non-capital letter.

Therefore most of students had error in capitalization.

The second most common error is word choice. It has 110 word

choice errors or 13.14%. The sources of error are interlingual transfer and

communication strategy. The student chose wrong word whose meaning

is not appropriate in the sentence. The last is verb tense which the number

of error is 105 or 12.54%. The major source of verb tense error is

interlingual transfer. In Indonesian language the transform verb from

present to past or future tense is not available. It is so different from

English which each every verb has different pattern that explains the tense

occurred. Moreover the verb of past tense divided into regular and

irregular form and sometimes it is confusing for those learners.

Furthermore, the three lowest students’ grammatical errors in

recount text writing are incomplete sentence which it has 3 or 0.36%

errors, meaning not clear is 13 or 1.55% errors and 21 or 2.51% singular-

plural errors. The first lowest frequency of error is Incomplete sentence

error happened when the students wrote a sentence which missed some

words or verbs which have major meaning in the sentence. The source of

this error caused context of learning. The students’ competence of rules

was not complete yet, therefore it led them miss some words or verbs in

the sentence.

73

The second is meaning not clear. It happened when students wrote a

paragraph and the paragraph prevented to be comprehended by reader

because some incorrect patterns or inappropriate words in the sentence,

therefore the sentence didn’t have meaning. This kind of error is

interlingual transfer because the students translated their first language

into the target language word by word or communication strategy when

students tried to explore an easy writing way to write their idea based on

their version but it led them to the error.

The last is Singular-plural. It happened because the students don’t

have singular-plural rule in their first language and it differs from the

target language which has the rule of singular-plural noun. Moreover, the

nouns in the target language divided into countable and uncountable noun

and the plural nouns divided into regular and irregular patterns, is

sometimes confusing the learner. Therefore the dominant source of

singular-plural error is interlingual transfer.

74

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

A. Conclusion

Based on the data in the previous chapter, the writer would like to draw a

conclusion that the second grade students of SMP Trimulia Jakarta Selatan still

made many errors in recount text writing. The most common types of errors made

by the students are capitalization with the number of errors is 200 or 23.90%,

word choice with the number of error is 110 or 13.14% and verb tense with the

number of error is 105 or 12.54%.

The sources of errors identified in this study are communication strategy

with the number is 428 or 51.14% source of error, interlingual transfer with the

source of error is 295 or 35.24%, intralingual transfer with the source of error is

94 or 11.23%, context of learning with the number source of error is 20 or 2.39%.

B. Suggestion

After the writer carried out the research, she would like to give some

suggestion related to this result of research. Hopefully it can be applied easily in

teaching learning activity and decrease the errors.

1) The teacher should have brainstorming as warming-up before she starts

teaching learning in classroom in order to make the students happy and

relax. It also can help the students to switch their concentration from the

previous class-subject to focus on the material.

2) The teacher should create an impressing teaching writing technique

which can catch the students’ attention toward English writing activity.

3) Writing has some rules and text types. Therefore the teacher should

simplify the explanation without less the substance of material given.

4) The teacher should give feedback toward the students’ writing and

communicating their progress in writing.

75

5) Writing is a skill which needs a process and practice. Therefore, the

students should practice writing started from the simplest one such as

writing a daily activity or writing their past experience like recount text.

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APPENDICES

1

Table 4.3

Student 1

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

(1) (2) animal

(3)garden

(4)on

(5)sunday (6)12th

(7)^

(8)mei. (9)

my family and

(10)five brother

(11)go to (12)

animal garden,

(13)with climb

onto something a

car.

1) Word choice

2) Capitalization

3) Capitalization

4) Capitalization

5) Capitalization

6) Word choice

7) Add a word

8) Capitalization

9) Capitalization

10) Singular-

plural

11) Verb Tense

12) Word choice

13) Meaning not

clear

1) Choosing

incorrect word

“animal garden”

of zoo.

2) The first letter of

word “animal” in

the title must be

capitalized.

3) The first letter of

word “garden” in

the title must be

capitalized.

4) The first letter of

paragraph “on”

must be

capitalized.

5) The first letter of

proper noun

“sunday” must

be capitalized.

6) Choosing

incorrect word

“12th

” for the

ordinal number

of 12nd

.

7) Adding a word

“of”.

8) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“mei”.

9) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

paragraph “my

family”.

10) Not using –s for

the plural word

“five brother”.

11) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“go”.

12) Choosing

incorrect word

“animal garden”

1) Interlingual

Transfer.

2) Communication

Strategy.

3) Communication

Strategy.

4) Communication

Strategy.

5) Communication

Strategy.

6) Intralingual

Transfer.

7) Interlingual

Transfer.

8) Communication

Strategy.

9) Communication

Strategy.

10) Interlingual

Transfer.

11) Interlingual

Transfer

12) Interlingual

Transfer.

13) Communication

Strategy.

Zoo

On Sunday 12nd

of May. My family

and five brothers

went to the zoo by

a car.

2

of zoo

13) The sentence

couldn’t be

comprehended.

(1)after (2)^

already (3)to

animal garden, (4)me (5)queue up

(6)^ buy ticket in

counter, (7)and

me then direct

enter, my family

and five brother (8)seek (9)place

cool for eat

together (10)with,

(11)after eat. my

family and five

brother

(12)exceed

(13)stable

elephant, and

(14)it appears

stable elephant

wide once and are

hole big in edges (15)next me

stable lion stable

more wide from

stable elephant.

1) Capitalization

2) Add a word

3) Word choice

4) Word choice

5) Verb Tense

6) Add a word

7) Word form

8) Verb tense

9) Word order

10) Omit a word

11) Incomplete

sentence

12) Verb tense

13) Word order

14) Meaning not

clear.

15) Run-on

sentence

1) The first letter

word of “after”

in paragraph

must be

capitalized.

2) Adding a word

“we arrived”.

3) Choosing

incorrect word

“to animal

garden”.

4) Choosing

incorrect word

“me”.

5) Incorrect verb

tense “queue”.

6) Adding a word

“to”.

7) Having incorrect

word order.

8) Incorrect verb of

past tense

“seek”.

9) Having incorrect

word order

“place cool”.

10) Omitting a word

“with”.

11) Having

incomplete

sentence “after

eat”.

12) Incorrect verb

tense “exceed”.

13) Incorrect word

order “stable

elephant”.

14) The sentence

doesn’t have

clear meaning.

15) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

1) Communication

Strategy.

2) Interlingual

Transfer.

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Intralingual

Transfer.

5) Interlingual

Transfer.

6) Interlingual

Transfer.

7) Communication

Strategy.

8) Interlingual

Transfer.

9) Interlingual

Transfer.

10) Interlingual

Transfer.

11) Communication

Strategy.

12) Interlingual

Transfer.

13) Interlingual

Transfer.

14) Communication

Strategy.

15) Communication

Strategy.

After we already

arrived in the zoo,

I queued up to buy

ticket in counter.

Then directly my

family and I

entered the zoo

and sought a cool

place to eat

together. After

eating, we

exceeded elephant

stable. The stable

was wide one and

there was a big

hole in edge of the

stable. The next

was lion stable. It

was wider than the

elephant stable.

3

(1)next (2)me

(3)stable gorilla

(4)^ (5)in you not

may carry snack

to stable gorilla (6)and stable

gorilla wide once

(7)^ many various

gorilla (8)in

there.

1) Capitalization

2) Word choice

3) Word order

4) Run-on

Sentence

5) Meaning not

clear.

6) Meaning not

clear.

7) Add a word

8) Omit a word

1) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

paragraph

“next”.

2) Choosing

incorrect word

“me”.

3) Incorrect word

order “stable

gorilla”.

4) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

5) The sentence

doesn’t have

clear meaning.

6) The sentence

couldn’t be

comprehended.

7) Adding a word

“there were”.

8) Omitting a word

“in there”.

1) Communication

Strategy.

2) Intralingual

Transfer.

3) Interlingual

Transfer.

4) Communication

strategy.

5) Communication

strategy.

6) Communication

strategy.

7) Interlingual

Transfer.

8) Interlingual

Transfer.

Next I was in

gorilla stable. You

weren’t allowed to

carry snack to the

gorilla stable. The

gorilla stable was

wide one, and

there were many

various gorillas.

(1)next (2)^ me

(3)^ exit (4)from

(5)animal’s

garden and (6)go

in the direction of

to house.

(7)and (8)me

(9)^ happy.

1) Capitalization.

2) Add a word.

3) Add a word.

4) Word choice.

5) Word choice.

6) Word order.

7) Omit a word.

8) Word choice.

9) Add a word.

1) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

paragraph “next”.

2) Adding a word

“to”.

3) Adding a word

“was”.

4) Choosing

incorrect word

“from”.

5) Choosing

incorrect word

“animal’s

garden”.

6) Incorrect word

order.

7) Omitting a word

“and”.

8) Choosing

incorrect word

“me”.

9) Adding a word

“was”.

1) Communication

Strategy.

2) Interlingual

Transfer.

3) Interlingual

Transfer.

4) Interlingual

Transfer.

5) Interlingual

Transfer.

6) Interlingual

Transfer.

7) Interlingual

Transfer.

8) Intralingual

Transfer.

9) Interlingual

Transfer.

Next to me was

the exit of zoo and

the direction to go

home.

I was happy.

4

Table 4.4

Student 2

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

On Sunday

(1)2st

(2)^

(3)(4)desember,

(5)I and my

family went to

Ragunan by car.

We (6)were go at

half past six (7)^

my father drove

(8)The car and my

mother sat in front

seat (9)^

(10)mean while

(11)I and my

sister (12)we

always sang along

the way. (13)we

arrived in

(14)ragunan at

08.00 o’clock.

1) Word choice.

2) Add a word.

3) Capitalization.

4) Spelling.

5) Word order.

6) Verb tense.

7) Run-on

sentence.

8) Capitalization.

9) Run-on

sentence.

10) Spelling.

11) Word order.

12) Omit a word.

13) Capitalizati

on.

14) Capitalizati

on.

1) Choosing

incorrect word

“2th

” for the

ordinal number

of 2nd

.

2) Adding a word

“of”.

3) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“desember”.

4) Misspelling the

word “desember”

5) Incorrect word

order “I and my

family”.

6) Incorrect verb of

past tense “were

go”.

7) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

8) Capitalizing a

word improperly.

9) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

10) Spacing the

word “mean

while”.

11) Incorrect word

order “I and my

family”.

12) Omitting a word

“we”.

13) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “we”.

14) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“ragunan”.

1) Intralingual

Transfer

2) Interlingual

Trnasfer

3) Communication

Strategy.

4) Interlingual

Transfer.

5) Interlingual

Transfer.

6) Intralingual

Transfer.

7) Communication

Strategy.

8) Communication

Strategy.

9) Communication

Strategy.

10) Communication

Strategy.

11) Interlingual

Transfer.

12) Interlingual

Transfer.

13) Communication

Strategy.

14) Communication

Strategy.

On Sunday 2nd

of

December, my

family and I went

to Ragunan by car.

We went at half

past six, my father

drove the car and

my mother sat in

front seat,

meanwhile my

sister and I always

sang along the

way. We arrived in

Ragunan at 08.00

o’clock.

5

After we

arrived, we

(1)take a (2)briak

for (3)the

minutes. After

that, we went to

have a look around

(4)the (5)ragunan

zoo.

1) Verb tense.

2) Spelling.

3) Word choice.

4) Article.

5) Capitalization.

1) Incorrect verb of

past tense “take”.

2) Misspelling

“briak” for

break.

3) Choosing

incorrect word

“the minutes” for

a minute.

4) Incorrect article

“the ragunan”.

5) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“ragunan”.

1) Interlingual

Transfer.

2) Communication

Strategy.

3) Context of

Learning.

4) Intralingual

Transfer.

5) Communication

Strategy.

After we

arrived, we took a

break for a minute.

After that, we went

to have a look

around Ragunan

zoo.

First, we looked

the elephants. It is

the big animal.

(1)and we (2)looks

around again

(3)this (4)is a very

funny and

(5)unforget table

moment in my

life(6)^

(7)we all were

happy.

1) Omit a word.

2) Verb tense.

3) Run-on

sentence.

4) Verb tense.

5) Spelling.

6) Punctuation.

7) Capitalization.

1) Omitting a word

“and”.

2) Incorrect verb of

past tense

“looks”.

3) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

4) Incorrect verb of

past tense “is”.

5) Misspelling

caused giving

space for word

“unforget table”.

6) Punctuation isn’t

given in the end

of sentence.

7) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

paragraph “we”.

1) Interlingual

Transfer.

2) Context of

Learning.

3) Communication

Strategy.

4) Interlingual

Transfer.

5) Communication

Strategy.

6) Communication

Strategy.

7) Communication

Strategy.

First, we looked

the elephants. It is

the big animal. We

looked around

again. This was

very funny and

unforgettable

moment in my life.

We all were

happy.

Table 4.5

Student 3

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

(1)on

(2)wednesday 15th

(3)^ November.

(4)my family and

(5)two uncle went

to the (6)animals

1) Capitalization.

2) Capitalization.

3) Add a word.

4) Capitalization.

5) Singular-

plural.

1) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

paragraph “on”.

2) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“wednesday”.

1) Communication

Strategy.

2) Communication

Strategy.

3) Interlingual

Transfer.

On Wednesday

15th

of November.

My family and two

uncles went to the

zoo. I rode on the

motorcycle. After

6

zoo (7) I (8)am

got on the

motorcycle.

(9)after we arrived

at the (10)animal

zoo. (11)mother

(12)buy ticket in

counter. (13)and

my mother already

(14)buy

(15)ticket.

(16)next I (17)am

enter to

(18)animals zoo.

(19)my family and

(20)two uncle

(21)pass by

(22)stable tiger

and after (23)me

(24)pass by

(25)stable bear.

6) Word choice.

7) Run-on

sentence.

8) Verb tense.

9) Capitalization.

10) Word choice.

11) Capitalizati

on.

12) Verb tense.

13) Word choice.

14) Verb tense.

15) Singular-

plural.

16) Capitalizati

on.

17) Verb tense.

18) Word choice.

19) Capitalizati

on.

20) Singular-

plural.

21) Verb tense.

22) Word order.

23) Word choice.

24) Verb tense.

25) Word order.

3) Adding a word

“of”.

4) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “my

family”.

5) Not having

plural noun “two

uncle”.

6) Choosing

incorrect word

“animals zoo”.

7) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

8) Incorrect verb of

past tense “I am

got”.

9) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “after”.

10) Choosing

incorrect word

“animal zoo”.

11) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence

“mother”.

12) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“buy”.

13) Choosing

incorrect word

“and”.

14) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“buy”.

15) Not having

plural noun

“ticket”.

16) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “next”.

17) Incorrect verb

of past tense “I

am enter”.

18) Choosing

4) Communication

Strategy.

5) Interlingual

Transfer.

6) Interlingual

Transfer.

7) Communication

Strategy.

8) Intralingual

Transfer.

9) Communication

Strategy.

10) Interlingual

Transfer.

11) Communication

Strategy.

12) Interlingual

Transfer.

13) Interlingual

Transfer.

14) Interlingual

Transfer.

15) Interlingual

Transfer.

16) Communication

Strategy.

17) Intralingual

Transfer.

18) Interlingual

Transfer.

19) Communication

Strategy.

20) Interlingual

Transfer.

21) Interlingual

Transfer.

22) Interlingual

Transfer.

23) Intralingual

Transfer.

24) Interlingual

Transfer.

25) Interlingual

Transfer.

we arrived at the

zoo. Mother

bought ticket in

counter. After my

mother already

bought the ticket.

Next I entered to

the zoo. My family

and two uncles

passed by tiger

stable and after

that I passed by

bear stable.

7

incorrect word

“animals zoo”.

19) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “my

family”.

20) Not having

plural noun

“two uncle”.

21) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“pass”.

22) Incorrect word

order “stable

tiger”.

23) Choosing

incorrect word

“me”.

24) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“pass”.

25) Incorrect word

order “stable

bear”.

(1)after my

family and (2)two

uncle (3)seek

place for (4)eat

day (5) the next

my family and

(6)two uncle

(7)climb on (8)to

something dragon

boat, after (9)my

family and two

uncle (10)stroll

(11)strive

(12)stable snake,

and (13)stable

monkey and

(14)stable cave

bat(15)^

1) Capitalization.

2) Singular-

plural.

3) Verb tense.

4) Word choice.

5) Run-on

sentence.

6) Singular-

plural.

7) Verb tense.

8) Omit a word.

9) Word choice.

10) Meaning not

clear.

11) Omit a word.

12) Word order.

13) Word order.

14) Word order.

15) Punctuation.

1) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

paragraph “after”.

2) Not having

plural noun “two

uncle”.

3) Incorrect verb of

past tense “seek”.

4) Choosing

incorrect word

“eat lunch” of

word have lunch.

5) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

6) Not having

plural noun “two

uncle”.

7) Incorrect verb of

past tense

“climb”.

8) Omitting a word

“to something”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Interlingual

Transfer.

3) Interlingual

Transfer.

4) Interlingual

Transfer.

5) Intralingual

Transfer.

6) Interlingual

Transfer.

7) Interlingual

Transfer.

8) Communication

Strategy.

9) Interlingual

Transfer.

10) Interlingual

Transfer

11) Communication

Strategy.

12) Interlingual

Transfer.

After my family

and two uncles

sought place for

lunch. Next my

family and two

uncles climbed on

dragon boat, after

they strolled

around snake

stable, monkey

stable and bat cave

stable.

8

9) Inappropriate

word choice “my

family and two

uncle”.

10) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“stroll”,

11) Omitting a word

“strive”.

12) Incorrect word

order “stable

snake”.

13) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“stable monkey”.

14) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“stable cave bat”.

15) Not having

punctuation in the

end of sentence.

13) Interlingual

Transfer.

14) Interlingual

Transfer.

15) Interlingual

Transfer.

(1)after my

family and (2)two

uncle (3)go around

in (4)animals zoo

(5) (6)my family

and two uncle (7)direct (8)strive

(9)^ (10)door

exit(11)^

1) Capitalization.

2) Singular-

plural.

3) Verb tense.

4) Word choice.

5) Run-on

sentence.

6) Word choice.

7) Vern tense.

8) Omit a word.

9) Add a word.

10) Word form.

11) Punctuation.

1) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

paragraph “after”.

2) Not having

plural noun “two

uncle”.

3) Incorrect verb of

past tense “go”.

4) Choosing

incorrect word

“animals zoo”.

5) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

6) Inappropriate

word choice “my

family and two

uncle”.

7) Incorrect verb of

past tense

“direct”.

8) Omitting a word

“strive”.

9) Adding a word

“to”.

10) Incorrect word

1) Communication

Strategy.

2) Interlingual

Transfer.

3) Interlingual

Transfer.

4) Interlingual

Transfer.

5) Communication

Strategy.

6) Interlingual

Transfer.

7) Interlingual

Transfer.

8) Communication

Strategy.

9) Interlingual

Transfer.

10) Interlingual

Transfer.

11) Communication

Strategy.

After my family

and two uncles

went around in the

zoo, we directed to

the exit door.

9

order “door

exit”.

11) Not having

punctuation in

the end of

sentence.

(1)my family

and (2)two uncle

(3)feel happy (4)^

1) Capitalization

2) Singular-

plural

3) Verb tense

4) Punctuation

1) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

paragraph “my

family”.

2) Not having

plural noun “two

uncle”.

3) Incorrect verb of

past tense “feel”.

4) Not having

punctuation in the

end of sentence.

1) Communication

Strategy.

2) Interlingual

Transfer.

3) Interlingual

Transfer.

4) Communication

Strategy.

My family and

two uncles felt

happy.

Table 4.6

Student 4

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

I (1)wakeup at

05.00 (2)am every

day(3)^ I (4)make

the bed, (5)^ I

(6)go to

(7)batroom for

washing my face,

(8)Brushing my

teeth and also

doing ablution(9),

(10)I and my

family (11)do

(12)shubah prayer

together. I

(13)take

(14)abath and

(15)prepare to

go(16)^ school

after dressing.

(17)mother

(18)goes to

traditional market

1) Verb tense

2) Punctuation

3) Run-on

sentence.

4) Verb tense.

5) Add a word.

6) Verb tense.

7) Spelling.

8) Capitalization.

9) Run-on

sentence.

10) Word form.

11) Verb tense.

12) Capitalizati

on.

13) Verb tense.

14) Spelling

15) Verb tense.

16) Add a word.

17) Capitalizati

on.

18) Verb tense.

1) Incorrect verb of

past tense

“wakeup”.

2) Not having

punctuation in

word “am” for

a.m. 3) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

4) Incorrect verb of

past tense

“make”.

5) Adding a word

“before”.

6) Incorrect verb of

past tense “go”.

7) Misspelling

“batroom”.

8) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

1) Interlingual

Transfer.

2) Context of

Learning

3) Interlingual

Transfer.

4) Interlingual

Transfer.

5) Communication

Strategy.

6) Interlingual

Transfer.

7) Communication

Strategy.

8) Communication

Strategy.

9) Communication

Strategy.

10) Interlingual

Transfer.

11) Interlingual

Transfer.

I woke up at

05.00 a.m. every

day. I made the

bed, before I went

to bathroom for

washing my face,

brushing my teeth

and also doing

ablution. My

family and I took

prayer Shubuh

together. I took a

bath and prepared

to go to school

after dressing.

Mother went to

traditional market

for shopping

groceries. Mother

bought vegetables,

fruits, and meat.

We had breakfast

10

for shopping

groceries(19),

mother (20)buy

vegetables, fruits,

and meat. (21)we

(22)have

(23)break fast

(24)^ leaving

home.

19) Punctuation.

20) Verb tense.

21) Capitalizati

on

22) Verb tense

23) Spelling

24) Add a word.

9) Incorrect

punctuation.

10) Incorrect word

order “I and my

family”.

11) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“do”.

12) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“shubuh”.

13) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“take”.

14) Misspelling

“abath”.

15) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“prepare”.

16) Add a word “to”

17) Not capitalizing

first letter in the

first sentence

“mother”.

18) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“goes”.

19) Incorrect

punctuation.

20) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“buy”.

21) Not capitalizing

first letter in the

first sentence

“we”.

22) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“have”.

23) Spacing the

word “break

fast”.

24) Adding a word

“before”.

12) Communication

Strategy.

13) Interlingual

Transfer.

14) Communication

Strategy.

15) Interlingual

Transfer.

16) Interlingual

Transfer.

17) Communication

Strategy.

18) Interlingual

Transfer.

19) Communication

Strategy.

20) Interlingual

Transfer.

21) Communication

Strategy.

22) Interlingual

Transfer.

23) Communication

Strategy.

24) Communication

Strategy.

before leaving

home.

I (1)study

(2)math on

Tuesday,(3)I (4)have to do

1) Verb tense.

2) Capitalization

3) Run-on

sentence.

1) Incorrect verb of

past tense

“study”.

2) Not capitalizing

1) Interlingual

Transfer.

2) Communication

Strategy.

I studied Math

on Tuesday. I had

to do prayer

Dzhuhur at the

11

(5)dzuhur prayer

(6)when the

break(7)(8),(9)my

friends (10)play a

football with me in the field

school(11)I

(12)have (13)a

mateball for

lunch(14), my

father (15)wolks

in the office,(16)

we (17)go back

home after doing

(18)dzuhur

prayer,(19)we (20)do maghrib

prayer after

(21)susent around

6 o’clock,(22)we

(23)eat fried

chickens and

vegetables soup

for

dinner,(24)after

(25)doing (26)isya

prayer, I (27)go to

(28)sleep(29)^

4) Verb tense.

5) Capitalization.

6) Word choice.

7) Add a word.

8) Run-on

sentence.

9) Word order.

10) Verb tense

11) Run-on

sentence

12) Verb tense

13) Spelling

14) Run-on

sentence

15) Verb tense

16) Run-on

sentence

17) Verb tense

18) Capitalizati

on

19) Run-on

sentence

20) Verb tense

21) Spelling

22) Run-on

sentence

23) Verb tense

24) Run-on

sentence

25) Word choice

26) Capitalizati

on

27) Verb tense

28) Word choice

29) Punctuation

proper noun

“math”.

3) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

4) Incorrect verb of

past tense

“have”.

5) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“dzhuhur”.

6) Inappropriate

word choice

“when”.

7) Adding a word

“time”.

8) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

9) Incorrect word

order “my friend

play a football

with me”.

10) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“play”.

11) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

12) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“have”.

13) Misspelling

“mateball”.

14) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

15) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“wolks”.

16) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

3) Communication

Strategy.

4) Interlingual

Transfer.

5) Communication

Strategy.

6) Context of

learning.

7) Communication

Strategy.

8) Communication

Strategy.

9) Communication

Strategy.

10) Interlingual

Transfer.

11) Communication

Strategy.

12) Interlingual

Transfer.

13) Communication

Strategy.

14) Communication

Strategy.

15) Interlingual

Transfer

16) Communication

Strategy.

17) Interlingual

Transfer

18) Communication

Strategy.

19) Communication

Strategy.

20) Interlingual

Transfer.

21) Communication

Strategy.

22) Communication

Strategy.

23) Interlingual

Transfer.

24) Communication

Strategy.

25) Context of

Learning

26) Communication

Strategy.

break time. My

friends and I

played football in

the field school

after I had

meatball for lunch.

My father worked

in office. My

friend and I went

home after doing

Dzhuhur prayer.

We did prayer

Maghrib after

sunset around 6

o’clock. After that

we ate fried

chickens and

vegetables food for

dinner. After

taking prayer Isya,

I went to bed.

12

17) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“go”.

18) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“dzhuhur”.

19) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

20) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“do”.

21) Misspelling

“susent”.

22) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

23) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“eat”.

24) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

25) Inappropriate

word choice

“doing”.

26) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“Isya”.

27) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“go”.

28) Inappropriate

word choice

“sleep”.

29) Not having

punctuation in

the end of

sentence.

27) Interlingual

Transfer

28) Interlingual

Transfer.

29) Communication

Strategy.

13

Table 4.7

Student 5

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

A Tour to (1)the

(2)taman

(3)matahari

On

Thursday(4)^ 26th

(5)^ (6)Juni, (7)I

and Class mate went to (8)the

(9)taman

(10)matahari.

(11)we walked

down and got on

the bus.

1) Article.

2) Capitalization

3) Capitalization

4) Punctuation

5) Add a word

6) Spelling

7) Word order

8) Article.

9) Capitalization

10) Capitalizati

on

11) Capitalizati

on.

1) It’s incorrect to

put article in

proper noun “the

taman matahari”.

2) Not capitalizing

the tittle “taman

matahari”.

3) Not capitalizing

the tittle “taman

matahari”.

4) Not having

punctuation.

5) Adding a word

“of”.

6) Misspelling

“Juni”.

7) Incorrect word

form “I and Class

mate”.

8) It’s incorrect to

put article in

proper noun “the

taman matahari”.

9) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“taman matahari”.

10) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“taman matahari”.

11) Not capitalizing

first letter in

sentence.

1) Intralingual

Transfer.

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Interlingual

Transfer

6) Interlingual

Transfer

7) Interlingual

Transfer

8) Intralingual

Transfer

9) Communication

Strategy

10) Communication

Strategy

11) Communication

Strategy

A Tour to Taman

Matahari

On Thursday,

26th

of June, my

classmate and I

went to Taman

Matahari. We

walked down and

got on the bus.

After we arrived

at the Gardens,

(1)we asinging to

teacher that we

attention. I and

(2)^ (3)four

friend walked

down and (4)a

look around (5)^

scenery (6)in

1) Meaning not

clear

2) Add a word

3) Singular-

Plural

4) Word form

5) Add a word

6) Omit a word

1) The sentence

doesn’t have clear

meaning therefore

the sentence

couldn’t be

comprehended.

2) Adding a word

“my”.

3) Not having

plural noun “four

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Intralingual

Transfer

5) Context of

Learning

After we arrived

at the Gardens, we

were assigned that

we had to pay

attention to the

teacher. My four

friends and I

walked down and

looked around the

scenery.

14

there. friend”.

4) Incorrect word

form “a look

around” the

correct is looked

around.

5) Adding a word

“the”.

6) Omitting a word

“in there”.

6) Interlingual

Transfer

(1)next we

(2)return (3)^

(4)Souvenirs.

(5)After we (6)go

eat near river.

After that we (7)go

photo for

(8)kenang-

kenangan (9)^

1) Capitalization

2) Verb tense

3) Add a word

4) Capitalization

5) Word choice

6) Verb tense

7) Word choice

8) Word choice

9) punctuation

1) Not capitalizing

first letter of

paragraph

“next”.

2) Incorrect verb of

past tense

“return”.

3) Adding a word

“to buy”.

4) Incorrect

capitalizing

“Souvenirs”.

5) Inappropriate

word choice

“After”.

6) Incorrect verb of

past tense “go

eat”.

7) Inappropriate

word choice “go

photo”.

8) Inappropriate

word choice

“kenang-

kenangan”.

9) Not having

punctuation in

the end of

sentence.

1) Communication

Strategy.

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Communication

Strategy.

4) Communication

Strategy.

5) Interlingual

Transfer

6) Interlingual

Transfer

7) Intrelingual

Transfer

8) Intrelingual

Transfer

9) Communication

Strategy.

Next we returned

to buy souvenirs.

And then we ate

near river. After

that we took

pictures as

remembrance.

(1)that (2)^ (3)a

unforgettable

(4)moment and

happy(5)^

1) Capitalization

2) Add a word

3) Article

4) Word order

5) punctuation

1) Not capitalizing

first letter of

paragraph “that”.

2) Adding a word

“was”.

3) Incorrect article

“a unforgettable”.

4) Incorrect word

order “that a

1) Communication

Strategy.

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Intralingual

Transfer

4) Interlingual

Transfer

5) Communication

That was an

unforgettable and

happy moment.

15

unforgettable

moment and

happy”

5) Not having

punctuation in the

end of sentence.

Strategy.

Table 4.8

Student 6

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

(1)20 (2)june

2012, (3)I and my

family went to

Bogor-(4)ragunan

zoo. (5)we

(6)went (7)with

my (8)family car.

1) Word order

2) Capitalization

3) Word order

4) Capitalization

5) Capitalization

6) Word choice

7) Word choice

8) Omit a word

1) Incorrect word

order “20 june

2012”.

2) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“june”.

3) Incorrect word

order “I and my

family”.

4) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“ragunan”.

5) Not capitalizing

the first letter in

sentence “we”.

6) Inappropriate

word choice

“went”.

7) Incorrect word

choice “with”.

8) Omitting a word

“family”.

1) Interlingual

Transfer.

2) Communication

Strategy.

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Communication

Strategy.

5) Communication

Strategy.

6) Interlingual

Transfer

7) Interlingual

Transfer

8) Interlingual

Transfer

On June, 20

2012, My family

and I went to

Bogor-Ragunan

zoo. We got it by

car.

(1)after we

arrived at the zoo,

first we walked

down to the

elephant cage. I

(2)see many

(3)elephant with

their own

activities(4), then

we looked at

(5)Lion cage, I

(6)see a lion

(7)have a sleep,

1) Capitalization

2) Verb tense

3) Singular-

plural

4) Run-on

sentence

5) Capitalization

6) Verb tense

7) Word choice

8) Verb tense

9) Run-on

sentence

10) Word form

1) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

paragraph “after”.

2) Incorrect verb of

past tense “see”.

3) Not having

plural noun

“many elephant”.

4) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

5) Incorrect

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Interlingul

Transfer

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Communication

Strategy

6) Interlingual

Transfer

7) Intralingual

After we

arrived at the zoo,

first we walked

down to the

elephant cage. I

saw many

elephants with

their own

activities. Then we

looked at lion

cage, I saw a lion

was sleeping and

another lion was

16

and another lion

(8)have eat, (9)

(10)the guide,

name (11)mr.

(12)bayu (13)^

read us the

information of the

lion. (14)after that

we walked down

to (15)the another

animal cage(16),

(17)after we (18)^

tired we (19)came

to home

(20)again(21)^

11) Capitalizati

on

12) Capitalizati

on

13) Add a word

14) Capitalizati

on

15) Article

16) Run-on

sentence

17) Word choice

18) Add a word

19) word choice

20) Omit a word

21) punctuation

capitalizing letter

“at Lion cage”.

6) Incorrect verb of

past tense “see”.

7) Incorrect word

choice “have a

sleep”.

8) Incorrect verb of

past tense “have

eat”.

9) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

10) Incorrect word

form “the guide,

name mr. bayu”.

11) Not capitalizing

proper noun “mr.

bayu”.

12) Not capitalizing

proper noun “mr.

bayu”.

13) Adding a word

“who”.

14) Not capitalizing

first letter of

sentence “after”.

15) Incorrect article

“the”.

16) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

17) Incorrect word

choice “after”.

18) Adding a word

“were”.

19) Inappropriate

word choice

“came”.

20) Omitting a word

“again”.

21) Not having

punctuation in the

end of sentence.

Transfer

8) Intralingual

Transfer

9) Communication

Strategy

10) Interlingual

Transfer

11) Communication

Strategy

12) Communication

Strategy

13) Interlingual

Transfer

14) Communication

Strategy

15) Intralingual

Transfer

16) Communication

Strategy

17) Communication

Strategy

18) Interlingual

Transfer

19) Interlingual

Transfer

20) Interlingual

Transfer

21) Communication

Strategy

eating. The guide’s

name was Mr.

bayu who read us

the information of

the lion. After that,

we walked down

to another animal

cage. When we

were tired, we

went home.

17

Table 4.9

Student 7

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

On

(1)sunday(2)^ 1st

(3)^ June, (4)I

and my family went (5)To

Ragunan by car.

(6)we (7)were go

at half past six(8)^

my father drove

(9)The car and my

mother sat in front

seat (10)^

(11)mean while

(12)I and my

sister sat at the

back (13)sedt. I

(14)am very

happy. We always

sang along the

way. We arrived in

(15)ragunan at

07.00

o’clock(16)^

1) Capitalization

2) Punctuation

3) Add a word

4) Word order

5) Capitalization

6) Capitalization

7) Verb tense

8) Run-on

sentence.

9) Capitalization

10) Run-on

sentence.

11) Spelling

12) Word order

13) Spelling

14) Verb tense

15) Capitalizati

on

16) punctuation

1) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“sunday”.

2) Not having

punctuation after

proper noun

“sunday 1st”.

3) Adding a word

“of”.

4) Incorrect word

form “I and my

family”.

5) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“went To

ragunan”.

6) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “we”.

7) Incorrect verb of

past tense “were

go”.

8) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

9) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“drove The car”.

10) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

11) Incorrect

spacing word

“mean while”.

12) Incorrect word

order “I and my

sister”.

13) Misspelling

“sedt”.

14) Incorrect verb

of past tense “am”

1) Communication

Strategy.

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Interlingual

Transfer

5) Communication

Strategy.

6) Communication

Strategy.

7) Intralingual

Transfer

8) Communication

Strategy.

9) Communication

Strategy.

10) Communication

Strategy.

11) Communication

Strategy.

12) Interlingual

Transfer

13) Communication

Strategy.

14) Intralingual

Transfer

15) Communication

Strategy.

16) Communication

Strategy.

On Sunday, 1st

of June, my family

and I went to

Ragunan by car.

We went at half

past six. My father

drove the car and

my mother sat in

front seat,

meanwhile my

sister and I sat at

the back seat. I

was very happy.

We always sang

along the way. We

arrived in Ragunan

at 07.00 o’clock.

18

15) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“ragunan”.

16) Not having

punctuation in the

end of sentence.

After we

arrived, we

(1)Take a (2)briak

for (3)the

minutes. After

that, (4)We went

(5)To have a look

around (6)the

(7)ragunan

zoo(8)^

1) Capitalization

2) Spelling

3) Word choice

4) Capitalization

5) Capitalization

6) Article

7) Capitalization

8) punctuation

1) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“we Take”.

2) Misspelling

“briak”.

3) Incorrect word

choice “the

minutes”.

4) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“after that, We

went”.

5) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“after that, We

went To have”.

6) It’s incorrect to

put article in

proper noun “the

ragunan”.

7) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“ragunan”.

8) Not having

punctuation in the

end of sentence.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Intralingual

Transfer

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Intralingual

Transfer

6) Intralingual

Transfer

7) Communication

Strategy

8) Communication

Strategy

After we arrived,

we took a break for

a minute. After

that, we went to

have a look around

Ragunan zoo.

First, we

(1)Looked (2)The

(3)Elephants.

(4)it’is the big

animal, and we

looked around

again(5)this (6)is

very funny and

unforgettable

moment in my

life(7)^

We all were

happy.

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Capitalization

4) Verb tense

5) Run-on

sentence

6) Verb tense

7) punctuation

1) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“we Looked”.

2) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“we Looked The”.

3) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“we Looked The

Elephant”.

4) Incorrect verb of

past tense “it’is”.

5) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

1) Communication

Strategy.

2) Communication

Strategy.

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Intralingual

Transfer

5) Communication

Strategy

6) Interlingual

Transfer

7) Communication

Strategy.

First, we looked

the elephants.

Those were the big

animal, and we

looked around

again. This was

very funny and

unforgettable

moment in my life.

We all were

happy.

19

6) Incorrect verb of

past tense “is”.

7) Not having

punctuation in the

end of sentence.

Table 4.10

Student 8

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

(1)my (2)best

(3)friend

(4)ainun (5)is

my best friend,(6)

he (7)is cool;(8)

excellent and

diligent(9)^ he and

I first (10)meat

(11)kidergarten

and we

(12)become great

friends. (13)he

(14)is kind, jolly

and helpful(15)we

(16)are classmates

again this year and

we (17)go to

school together

each morning(18)^

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Capitalization

4) Capitalization

5) Verb tense

6) Run-on

sentence

7) Verb tense

8) Punctuation

9) Run-on

sentence

10) Spelling

11) Spelling

12) Verb tense

13) Capitalizati

on

14) Verb tense

15) Run-on

sentence

16) Verb tense

17) Verb tense

18) Run-on

sentence

1) Not capitalizing

each first letter of

words in the title

“my”.

2) Not capitalizing

each first letter of

words in the title

“best”.

3) Not capitalizing

each first letter of

words in the title

“friend”.

4) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

paragraph “ainun”

5) Incorrect verb of

past tense “is”.

6) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

7) Incorrect verb of

past tense “is”.

8) Incorrect

punctuation.

9) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

10) Misspelling

“meat”.

11) Misspelling

“kidergarten”.

12) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“become”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Interlingual

Transfer

6) Communication

Strategy

7) Interlingual

Transfer

8) Communication

Strategy

9) Communication

Strategy

10) Communication

Strategy

11) Communication

Strategy

12) Interlingual

Transfer

13) Communication

Strategy

14) Interlingual

Transfer

15) Communication

Strategy

16) Interlingual

Transfer

17) Interlingual

Transfer

18) Communication

Strategy

My Best Fried

Ainun was my

best friend. He was

cool, excellent and

diligent. He and I

first met in

kindergarten and

we became great

friends. He was

kind, jolly and

helpful. We were

classmates again

this year and we

went to school

together each

morning.

20

13) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence.

14) Incorrect verb

of past tense “is”.

15) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

16) Incorrect verb

of past tense “are”

17) Incorrect verb

of past tense “go”.

18) Not having

punctuation in the

end of sentence.

(1)ainun

(2)(3)Likes to joke

and (4)play

games(5)^he

(6)lives far (7)^

my house(8)^ in

the (9)evenings,

we (10)ussually

(11)meet at my

house(12)^ we

(13)sit in the

garden and read

story book(14)^ he

(15)is good (16)^

mathematics

homework (17)^so

whatever I

(18)find

difficulties in my

mathematics

homework I would

ask (19)his to help

me (20)^

(21)some times

when my parents

(22)go out in the

evening(23)^ he

(24)comes

(25)over to

(26)keep (27)me

(28)company and

we (29)watch

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Verb tense

4) Verb tense

5) Run-on

sentence

6) Verb tense

7) Add a word

8) Run-on

sentence

9) Singular-

Plural

10) Spelling

11) Spelling

12) Run-on

sentence

13) Verb tense

14) Run-on

sentence

15) Verb tense

16) Add a word

17) Run-on

sentence

18) Verb tense

19) Word choice

20) Run-on

sentence

21) Spelling

22) Verb tense

23) Run-on

sentence

24) Verb tense

1) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

paragraph “ainun”

2) Incorrect

capitalizing

“Like”.

3) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“Likes”

4) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“play”.

5) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

6) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“lives”.

7) Adding a word

“from”.

8) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

9) Uncountable is

without plural.

10) Misspelling

“ussually”.

11) Misspelling

“meet”.

12) The sentence

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Interlingual

Transfer

5) Intralingual

Transfer

6) Communication

Strategy

7) Communication

Strategy

8) Communication

Strategy

9) Communication

Strategy

10) Communication

Strategy

11) Interlingual

Transfer

12) Interlingual

Transfer

13) Interlingual

Transfer

14) Communication

Strategy

15) Interlingual

Transfer

16) Interlingual

Transfer

Ainun liked

to joke and played

games. He lived

far from my house.

In the evening, we

usually met at my

house. We sat in

the garden and

read story book.

He was good in

mathematics

homework, so

whatever I found

difficulties in my

mathematics

homework, I

would ask him to

help me.

Sometimes when

my parents went

out in the evening.

He came to

company me and

we watched TV

together, that’s

why I didn’t not

feel lonely.

21

(30)tv

together(31)^

(32)that^ (33)way

I (34)do not feel

lonely(35)^

25) Omit a word

26) Omit a word

27) Word order

28) Spelling

29) Verb tense

30) Capitalizati

on

31) Run-on

sentence

32) Add a word

33) Word choice

34) Verb tense

35) Punctuation

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

13) Incorrect verb

of past tense “sit”

14) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

15) Incorrect verb

of past tense “is”.

16) Adding a word

“in”.

17) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

18) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“find”.

19) Incorrect word

choice “his”.

20) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

21) Misspelling

caused by space

“some times”.

22) Incorrect verb

of past tense “go”.

23) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

24) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“comes”.

25) Omitting a word

“over”.

26) Omitting a word

“keep”.

27) Incorrect word

order “keep me

company”.

28) Misspelling

“company”.

29) Incorrect verb

17) Communication

Strategy

18) Interlingual

Transfer

19) Intralingual

Transfer

20) Communication

Strategy

21) Communication

Strategy

22) Interlingual

Transfer

23) Communication

Strategy

24) Interlingual

Transfer

25) Intralingual

Transfer

26) Intralingual

Transfer

27) Intralingual

Transfer

28) Communication

Strategy

29) Interlingual

Transfer

30) Communication

Strategy

31) Communication

Strategy

32) Intralingual

Transfer

33) Communication

Strategy

34) Interlingual

Transfer

35) Communication

Strategy

22

of past tense

“watch”.

30) Not capitalizing

“tv”.

31) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

32) Adding a word

“that’s”.

33) Incorrect word

choice “way”.

34) Incorrect verb

of past tense “do”.

35) Not having

punctuation in the

end of sentence.

I hope (1)ainun

and I will be in the

same class next

year(2)^ and I

hope (3)ainun and

I (4)to be friends

forever(5)^

1) Capitalization

2) Punctuation

3) Word choice

4) Word choice

5) Punctuation

1) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“ainun”.

2) The sentence

should be

punctuated.

3) Inappropriate

word choice

“ainun and I”.

4) Incorrect word

choice “to”.

5) Not having

punctuation in the

end of sentence.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Interlingual

Transfer

5) Communication

Strategy

I hope Ainun and

I will be in the

same class next

year, and I hope

we will be friend

forever.

Table 4.11

Student 9

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

(1)Once upon

a time (2)^ family

and I (3)leave to

Villa, (4)Family I

(5)^ in Yonder

(6)To spend

(7)(8)The (9)along

one day and one

night(10)^(11) the

following day

1) Word choice

2) Add a word

3) Word choice

4) Word choice

5) Add a word

6) Capitalization

7) Capitalization

8) Article

9) Word choice

10) Add a word

1) Inappropriate

word choice “once

upon a time”.

2) Adding a word

“my”.

3) Inappropriate

word choice

“leave”

4) Inappropriate

word choice

1) Intralingual

Transfer

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Interlingual

Transfer

One day, my

family and I went

to Villa, we were

in Yonder to spend

one day and one

night holiday. The

following day we

went to certain

place again, that

was Ancol. In

23

(12)family I

(13)leave to

certain place

again(14)^ that is

(15)ancol (16)dan

(17)there

(18)^family (19)^

I (20)Swimming

after (21)that

(22)Swimming

(23) family I

(24)to Eat

(25)after that

(26)to Eat

(27)family I

(28)To Go

Home(29)^

11) Run-on

sentence

12) Word choice

13) Word choice

14) Run-on

sentence

15) Capitalizati

on

16) Spelling

17) Word choice

18) Add a word

19) Add a word

20) Word form

21) Omit a word

22) Capitalizati

on

23) Word choice

24) Word form

25) Word choice

26) Omit a word

27) Word choice

28) Word form

29) punctuation

“family I”.

5) Adding a word

“were”.

6) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“To”.

7) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“The”.

8) Incorrect placing

article “The along”

9) Inappropriate

word choice

“along”.

10) Adding a word

“holiday”.

11) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

12) Inappropriate

word choice

“family I”.

13) Inappropriate

word choice

“leave”

14) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

15) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“ancol”.

16) Misspelling

“dan”.

17) Inappropriate

word choice

“there”.

18) Adding a word

“my”.

19) Adding a word

“and”.

20) Incorrect word

form “swimming”.

21) Omitting a word

“that”.

22) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

6) Communication

Strategy

7) Communication

Strategy

8) Intralingual

Transfer

9) Interlingual

Transfer

10) Interlingual

Transfer

11) Communication

Strategy

12) Interlingual

Transfer

13) Interlingual

Transfer

14) Communication

Strategy

15) Communication

Strategy

16) Interlingual

Transfer

17) Interlingual

Transfer

18) Communication

Strategy

19) Communication

Strategy

20) Intralingual

Trnasfer

21) Interlingual

Transfer

22) Communication

Strategy

23) Interlingual

Transfer

24) Intralingual

Transfer

25) Interlingual

Transfer

26) Intralingual

Transfer

27) Interlingual

Transfer

28) Intralingual

Transfer

29) Communication

Stratgey

Ancol my family

and I swam, after

swimming we had

lunch together and

then we went

home.

24

“Swimming”.

23) Inappropriate

word choice

“Family I”

24) Incorrect word

form “to eat”.

25) Inappropriate

word choice “after

that”.

26) Omitting a word

“to eat”.

27) Inappropriate

word choice

“family I”.

28) Incorrect word

form “to go”.

29) Not having

punctuation in the

end of sentence.

Table 4.12

Student 10

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

Climb Mountain

One day,

(1)ever my age

five year, my

family (2)to go

village in

yogyakarta, I

(3)There (4)To

use bus,(5)

(6)finish (7)there

I (8)(9)to

investigate (10)Goods

(11)who I (12)To

bring, and it

(13)appears my

bag (14)who

(15)contain blouse

and my trousers

(16)Leave, I

(17)direct (18)To

1) Word choice

2) Word form

3) Capitalization

4) Word form

5) Punctuation

6) Word choice

7) Word choice

8) Word choice

9) Word form

10) Capitalizati

on

11) Word choice

12) Word form

13) Omit a word

14) Word choice

15) Verb tense

16) Verb tense

17) Word choice

18) Word form

19) Omit a word

20) Omit a word

21) Spelling

1) Incorrect word

choice “ever my

age five year”.

2) Incorrect word

form “to go”.

3) Incorrect

capitalizing word

“There”.

4) Incorrect word

form “to use”.

5) Incorrect

punctuation. It

should be period.

6) Incorrect word

choice “finish”

that should be

“When I arrived”.

7) Inappropriate

word choice

“there” that

should be “in bus

station”.

1) Interlingual

Transfer

2) Intralingual

Transfer

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Intralingual

Transfer

5) Communication

Strategy

6) Interlingual

Transfer

7) Interlingual

Transfer

8) Communication

Strategy

9) Intralingual

Transfer

10) Communication

Strategy

11) Intralingual

Transfer

Climb Mountain

One day, when I

was five years old,

my family went to

village in

Jogjakarta, I got

there by bus. When

I arrived in bus

station, I checked

the goods that I

brought, and my

bag which

contained blouse

and my trousers

was left. Soon I

went home to take

my bag and came

back to the bus

station. Fortunately

I didn’t miss the

bus and I directly

25

go home,

(19)finish (20)To

go home (21)tag

my bag,(22)^ I

(23)direct

(24)(25)to depart

again (26)^,(27)

(28)advantage

(29)only (30)no be

left (31)^bus, and

I (32)direct

(33)^in the bus.

22) Add a word

23) Omit a word

24) Word form

25) Word choice

26) Add a word

27) Punctuation

28) Word choice

29) Omit a word

30) Word form

31) Add a word

32) Word form

33) Add a word

8) Inappropriate

word choice “to

investigate”.

9) Incorrect word

form that it should

be verb of past

tense.

10) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“Goods”.

11) Incorrect word

choice “who”.

12) Incorrect word

form “to bring”.

13) Omitting a word

“appears”.

14) Incorrect word

choice “who”.

15) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“contain”.

16) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“leave”.

17) Inappropriate

word choice

“direct”.

18) Incorrect word

form “to go

home”.

19) Omitting a word

“finish”.

20) Omitting a word

“to go home”.

21) Misspelling

“tag”.

22) Adding a word

“and”.

23) Omitting a word

“direct”.

24) Incorrect word

form “to depart”.

25) Inappropriate

word choice “to

depart”.

26) Adding a word

“the bus station”.

27) Incorrect

12) Intralingual

Transfer

13) Communication

Strategy

14) Intralingual

Transfer

15) Interlingual

Transfer

16) Interlingual

Transfer

17) Interlingual

Transfer

18) Intralingual

Transfer

19) Interlingual

Transfer

20) Intralingual

Transfer

21) Communication

Strategy

22) Communication

Strategy

23) Interlingual

Transfer

24) Intralingual

Transfer

25) Interlingual

Transfer

26) Communication

Strategy

27) Communication

Strategy

28) Interlingual

Transfer

29) Communication

strategy

30) Communication

Strategy

31) Interlingual

Transfer

32) Interlingual

Transfer

33) Interlingual

Transfer

got on the bus.

26

punctuation. It

should be period.

28) Inappropriate

word choice

“advantage”.

29) Omitting a word

“only”.

30) Incorrect word

form “no be left”.

31) Adding a word

“the”.

32) Incorrect word

form “direct”.

33) Adding a word

“got on”.

(1)(2)Fiftheen

o’clock (3)^

(4)than, I

(5)finished To in

village and I

(6)direct (7)go to

(8)home my

grand mother,(9)

(10)finish

(11)shack hand

with my

(12)grand

mother, I

(13)direct asked

(14)my grand

mother (15)to

give eat a cow,

for I (16)^ afraid.

(17)^ I (18)cry for

(19)^ (20)^

(21)sick

(22)arraid.

1) Spelling

2) Word choice

3) Add a word

4) Omit a word

5) Word choice

6) Word form

7) Verb tense

8) Word order

9) Punctuation

10) Word choice

11) Word form

12) Spelling

13) Word form

14) Word choice

15) Word choice

16) Add a word

17) Add a word

18) Verb tense

19) Add a word

20) Add a word

21) Word choice

22) Spelling

1) Misspelling

“fiftheen”.

2) Incorrect word

choice “fiftheen”.

3) Adding a word

“p.m.”.

4) Omitting a word

“than”.

5) Incorrect word

choice “finished

to”.

6) Incorrect word

form “direct”.

7) Incorrect verb of

past tense “go”.

8) Incorrect word

order “home my

grand mother”.

9) The punctuation

should be period.

10) Incorrect word

choice “finish”.

11) Incorrect word

form “shack

hand”.

12) Misspelling

caused space

“grand mother”.

13) Incorrect word

choice “direct”.

14) Inappropriate

word choice “my

grand mother”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Context of

Learning

3) Context of

Learning

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Interlingual

Transfer

6) Intralingual

Transfer

7) Interlingual

Transfer

8) Communication

Strategy

9) Communication

Strategy

10) Interlingual

Transfer

11) Intralingual

Transfer

12) Communication

Strategy

13) Intralingual

Transfer

14) Communication

Strategy

15) Interlingual

Transfer

16) Interlingual

Transfer

17) Communication

At 3 o’clock

p.m., I arrived in

village and I

directly went to

my grandmother’s

home. After

shaking hand with

my grandmother,

directly I asked her

to feed a cow, for I

was afraid. And

then I cried for I

was very afraid.

27

15) Inappropriate

word choice “to

give eat”.

16) Adding a word

“was”.

17) Adding a word

“and then”.

18) Incorrect verb

of past tense “cry”

19) Adding a word

“I”.

20) Adding a word

“was”.

21) Incorrect word

choice “sick”.

22) Misspelling

“arraid”.

Strategy

18) Interlingual

Transfer

19) Interlingual

Transfer

20) Interlingual

Transfer

21) Communication

Strategy

22) Communication

Strategy

Table 4.13

Student 11

Identification Classification

of Error

Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

When I was

walking (1)hom

from school

yesterday, I saw an

accident. A car hit

a (2)motorcyle

from behind.

(3)the driver

(4)cold not control

his car because he

drove fast(5)^

1) Spelling

2) Spelling

3) Capitalization

4) Spelling

5) Punctuation

1) Misspelling

“hom”.

2) Misspelling

“motorcyle”.

3) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “the”.

4) Misspelling

“cold”

5) Not having

punctuation in the

end of sentence.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Communication

Strategy

When I was

walking home

from school

yesterday, I saw an

accident. A car hit

a motorcycle from

behind. The driver

could not control

his car because he

drove fast.

(1)the car didn’t

stop after the

(2)acident. (3)it

even ran faster and

disappeared. (4)the

(5)trafic was

(6)hot so busy.

(7)no one (8)come

to help him. (9)he

was hurt seriously.

I was so scared at

that time.

1) Capitalization

2) Spelling

3) Capitalization

4) Capitalization

5) Spelling

6) Word choice

7) Capitalization

8) Verb tense

9) Capitalization

1) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

paragraph “the”.

2) Misspelling

“acident”.

3) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “it”.

4) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “the”.

5) Misspelling

1) Communication

Strategy.

2) Communication

Strategy.

3) Communication

Strategy.

4) Communication

Strategy.

5) Communication

Strategy.

6) Communication

Strategy.

The car didn’t

stop after the

accident. It even

ran faster and

disappeared. The

traffic was not so

busy. No one came

to help him. He

was hurt seriously.

I was so scared at

that time.

28

“trafic”.

6) Incorrect word

choice “hot”.

7) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “no”.

8) Incorrect verb of

past tense “come”

9) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “he”.

7) Communication

Strategy.

8) Interlingual

Transfer.

9) Communication

Strategy.

(1)then I called

the police and tried

to help the victim,

not long after that

the police came.

(2)the police

(3)asket me

several

(4)qustions. I told

the police what

(5)happen.

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Spelling

4) Spelling

5) Verb tense

1) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

paragraph “after”.

2) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “the”.

3) Misspelling

“asket”.

4) Misspelling

“qustions”.

5) Incorrect verb of

past tense

“happen”.

1) Communication

strategy.

2) Communication

strategy.

3) Communication

strategy.

4) Communication

strategy.

5) Interlingual

Transfer.

Then I called

the police and tried

to help the victim,

not long after that

the police came.

The police asked

me several

questions. I told

the police what

happened.

(1)after that I

went home

because it was

already dark(2)^

(3)it was really

tragic(4)^

1) Capitalization

2) Punctuation

3) Capitalization

4) Punctuation

1) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

paragraph “after”.

2) Not having

punctuation in the

end of sentence.

3) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

paragraph “it”.

4) Not having

punctuation in the

end of sentence.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

After that I went

home because it

was already dark.

It was really

tragic.

Table 4.14

Student 12

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

16 March 2012

Dear Chiella,

Last week was a

holiday. I visited

1) Word choice

2) Word choice

1) Inappropriate

word choice

“family”.

2) Incorrect word

choice “She”.

1) Context of

Learning.

2) Communication

Strategy

16 March 2012

Dear Chiella,

Last week was a

holiday. I visited

29

my (1)family.

(2)She lived in

Bogor. I stayed

there for two days.

my relative. They

lived in Bogor. I

stayed there for

two days.

On Saturday my

mother and I went

to (1)the Istana

Bogor. I took a

picture of the lake.

Then I bought

(2)some

(3)Rabbit. I

enjoyed it very

much.

1) Article

2) Singular-

plural

3) Capitalization

1) Incorrect placing

article in proper

noun “the Istana

Bogor”.

2) Not having

plural noun “some

Rabit”.

3) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“some Rabit”.

1) Intralingual

Transfer

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Communication

Strategy.

On Saturday my

mother and I went

to Istana Bogor. I

took a picture of

the lake. Then I

bought some

rabbits. I enjoyed it

very much.

On Sunday, I

went to (1)Park

Flower with my

father. (2)She and

I took it by car.

(3)after (4)to in

(5)^ (6)Park

Flower (7)(8)me

and my father (9)^ picture

(10)in near

(11)flower orchid.

Though I was

tired, it was fun.

Diana

1) Word order

2) Word choice

3) Word choice

4) Omit a word

5) Add a word

6) Word order

7) Word choice

8) Word order

9) Add a word

10) Omit a word

11) Word order

1) Incorrect word

order “Park

Flower”.

2) Incorrect word

choice for

pronoun of father

“She”.

3) Inappropriate

word order “after”

4) Omitting a word

“to”

5) Adding a word

“we arrived”.

6) Incorrect word

order “Park

Flower”.

7) Incorrect word

choice of pronoun

“me”.

8) Incorrect word

order “me and my

father”.

9) Adding a word

“took”.

10) Omitting a word

“in”.

11) Incorrect word

order “flower

orchid”.

1) Interlingual

Transfer

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Interlingual

Transfer

5) Interlingual

Transfer

6) Interlingual

Transfer

7) Intralingual

Transfer

8) Interlingual

Transfer

9) Interlingual

Transfer

10) Interlingual

Transfer

11) Interlingual

Transfer

On Sunday, I

went to Flower

Park with my

father. He and I

took it by car.

When we arrived

in the Flower Park,

my father and I

took picture near

orchid flower.

Though I was

tired, it was fun.

Diana

30

Table 4.15

Student 13

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

18 March 2012

Dear Pramesti,

Last week was a

holiday. I visited

my (1)family.

(2)She lived (3)in

a water park. I

stayed for three

days.

1) Word choice

2) Word choice

3) Meaning not

clear

1) Inappropriate

word choice

“family”.

2) Incorrect word

choice “she”.

3) The sentence

doesn’t have clear

meaning.

1) Interlingual

Transfer

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Interlingual

Transfer

18 March 2012

Dear Pramesti,

Last week was

a holiday. I visited

my relative. They

lived near water

park. I stayed for

three days.

On Sunday my

father and I went

to the

(1)waterpark. I

(2)took a

swimming of the

water. Then I

(3)bough some

various foods. I

enjoyed it very

much.

1) Spelling

2) Word choice

3) Spelling

1) Misspelling

caused without

space “waterpark”

2) Inappropriate

word choice “took

a swimming of

the water”.

3) Misspelling

“bough”.

1) Interlingual

Transfer

2) Intralingual

Transfer

3) Communication

Strategy

On Sunday my

father and I went

to the water park. I

swam in the water.

Then I bought

some various

foods. I enjoyed it

very much.

On Monday I

went (1)^ Puncak

with my parents.

(2)He and I took it

by car. (3)the

scenery was very

interesting along

winding road.

After we felt

(4)satified then we

went home.

1) Add a word

2) Word choice

3) Capitalization

4) Spelling

1) Adding a word

“to”.

2) Incorrect word

choice of parents

“he”.

3) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “the”.

4) Misspelling

“satified”.

1) Interlingual

Transfer

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

On Monday I

went to Puncak

with my parents.

They and I took it

by car. The

scenery was very

interesting along

winding road.

After we felt

satisfied then we

went home.

On Tuesday I

stayed at home. I

helped my

grandma. I

watered her garden

and washed the

plates and glasses.

After that I

cleaned the floor.

On (1)wednesday I

went home.

1) Capitalization

2) Spelling

1) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“wednesday”.

2) Misspelling

“thought”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

On Tuesday I

stayed at home. I

helped my

grandma. I

watered her garden

and washed the

plates and glasses.

After that I

cleaned the floor.

On Wednesday I

went home.

31

(2)Thought I

was tired, it was

fun.

With love

Mutiara

Though I was

tired, it was fun.

With love

Mutiara

Table 4.16

Student 14

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

Vacation to the

(1)beach

Last year, I

(2)went on holiday

(3)to (4)the Pasir

Putih beach.

(5)I’m on vacation

with my cousins

and my parents. I

(6)went to use the

car. On the way, I

saw beautiful

scenery,(7) I

(8)play in (9)tendo

DS with my

cousin. Suddenly

the car (10)^ out

of gasoline and

(11)stop in the

parking area Pasir

Putih beach.

1) Capitalization

2) Word choice

3) Word choice

4) Article

5) Verb tense

6) Word choice

7) Punctuation

8) Verb tense

9) Capitalization

10) Add a word

11) Verb tense

1) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

word in title

“beach”.

2) Inappropriate

word choice

“went”.

3) Inappropriate

word choice “to”.

4) Incorrect placing

article in proper

noun “Pasir Putih

beach”.

5) Incorrect verb of

past tense “I’m”.

6) Inappropriate

word choice

“went to use”.

7) Incorrect

punctuation that it

should be period.

8) Incorrect verb of

past tense “play”.

9) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“tendo”.

10) Adding a word

“was”.

11) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“stop”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Intralingual

Transfer

3) Intralingual

Transfer

4) Intralingual

Transfer

5) Interlingual

Transfer

6) Interlingual

Transfer

7) Communication

Strategy

8) Interlingual

Transfer

9) Communication

Strategy

10) Interlingual

Transfer

11) Interlingual

Transfer

Vacation to the

Beach

Last year, I

was on holiday in

Pasir Putih beach.

I was on vacation

with my cousins

and my parents. I

took it by the car.

On the way, I saw

beautiful scenery. I

played in Tendo

DS with my

cousin. Suddenly

the car was out of

gasoline and

stopped in the

parking area Pasir

Putih beach.

In Pasir Putih

beach, I

(1)playing sand

1) Word form

2) Verb tense

3) Singular-

1) Incorrect word

form “playing”.

2) Incorrect verb of

1) Intralingual

Transfer

2) Interlingual

In Pasir Putih

beach, I played

sand house,

32

house, surfing, and

swimming.

Suddenly, I

(2)have

(3)cramps in my

foot.

plural past tense “have”.

3) The word is not a

singular noun

“cramps”.

Transfer

3) Intralingual

Transfer

surfing, and

swimming.

Suddenly, I had

cramp in my foot.

Table4.17

Student 15

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

When I was

walking home

from school

yesterday. I saw an

accident. A car hit

a car from behind.

The driver could

not (1)controls

(2)is car because

he drove fast.

1) Verb tense

2) Word choice

1) Incorrect verb of

past tense

“controls”.

2) Incorrect word

choice “is”.

1) Intralingual

Transfer

2) Communication

Strategy

When I was

walking home

from school

yesterday. I saw an

accident. A car hit

a car from behind.

The driver could

not control his car

because he drove

fast.

The car didn’t

stop the accident.

(1)it even ran

faster and

disappeared. (2)the

traffic was not so

busy. (3)no (4)^

(5)come to help

him. (6)we (7)has

hurt seriously. I

was so scared at

that time. Then I

called the police

and tried to help

the victim. (8)not

long after that the

police came.

(9)the police asked

me several

(10)quaestions. I

told the police

what (11)happen.

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Capitalization

4) Add a word

5) Verb tense

6) Word choice

7) Verb tense

8) Capitalization

9) Capitalization

10) Spelling

11) Verb tense

1) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “it”.

2) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “the”.

3) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “no”.

4) Adding a word

“one”.

5) Incorrect verb of

past tense

“come”.

6) Incorrect word

choice “we”.

7) Incorrect verb of

past tense “has

hurt”.

8) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “not”.

9) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “the”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Interlingual

Transfer

6) Communication

Strategy

7) Intralingual

Transfer

8) Communication

Strategy

9) Communication

Strategy

10) Communication

Strategy

11) Interlingual

Transfer

The car didn’t

stop the accident.

It even ran faster

and disappeared.

The traffic was not

so busy. No one

came to help him.

He was hurt

seriously. I was so

scared at that time.

Then I called the

police and tried to

help the victim.

Not long after that

the police came.

The police asked

me several

questions. I told

the police what

happened.

33

10) Misspelling

“quaestions”.

11) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“happen”.

After that I

went home

because it was

already dark(1)^

(2)it was really

tragic(3)^

1) Punctuation

2) Capitalization

3) Punctuation

1) The sentence

must be

punctuated.

2) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

paragraph.

3) The sentence

must be

punctuated.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

After that I

went home

because it was

already dark.

It was really

tragic.

Table 4.18

Student 16

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

On Thursday 24th

December, last

week was a

holiday. I visited

my grandmother.

She lived in

Cimahi. I stayed

there for three

days.

On Sunday my

grandma and I

went to (1)the

Tangkuban Prahu.

I took a picture of

the lake. Then I

bought some

souvenirs. I

enjoyed it very

much.

1) Article 1) Incorrect placing

article “the

Tangkuban

Prahu”.

1) Intralingual

Transfer

On Thursday 24th

December, last

week was a

holiday. I visited

my grandmother.

She lived in

Cimahi. I stayed

there for three

days.

On Sunday my

grandma and I

went to Tangkuban

Prahu. I took a

picture of the lake.

Then I bought

some souvenirs. I

enjoyed it very

much.

34

On (1)monday I

went to Puncak

with my uncle. He

and I took it by

bus. The scenery

was very

interesting along

winding road.

After we felt

satisfied, then we

went home.

1) Capitalization 1) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“monday”.

1) Communication

Strategy

On Monday I

went to Puncak

with my uncle. He

and I took it by

bus. The scenery

was very

interesting along

winding road.

After we felt

satisfied, then we

went home.

On Tuesday I

stayed at home. I

helped my

grandma. I

watered her garden

and washed the

plates and glass.

After that I

cleaned the floor.

On Thursday I

went to

Yogyakarta with

my family. I

(1)take it by bus.

1) Verb tense 1) Incorrect verb

tense “take”.

1) Interlingual

Transfer

On Tuesday I

stayed at home. I

helped my

grandma. I

watered her garden

and washed the

plates and glass.

After that I

cleaned the floor.

On Thursday I

went to

Yogyakarta with

my family. I took

it by bus.

On Friday I

went to Kebun

Raya (1)Bogos

with my sister.

Though I was

tired, it was fun.

(2)I and

(3)^family (4)^

(5)so (6)very-very

happy.

1) Spelling

2) Word order

3) Add a word

4) Add a word

5) Omit a word

6) Word choice

1) Misspelling

“Bogos”.

2) Incorrect word

order “I and

family”.

3) Adding a word

“my”.

4) Adding a word

“were”.

5) Omitting a word

“so”.

6) Inappropriate

word choice

“very-very”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Interlingual

Transfer

5) Intralingual

Transfer

6) Interlingual

Transfer

On Friday I

went to Kebun

Raya Bogor with

my sister.

Though I was

tired, it was fun.

My family and I

were very happy.

35

Table 4.19

Student 17

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

16 (1)march 2012

Dear Dewi,

Last week was

a holiday. I visited

my grandmother.

She lived in Jogja.

I stayed there for

three days.

1) Capitalization 1) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“march”.

1) Communication

Strategy

16 March 2012

Dear Dewi,

Last week was

a holiday. I visited

my grandmother.

She lived in Jogja.

I stayed there for

three days.

On Sunday my

(1)grand ma and I

went to (2)the

(3)borobudur. I

took a picture of

the lake. Then I

bought some

souvenirs. I

enjoyed it very

much.

1) Spelling

2) Article

3) Capitalization

1) Misspelling

caused without

space “grand ma”.

2) Incorrect placing

article in proper

noun “the

borobudur”.

3) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“borobudur”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Intralingual

Transfer

3) Communication

Strategy

On Sunday my

grandma and I

went to

Borobudur. I took

a picture of the

lake. Then I

bought some

souvenirs. I

enjoyed it very

much.

On

(1)monday I went

to (2)malioboro

with my uncle.

(3)he and I took it

by bus. (4)the

scenery was very

interesting along

winding road.

After we felt

satisfied then we

went home.

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Capitalization

4) Capitalization

1) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“monday”.

2) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“malioboro”.

3) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “he”.

4) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “the”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

On Monday I

went to Malioboro

with my uncle. He

and I took it by

bus. The scenery

was very

interesting along

winding road.

After we felt

satisfied then we

went home.

On (1)tuesday

I stayed at home. I

helped my

grandma. I

watered her garden

and washed the

plates and glasses.

(2)after that I

cleaned the floor.

On (3)wednesday I

went home.

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Capitalization

1) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“tuesday”.

2) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “after”.

3) Not capitalizing

proper noun

“wednesday”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

On Tuesday I

stayed at home. I

helped my

grandma. I

watered her garden

and washed the

plates and glasses.

After that I

cleaned the floor.

On Wednesday I

went home.

36

Though I was

tired. It was fun.

With love

Anis

Though I was

tired. It was fun.

With love

Anis

Table 4.20

Student 18

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

(1)CAMPING

(2)Late last

year in a week,

my friends and I

went (3)^

camping. We

reached the

camping ground

after we walked

for about one and

(4)a half hour

from the parking

lot. We built the

camp next to a

small river. It was

getting darker and

colder, so we built

(5)a fire camp.

1) Capitalization

2) Word order

3) Add a word

4) Article

5) Word order

1) Not capitalizing

all of letters of

title “CAMPING”

2) Incorrect word

order “Late last

year in a week”.

3) Adding a word

“to”.

4) Incorrect placing

article “a half

hour”.

5) Incorrect word

order “a fire

camp”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Intralingual

Transfer

5) Interlingual

Transfer

Camping

A week in late

last year, my

friends and I went

to camping. We

reached the

camping ground

after we walked

for about one and

half hour from the

parking lot. We

built the camp next

to a small river. It

was getting darker

and colder, so we

built a camp fire.

The next day,

we spent our time

observing

plantation and

insects while the

girls were

preparing meals.

In the afternoon

we went to the

river and caught

some fish for

supper. At night,

we held (1)a fire

camp night. (2)we

sang, danced, read

poetry, played

magic, tricks, and

1) Word order

2) Capitalization

3) Add a word

1) Incorrect word

order “a fire

camp”.

2) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “we”.

3) Adding a word

“up”.

1) Interlingual

Transfer

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

The next day,

we spent our time

observing

plantation and

insects while the

girls were

preparing meals.

In the afternoon

we went to the

river and caught

some fish for

supper. At night,

we held a camp

fire night. We

sang, danced, read

poetry, played

magic, tricks, and

37

even some of us

performed a

standing (3)^

comedy.

On Monday, we

packed our bags

and got ready to go

home.

even some of us

performed a

standing up

comedy.

On Monday, we

packed our bags

and got ready to go

home.

Table 4.21

Student 19

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

A (1)TOUR

(2)TO (3)THE

(4)BOTANICAL

(5)GARDENS

On (6)week

23(7)th

(8)^ July,

(9)I and (10)^

family went to the

Botanical Gardens.

We walked down

(11)^ got on the

bus.

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Capitalization

4) Capitalization

5) Capitalization

6) Omit a word

7) Word choice

8) Add a word

9) Word from

10) Add a word

11) Add a word

1) Not capitalizing

all of the letters of

title “TOUR”.

2) Not capitalizing

all of the letters of

title “TO”.

3) Not capitalizing

all of the letters of

title “THE”.

4) Not capitalizing

all of the letters of

title

“BOTANICAL”.

5) Not capitalizing

all of the letters of

title “GARDENS”

6) Omitting a word

“week”.

7) Incorrect word

choice “23th

”.

8) Adding a word

“of”.

9) Incorrect word

form “I and

family”.

10) Adding a word

“my”.

11) Adding a word

“and”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Communication

Strategy

6) Interlingual

Transfer

7) Intralingual

Transfer

8) Interlingual

Transfer

9) Interlingual

Transfer

10) Interlingual

Transfer

11) Communication

Strategy

A Tour to the

Botanical Gardens

On 23rd

of July,

my family and I

went to the

Botanical Gardens.

We walked down

and got on the bus.

After we

arrived at the

1) Word choice

2) Word order

1) Inappropriate

word choice

1) Interlingual

Transfer

After we

arrived at the

38

gardens, we

(1)went to have a

look around. First

we went to the

tulip farm. Then

we looked (2)at

old the lovely

plants. After that

we (3)went for

lunch and break.

3) Word choice

“went to have a

look around”.

2) Incorrect word

order “at old the

lovely plants”.

3) Incorrect word

choice “went for

lunch and break”.

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Interlingual

Transfer

gardens, we looked

around. First we

went to the tulip

farm. Then we

looked at the

lovely old plants.

After that we had

lunch and break.

(1)Next we (2)^

lunch and break.

We (3)went a look

the rose, orchid,

jasmine, etc.

(4)then we got

(5)into the bus and

returned to home.

We all were

happy.

1) Word choice

2) Add a word

3) Word choice

4) Capitalization

5) Word choice

1) Incorrect word

choice “Next”.

2) Adding a word

“had”.

3) Inappropriate

word choice

“went a look”.

4) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

sentence “then”.

5) Inappropriate

word choice

“into”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Intralingual

Transfer

After we had

lunch and break.

We looked the

rose, orchid,

jasmine, etc. Then

we got on the bus

and returned to

home.

We all were

happy.

Table 4.22

Student 20

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

My Best

(1)FRiend

Windy (2)^

(3)is my best

friend in school

(4)is a (5)fair

pretty girl with

(6)dinpled

(7)chcers. She and

I (8)firs met at

(9)kinder garten

and we became

great friends,(10)^

she (11)she (12)is

kind(13)^ jolly

and helpful. We

(14)are classmates

1) Capitalization

2) Add a word

3) Verb tense

4) Verb tense

5) Word order

6) Spelling

7) Spelling

8) Spelling

9) Spelling

10) Punctuation

11) Omit a word

12) Verb tense

13) Punctuation

14) Verb tense

15) Spelling

16) Verb tense

17) Verb tense

18) Verb tense

1) Capitalizing

incorrect letter

“FRiend”.

2) Adding a word

“who”

3) Incorrect verb of

past tense “is”.

4) Incorrect verb of

past tense “is”.

5) Incorrect word

order “fair pretty

girl”.

6) Misspelling

“dinpled”.

7) Misspelling

“chcers”.

8) Misspelling

“firs”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Context of

Learning

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Interlingual

Transfer

5) Interlingual

Transfer

6) Communication

Strategy

7) Communication

Strategy

8) Communication

Strategy

9) Communication

Strategy

My Best Friend

Windy who was

my best friend in

school was a pretty

fair girl with

dimpled in cheeks.

She and I first met

at kindergarten and

we became great

friends. She was

kind, jolly and

helpful. We were

classmates again

this year and we

went to school

together each

morning. Windy

39

again this (15)yer

and we (16)go to

school together

each morning.

Windy (17)likes to

joke and (18)play

games (19)joke

and play games.

She (20)lives

(21)ner my

(22)hous (23)in

the evenings.

19) Omit a word

20) Verb tense

21) Spelling

22) Spelling

23) Incomplete

sentence

9) Misspelling

“kinder garten”.

10) Incorrect

punctuation that it

should be period.

11) Omitting a word

“she”.

12) Incorrect verb

of past tense “is”.

13) The word must

be punctuated.

14) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“are”.

15) Misspelling

“yer”.

16) Incorrect verb

of past tense “go”.

17) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“likes”.

18) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“played”.

19) Omitting a

word.

20) Incorrect verb

of past tense

“lives”.

21) Misspelling

“ner”.

22) Misspelling

“hous”.

23) The sentence is

incomplete.

10) Communication

Strategy

11) Communication

Strategy

12) Interlingual

Transfer

13) Communication

Strategy

14) Interlingual

Transfer

15) Communication

Strategy

16) Interlingual

Transfer

17) Interlingual

Transfer

18) Interlingual

Transfer

19) Communication

Strategy

20) Interlingual

Transfer

21) Communication

Strategy

22) Communication

Strategy

23) Communication

Strategy

liked to joke and

played games. She

lived near my

house.

We usually

(1)Windy (2)likes

(3)to nous we sit

in the garden and

(4)rea story

(5)boks. She (6)is

(7)god so

whenever I (8)find

(9)difficulities

(10)in my

mathematics

(11)^(12)^ Best

friend.

1) Omit a word

2) Verb tense

3) Meaning not

clear

4) Spelling

5) Spelling

6) Verb tense

7) Word choice

8) Verb tense

9) Spelling

10) Meaning not

clear

11) Add a word

1) Omitting a word

“Windy”.

2) Incorrect verb of

past tense “likes”.

3) The sentence has

unclear meaning.

4) Misspelling

“rea”.

5) Misspelling

“boks”.

6) Incorrect verb of

past tense “is”.

7) Misspelling

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Communication

Strategy

6) Interlingual

Transfer

7) Communication

We usually

liked to sit in the

garden and read

story books. She

was smart, so

whenever I found

difficulties in my

Mathematics she

could help me. She

was my best

friend.

40

12) Add a word “god”.

8) Incorrect verb of

past tense “find”.

9) Misspelling

“difficulities”.

10) The sentence

has unclear

meaning.

11) Adding a word

“she could help

me”.

12) Adding a word

“she was my”.

Strategy

8) Interlingual

Transfer

9) Communication

Strategy

10) Communication

Strategy

11) Communication

Strategy

12) Communication

Strategy

Table 4.23

Student 21

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

A (1)TOUR

(2)TO (3)THE

(4)ZOO

On (5)week

28th

(6)^ October,

(7)I and (8)^

family (9)wen to

the zoo. We

walked down and

got on the bus.

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Capitalization

4) Capitalization

5) Omit a word

6) Add a word

7) Word order

8) Add a word

9) Verb tense

1) Incorrect

capitalizing all of

the letters

“TOUR”.

2) Incorrect

capitalizing all of

the letters “TO”.

3) Incorrect

capitalizing all of

the letters “THE”.

4) Incorrect

capitalizing all of

the letters “ZOO”.

5) Omitting a word

“week”.

6) Adding a word

“of”.

7) Incorrect word

order “I and

family”.

8) Adding a word

“my”.

9) Incorrect verb of

past tense “wen”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Interlingual

Transfer

6) Interlingual

Transfer

7) Interlingual

Transfer

8) Interlingual

Transfer

9) Communication

Strategy

A Tour to the Zoo

On 28th

of

October, my

family and I went

to the zoo. We

walked down and

got on the bus.

After we

arrived at the zoo.

We went to have a

look around. First

1) Add a word

2) Word form

3) Word choice

4) Word choice

1) Adding a word

“stable”.

2) Incorrect word

form “to have eat”

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Interlingual

Transfer

After we

arrived at the zoo.

We went to have a

look around. First

41

we went to the

giraffe (2)^ and

we (3)to have eat

pea and we (4)to

pictures with the

giraffe. After that

(5)we went for

lunch and break.

3) Incorrect word

choice “to

pictures”.

4) Incorrect word

choice “we went

for lunch and

break”.

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Interlingual

Transfer

we went to the

giraffe stable and

we ate pea and we

took pictures with

the giraffe. After

that we had lunch

and break.

(1)Next we

(2)^ lunch and

break, we (3)went

a look the

(4)(5)Tiger,

(6)(7)Elephant,

(8)(9)Snake,

(10)(11)Bird, etc.

Soon after we had

finished. We went

back outside.

(12)The we got

(13)into the bus

and returned to

home.

We all were

happy.

1) Word choice

2) Add a word

3) Word choice

4) Capitalization

5) Singular-

Plural

6) Capitalization

7) Singular-

Plural

8) Capitalization

9) Singular-

Plural

10) Capitalizati

on

11) Singular-

Plural

12) Spelling

13) Word choice

1) Inappropriate

word choice

“Next”.

2) Adding a word

“had”.

3) Incorrect word

choice “went a

look”.

4) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“Tiger”.

5) The word

“Tiger” should be

plural noun.

6) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“Elephant”.

7) The word

“Elephant” should

be plural noun.

8) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“Snake”.

9) The word

“Snake” should

be plural noun.

10) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“Bird”.

11) The word

“Bird” should be

plural noun.

12) Misspelling

“The”.

13) Incorrect word

choice “into”.

1) Interlingual

Transfer

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Context of

Learning

6) Communication

Strategy

7) Context of

Learning

8) Communication

Strategy

9) Context of

Learning

10) Communication

Strategy

11) Context of

Learning

12) Communication

Strategy

13) Intralingual

Transfer

After we had

lunch and break,

we looked the

tiger, elephant,

snake, bird, etc.

Soon after we had

finished. We went

back outside. Then

we got on the bus

and returned to

home.

We all were

happy.

42

Table 4.24

Student 22

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

Holiday (1)To

Waterfall

At the time of

last holiday, I went

to my (2)grand

mother’s house

with my family.

Arriving there we

continued to rest

and the next

(3)day morning

we went to the

recreation area

(4)^ (5)(6)is a

very beautiful

waterfall(7)^

1) Capitalization

2) Spelling

3) Word order

4) Add a word

5) Verb tense

6) Word choice

7) Punctuation

1) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“To”.

2) Misspelling

caused spacing

“grand mother’s

house”.

3) Incorrect word

order “day

morning”.

4) Adding a word

“which”.

5) The word must

past tense.

6) Incorrect word

choice “is”.

7) The end of

sentence must be

punctuated by

period.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Context of

Learning

5) Interlingual

Transfer

6) Context of

Learning

7) Communication

Strategy

Holiday to

Waterfall

At the time of

last holiday, I went

to my

grandmother’s

house with my

family. Arriving

there we continued

to rest and the next

morning day we

went to the

recreation area

which had a very

beautiful waterfall.

To get there we

(1)run into trouble

because the

visitors (2)are

very crowded(3)^

so we were stuck

(4)in traffic (5)^

long enough(6)^

1) Verb tense

2) Verb tense

3) Punctuation

4) Word form

5) Add a word

6) Punctuation

1) Incorrect verb of

past tense “run

into”.

2) Incorrect verb of

past tense “are”.

3) The word need to

be punctuated by

comma.

4) Inappropriate

word form “in

traffic long

enough”.

5) Adding a word

“jam”.

6) The end of

sentence must be

punctuated by

period.

1) Interlingual

Transfer

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Interlingual

Transfer

5) Interlingual

Transfer

6) Communication

Strategy

To get there

we ran into trouble

because the

visitors were very

crowded, so we

were stuck long

enough in traffic

jam.

(1)After

arriving at our

destination

(2)instantly

transfrom and

1) Word choice

2) Meaning not

clear

3) Word choice

4) Spelling

1) Inappropriate

word choice

“after arriving”.

2) The sentence

doesn’t have clear

1) Interlingual

Transfer

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Interlingual

When we

arrived at our

destination,

directly I looked

for a place to put

43

find a place to set

cross lengged and

put our luggage.

Then I changed

clothes to bathe

(3)under the

waterfall (4)splast.

meaning

“instantly

transfrom and

find a place to set

cross lengged”.

3) Inappropriate

word choice

“under”.

4) Misspelling

“spalst”.

Transfer

4) Communication

Strategy

our luggage. Then

I changed clothes

to bathe in the

waterfall splash.

The scenery

(1)is very

beautiful. So that

we (2)use to take

pictures with my

family (3)^

finished (4)^

bathing and taking

pictures. (5)I and

my family (6)^

(7)over (8)luch

(9)break.

1) Verb tense

2) Verb tense

3) Add a word

4) Word form

5) Word order

6) Add a word

7) Omit a word

8) Spelling

9) Word order

1) Incorrect verb

tense “is”.

2) Incorrect verb

tense “use”.

3) Adding a word

“after”.

4) Incorrect word

form “bathing”.

5) Incorrect word

order “I and my

family”.

6) Adding a word

“had”.

7) Omitting a word

“over”.

8) Misspelling

“luch”.

9) Incorrect word

order “luch

break”.

1) Interlingual

Transfer

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Interlingual

Transfer

6) Communication

Strategy

7) Interlingual

Transfer

8) Communication

Strategy

9) Communication

Strategy

The scenery

was very beautiful.

So that we used to

take pictures with

my family after

finished taking a

bath and taking

pictures. My

family and I had

break for lunch.

(1)and at its

end we had to

congestion again.

After several hours

(2)On (3)The

road(4)^ we

(5)finaly arrived at

my grandmother’s

house.

1) Word choice

2) Capitalization

3) Capitalization

4) Run-on

sentence

5) Spelling

1) Incorrect word

choice “and at its

end we had to

congestion”.

2) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“On”.

3) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“The”.

4) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

5) Misspelling

“finaly”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Communication

Strategy

On the way

going home, we

got traffic jam

again. After

several hours,

finally we arrived

at my

grandmother’s

house.

(1)my holiday

experience was

1) Capitalization

2) Article

1) Not capitalizing

the first letter of

1) Communication

Strategy

My holiday

experience was

44

very pleasant, and

(2)a (3)wist (4)to

be able to repeat (5)in again.

3) Spelling

4) Word choice

5) Omit a word

paragraph “my”.

2) Incorrect placing

article “a wist”.

3) Misspelling

“wist”.

4) Inappropriate

word choice “to

be able to repeat

in again”.

5) Omitting a word

“in”.

2) Intralingual

Transfer

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Context of

Learning

5) Intralingual

Transfer

very pleasant, and

I wish I can come

again.

Table 4.25

Student 23

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

A (1)tour to the

(2)botanical

Gardens

On Sunday

23th

(3) (4)^

January, (5)I and

seven students went to the

(6)botanical

Gardens. (7)we

walked down and

got on the bus.

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Word choice

4) Add a word

5) Word order

6) Capitalization

7) Capitalization

1) The first letter of

title must be

capitalized “tour”.

2) The first letter of

title must be

capitalized

“botanical”.

3) Incorrect ordinal

number “23th

”.

4) Adding a word

“of”.

5) Incorrect word

order “I and seven

students”.

6) The first letter of

proper noun must

be capitalized

“botanical”.

7) The first letter of

proper noun must

be capitalized

“garden”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Intralingual

Transfer

4) Interlingual

Transfer

5) Interlingual

Transfer

6) Communication

Strategy

7) Communication

Strategy

A Tour to the

Botanical Gardens

On Sunday 23rd

of January, Seven

students and I

went to the

Botanical Gardens.

We walked down

and got on the bus.

After we arrived

at the gardens, we

walked down to

the (1)education

Centre. We went

to have a look

around. First we

went to the orchid

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Spelling

4) Capitalization

5) Capitalization

6) Capitalization

1) The first letter

of proper noun

must be

capitalized

“education”.

2) The first letter of

proper noun must

be capitalized

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

After we arrived

at the gardens, we

walked down to

the Education

Centre. We went to

have a look

around. First we

went to the orchid

45

farm and (2)mrs.

Lisa read us some

of the information.

Then we looked at

(3)alt the lovely

plants. (4)after that

we went down to a

little spot in the

(5)botanical

(6)gardens and had

morning tea.

“mrs.”

3) Misspelling “alt”

4) The first letter of

sentence must be

capitalized “after”

5) The first letter of

proper noun must

be capitalized

“botanical”.

6) The first letter of

proper noun must

be capitalized

“garden”.

5) Communication

Strategy

6) Communication

Strategy

farm and Mrs. Lisa

read us some of the

information. Then

we looked at all

the lovely plants.

After that we went

down to a little

spot in the

Botanical Gardens

and had morning

tea.

(1)next we took

some pictures and

then we went back

to the (2)education

(3)centre to have

lunch. (4)after that

we went (5)to for a

walk.

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Capitalization

4) Capitalization

5) Omit a word

1) The first letter of

sentence must be

capitalized “next”

2) The first letter of

proper noun must

be capitalized

“education”.

3) The first letter of

proper noun must

be capitalized

“centre”.

4) The first letter of

sentence must be

capitalized “after”

5) Omitting a word

“to”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Interlingaul

Transfer

Next we took

some pictures and

then we went back

to the Education

Centre to have

lunch. After that

we went for a

walk.

Soon after we

had finished.

(1)we went back

outside. Then we

got (2)into the bus

and returned to

school.

We all were

happy.

1) Capitalization

2) Word choice

1) The first letter of

sentence must be

capitalized “we”.

2) Incorrect word

choice “into”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Intralingul

Transfer

Soon after we

had finished. We

went back outside.

Then we got on the

bus and returned to

school.

We all were

happy.

46

Table 4.26

Student 24

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

15 October 2010

(1)dear Zidan(2)^

(3)last week

was a holiday(4)^

I visited my

(5)grand

mather(6)^ she

lived in

(7)bogor(8)^ I

stayed there for

(9)^ days.

1) Capitalization

2) Punctuation

3) Capitalization

4) Run-on

sentence

5) Spelling

6) Run-on

sentence

7) Capitalization

8) Run-on

sentence

9) Add a word

1) The letter “dear”

must be

capitalized.

2) The word should

be punctuated by

comma.

3) The first letter of

paragraph “last”

must be

capitalized.

4) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

5) Misspelling

caused by spacing

“grand mather”.

6) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

7) The first letter of

proper noun

“bogor” must be

capitalized.

8) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

9) Adding a word

“some”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Communication

Strategy

6) Communication

Strategy

7) Communication

Strategy

8) Communication

Strategy

9) Interlingual

Transfer

15 October 2010

Dear Zidan,

Last week was

a holiday. I visited

my grandmother.

She lived in Bogor.

I stayed there for

some days.

(1)on Sunday

my grandma and I

went to (2)the

Cibodas(3)I took a

(4)pictur of the

lake (5)then I

bought some

souvenirs. I

enjoyed it very

much.

1) Capitalization

2) Article

3) Run-on

sentence

4) Spelling

5) Run-on

sentence

1) The first letter of

paragraph must be

capitalized “on”.

2) Incorrect placing

article in proper

noun “the

Cibodas”.

3) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

4) Misspelling

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Intralingual

Transfer

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Communication

Strategy

On Sunday my

grandma and I

went to Cibodas. I

took a picture of

the lake. Then I

bought some

souvenirs. I

enjoyed it very

much.

47

“pictur”.

5) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

On Monday I

went to (1)puncak

with my best

friend. (2)he and

(3)^ took it by bus.

(4)the scenery was

very interesting

along winding

(5)Road.

(6)after we felt

satisfied, then we

went home(7)^

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Add a word

4) Capitalization

5) Capitalization

6) Capitalization

7) Punctuation

1) The first letter of

proper noun must

be capitalized

“puncak”.

2) The first letter of

sentence must be

capitalized “he”.

3) Adding a word

“I”.

4) The first letter of

sentence must be

capitalized “the”.

5) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“winding Road”.

6) The first letter of

sentence must be

capitalized “after”

7) The end of

sentence must be

punctuated by

period.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Communication

Strategy

6) Communication

Strategy

7) Communication

Strategy

On Monday I

went to Puncak

with my best

friend. He and I

took it by bus. The

scenery was very

interesting along

winding road.

After we felt

satisfied, then we

went home.

On (1)tuesday I

stayed at home. I

helped my

grandma(2)I

watered her garden

and washed the

plates and

glasses(3)^

1) Capitalization

2) Run-on

sentence

3) Punctuation

1) The first letter of

proper noun must

be capitalized

“tuesday”.

2) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

3) The end of

sentence must be

punctuated by

period.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

On Tuesday I

stayed at home. I

helped my

grandma. I

watered her garden

and washed the

plates and glasses.

(1)after that I

cleaned the floor.

(2)on

(3)wednesday I

went home (4)^

(5)though I was

tired (6)^ it was

fun (7)^

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Capitalization

4) Punctuation

5) Capitalization

6) Run-on

sentence

7) Punctuation

8) Capitalization

1) The first letter of

paragraph must be

capitalized “after”

2) The first letter of

sentence must be

capitalized “on”.

3) The first letter of

proper noun must

be capitalized

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Communication

After that I

cleaned the floor.

On Wednesday I

went home.

Though I was

tired, it was fun.

With love

Your friend

48

(8)with love

(9)(10)my friend

9) Capitalization

10) Word choice

“wednesday”.

4) The end of

sentence must be

punctuated by

period.

5) The first letter of

paragraph must be

capitalized

“though”.

6) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

7) The end of

sentence must be

punctuated by

period.

8) The first letter of

word should be

capitalized “with”

9) The first letter of

word should be

capitalized “my

friend”.

10) Incorrect word

choice “my

friend”.

Strategy

6) Communication

Strategy

7) Communication

Strategy

8) Communication

Strategy

9) Communication

Strategy

10) Intralingual

Transfer

Table 4.27

Student 25

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

(1)To (2)(3)home

(4)grandmother

(5)on Saturday

31th

(6) (7)^

(8)Desember, (9)I

and (10)^ family

went to (11)home

grandmother. We

walked down and I

(12)go (13)on

(14)the individual

car.

1) Word choice

2) Word order

3) Capitalization

4) Capitalization

5) Capitalization

6) Word choice

7) Add a word

8) Spelling

9) Word order

10) Add a word

11) Word order

12) Word choice

13) Word choice

14) Word choice

1) Incorrect word

choice “To”.

2) Incorrect word

order “home

grandmother”.

3) The first letter of

word in title must

be capitalized

“Home”.

4) The first letter of

word in title must

be capitalized

“Grandmother”.

5) The first letter of

1) Interlingual

Transfer

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Communication

Strategy

6) Intralingual

Transfer

7) Interlingual

Transfer

Visiting

Grandmother’s

Home

On Saturday

31st of December,

my family and I

went to

grandmother’s

home. We walked

down and I got on

my car.

49

paragraph must be

capitalized “on”.

6) Incorrect word

choice “31th

”.

7) Adding a word

“of”.

8) Misspelling

“Desember”.

9) Incorrect word

order “I and

family”.

10) Adding a word

“my”.

11) Incorrect word

order “home

grandmother”.

12) Inappropriate

word choice “go”.

13) Inappropriate

word choice “on”

14) Inappropriate

word choice “the

individual car”.

8) Interlingual

Transfer

9) Interlingual

Transfer

10) Interlingual

Transfer

11) Interlingual

Transfer

12) Interlingual

Transfer

13) Intralingual

Transfer

14) Interlingual

Transfer

After we arrived

at the gardens, we

walked down to

the (1)livestock

cow. (2)we looked

at all the lovely

plants with

beautiful and

(3)air fresh (4)^

(5)soun (6)after

morning (7)days

we (8)had drink

(9)tea warm.

1) Word order

2) Capitalization

3) Word order

4) Run-on

sentence

5) Spelling

6) Word choice

7) Omit a word

8) Verb tense

9) Word order

1) Incorrect word

order “livestock

cow”.

2) The first letter of

sentence must be

capitalized “we”.

3) Incorrect word

order “air fresh”.

4) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

5) Misspelling

“soun”.

6) Incorrect word

choice “after”.

7) Omitting a word

“days”.

8) Incorrect verb

tense “had drink”.

9) Incorrect word

order “tea warm”.

1) Interlingual

Transfer

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Communication

Strategy

6) Communication

Strategy

7) Communication

Strategy

8) Intralingual

Transfer

9) Interlingual

Transfer

After we arrived

at the gardens, we

walked down to

the cow livestock.

We looked at all

the lovely plants

with beautiful and

fresh air. Soon, in

the morning we

drank warm tea.

(1)next we took

(2)(3)some

picture beautiful

1) Capitalization

2) Singular-

plural

1) The first letter of

paragraph must be

capitalized “next”

1) Communication

strategy

2) Interlingual

Next we took

some beautiful

pictures. After

50

(4)so we went

back to the

(5)cattie cow.

(6)we all (7)^

(8)wery happy.

3) Word order

4) Word choice

5) Word order

6) Capitalization

7) Add a word

8) Spelling

2) The noun word

must be plural

noun “some

picture”.

3) Incorrect word

order “some

picture beautiful”.

4) Inappropriate

word choice “so”.

5) Incorrect word

order “cattie cow”

6) The first letter of

paragraph must be

capitalized “we”.

7) Adding a word

“were”.

8) Misspelling

“wery”.

Transfer

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Interlingual

Transfer

6) Communication

Strategy

7) Interlingual

Transfer

8) Communication

Strategy

that, we went back

to the cow cattie.

We all were

very happy.

Table 4.28

Student 26

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

10 November 2013

Dear Elsa(1)^

Last week was a

holiday. I visited

my grandmother.

She lived in

Bandung. I stayed

(2)three for (3)one

days.

1) Punctuation

2) Spelling

3) Word choice

1) The word should

be punctuated by

comma.

2) Misspelling

“three”.

3) Incorrect word

choice “one

days”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

10 November 2013

Dear Elsa,

Last week was a

holiday. I visited

my grandmother.

She lived in

Bandung. I stayed

there for some

days.

On Sunday my

grandma and I

went to the

Gedung Sate,(1) I

took a picture of

the lake. Then I

bought some

(2)sovenirs. I

enjoyed it very

much.

1) Punctuation

2) Spelling

1) Inappropriate

punctuation. It

should be

punctuated by

period.

2) Misspelling

“sovenirs”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

On Sunday my

grandma and I

went to the

Gedung Sate. I

took a picture of

the lake. Then I

bought some

souvenirs. I

enjoyed it very

much.

On Monday I

went to TMII with

my Sister. She and

1) Incomplete

sentence

1) The sentence is

incomplete.

1) Communication

Strategy

On Monday I

went to TMII with

my Sister. She and

51

I took it by car.

The scenery was

very interesting

along winding

road. (1)After we

felt satisfied.

On Tuesday I

stayed at home. I

helped my

grandma. I

watered her garden

and washed the

plates and glasses.

After that I

cleaned the floor,

on Wednesday I

went home.

Though I was

tired, it was fun.

With love

Novi

I took it by car.

The scenery was

very interesting

along winding

road. We were

satisfied.

On Tuesday I

stayed at home. I

helped my

grandma. I

watered her garden

and washed the

plates and glasses.

After that I

cleaned the floor,

on Wednesday I

went home.

Though I was

tired, it was fun.

With love

Novi

Table 4.29

Student 27

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

05 September 2012

Dear Venna(1)^

(2)on (3)sunday

28th

(4)^

(5)Desember, (6)I

and (7)^family

went to (8)the

Bogor. (9)we

walked down and

got on the car.

1) Punctuation

2) Capitalization

3) Capitalization

4) Add a word

5) Spelling

6) Word form

7) Add a word

8) Article

9) Capitalization

1) The word should

be punctuated by

comma.

2) The first letter of

paragraph must be

capitalized “on”.

3) The first letter of

proper noun must

be capitalized

“sunday”.

4) Adding a word

“of”.

5) Misspelling

“Desember”.

6) Incorrect word

order “I and

family”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Interlingual

Transfer

5) Interlingual

Transfer

6) Interlingual

Transfer

7) Communication

Strategy

8) Intralingual

Transfer

9) Communication

05 September 2012

Dear Venna,

On Sunday 28th

of December, my

family and I went

to Bogor. We

walked down and

got on the car.

52

7) Adding a word

“my”.

8) Incorrect placing

article in proper

noun “the Bogor”.

9) The first letter of

sentence must be

capitalized “we”.

Strategy

After we arrived

at (1)bogor. (2)we

walked down to

(3)the Bogor.

(4)we went to have

a look around.

First we went to

the (5)water

(6)kingdom.

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Article

4) Capitalization

5) Capitalization

6) Capitalization

1) The first letter of

proper noun must

be capitalized

“bogor”.

2) The first letter of

sentence must be

capitalized “we”.

3) Incorrect placing

article in proper

noun “the Bogor”.

4) Te first letter of

sentence must be

capitalized “we”.

5) The first letter of

proper noun must

be capitalized

“water”.

6) The first letter of

proper noun must

be capitalized

“kingdom”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Intralingual

Transfer

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Communication

Strategy

6) Communication

Strategy

After we arrived

at Bogor. We

walked down to

Bogor. We went to

have a look

around. First we

went to the Water

Kingdom.

(1)Next we

(2)have a look

around, (3)I (4)am

and (5)^sister

(6)go to swimming

and playing slide.

(7)Next

swimming and

playing slide we

went back to the

(8)water

(9)kingdom to

have lunch.

1) Word choice

2) Verb tense

3) Word form

4) Omit a word

5) Add a word

6) Verb tense

7) Word choice

8) Capitalization

9) Capitalization

1) Inappropriate

word choice

“Next”.

2) Incorrect verb

tense “have”.

3) Incorrect word

form “I and

sister”.

4) Omitting a word

“am”.

5) Adding a word

“my”.

6) Incorrect verb

tense “go”.

7) Inappropriate

word choice

“Next”.

8) The first letter of

proper noun

1) Interlingual

Transfer

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Intralingual

Transfer

5) Communication

Strategy

6) Interlingual

Transfer

7) Interlingual

Transfer

8) Communication

Strategy

9) Communication

Strategy

After we had a

look around, my

sister and I went to

swimming and

playing slide.

After swimming

and playing slide,

we went back to

the Water

Kingdom to have

lunch.

53

should be

capitalized

“water”.

9) The first letter of

proper noun

should be

capitalized

“kingdom”.

Soon after we

had finished.

(1)we went back

outside. Then we

got (2)into the car

and returned to

home.

1) Capitalization

2) Word choice

1) The first letter of

sentence must be

capitalized.

2) Incorrect word

choice “into”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Intralingual

Transfer

Soon after we

had finished. We

went back outside.

Then we got in the

car and returned to

home.

Table 4.30

Student 28

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

A (1)TOUR

(2)TO (3)THE

(4)BOTANICAL

(5)GARDENS

On Thursday

24th

(6)^ April,

(7)I and six

students went to

the Botanical

Gardens. (8)we

walked down and

got on the bus.

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Capitalization

4) Capitalization

5) Capitalization

6) Add a word

7) Word form

8) Capitalization

1) Incorrect

capitalizing all of

the letters of title

“TOUR”.

2) Incorrect

capitalizing all of

the letters of title

“TO”

3) Incorrect

capitalizing all of

the letters of title

“THE”

4) Incorrect

capitalizing all of

the letters of title

“BOTANICAL”.

5) Incorrect

capitalizing all of

the letters of title

“GARDENS”.

6) Adding a word

“of”.

7) Incorrect word

order “I and six

students”.

8) The first letter of

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Communication

Strategy

6) Interlingual

Transfer

7) Interlingual

Transfer

8) Communication

Strategy

A Tour to the

Botanical Gardens

On Thursday

24th

of April, six

students and I

went to the

Botanical Gardens.

we walked down

and got on the bus.

54

sentence must be

capitalized “we”.

After we arrived

at the gardens, we

walked down to

the Education

Centre. We went

to have a look

around. First we

went to the orchid

farm and Mrs. Lisa

read us some of

the information.

Then we looked at

(1)alt the lovely

plants. After that

we went down to a

little spot in the

Botanical Gardens

and had morning

tea.

1) Spelling 1) Misspelling

“alt”.

1) Communication

Strategy

After we arrived

at the gardens, we

walked down to

the Education

Centre. We went to

have a look

around. First we

went to the orchid

farm and Mrs. Lisa

read us some of the

information. Then

we looked at all

the lovely plants.

After that we went

down to a little

spot in the

Botanical Gardens

and had morning

tea.

Next we took

some pictures and

then we went back

to the Education

Centre to have

lunch. After that

we went (1)to for

a walk.

We all were

(3)Happy(4)^

1) Omit a word

2) Capitalization

3) Punctuation

1) Omitting a word

“to”.

2) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“Happy”.

3) The end of

sentence need to

be punctuated by

period.

1) Intralingual

Transfer

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

Next we took

some pictures and

then we went back

to the Education

Centre to have

lunch. After that

we went for

walking.

We all were

happy.

Table 4.31

Student 29

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

(1)on

(2)sunday 27th

(3)^ April, (4)I

and my family went to Ragunan

by car. We

(5)were go a half

past six. (6)my

father drove the

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Add a word

4) Word form

5) Verb tense

6) Capitalization

7) Run-on

sentence

8) Spelling

1) The first letter of

paragraph must be

capitalized “on”.

2) The first letter of

proper noun must

be capitalized

“sunday”.

3) Adding a word

“of”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Interlingual

Transfer

4) Interlingual

Transfer

5) Intralingual

On Sunday 27th

of April, my

family and I went

to Ragunan by car.

We went half past

six. My father

drove the car and

my mother sat in

the front seat,

55

car and my mother

sat in the front

seat(7)^ (8)mean

while (9)I and my

sister sat at the

back seat. I

(10)am very

(11)Happy. We

always sang along

the way. We

arrived in Ragunan

at 07.00 o’clock.

9) Word form

10) Verb tense

11) Capitalizati

on

4) Incorrect word

order “I and my

family”.

5) Incorrect verb

“were go”.

6) The first letter of

sentence must be

capitalized “my”.

7) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

8) Misspelling

caused by sapcing

“mean while”.

9) Incorrect word

order “I and my

sister”.

10) Incorrect verb

tense “am”.

11) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“Happy”.

Transfer

6) Communication

Strategy

7) Communication

Strategy

8) Communication

Strategy

9) Interlingual

Transfer

10) Interlingual

Transfer

11) Communication

Strategy

meanwhile my

sister and I sat in

the back seat. I

was very happy.

We always sang

along the way. We

arrived in Ragunan

at 07.00 o’clock.

After we

arrived, we

(1)take (2)a break

for (3)(4)The

(5)minutes. After

that, we went to

have a look around

(6)the Ragunan

zoo. First, we

looked the

elephants.

(7)It’(8)is the big

animal, and we

looked around

again. (9)this

(10)is very funny

and (11)unforget

table (12)momen

in my life.

(13)we all were

happy.

1) Verb tense

2) Article

3) Capitalization

4) Article

5) Word choice

6) Article

7) Word choice

8) Verb tense

9) Capitalization

10) Verb tense

11) Spelling

12) Spelling

13) Capitalizati

on

1) Incorrect verb

tense “take”.

2) Incorrect placing

article in

uncountable noun

“a break”.

3) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“The”.

4) Incorrect article

“The”.

5) Incorrect word

choice “minutes”.

6) Incorrect placing

article in proper

noun “the

Ragunan”.

7) Incorrect word

choice “It”.

8) Incorrect verb

tense “is”.

9) The first letter of

sentence must be

capitalized “this”.

10) Incorrect verb

1) Interlingual

Transfer

2) Intralingual

Transfer

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Intralingual

Transfer

5) Intralingual

Transfer

6) Intralingual

Transfer

7) Intralingual

Transfer

8) Interlingual

Transfer

9) Communication

Strategy

10) Interlingual

Transfer

11) Communication

Strategy

12) Communication

Strategy

13) Communication

After we arrived,

we took break for a

minute. After that,

we went to have a

look around

Ragunan zoo.

First, we looked

the elephants.

Those were the big

animal and we

looked around

again. This was

very funny and

unforgettable

moment in my life.

We all were

happy.

56

tense “is”.

11) Misspelling

caused by spacing

“unforget table”.

12) Misspelling

“momen”.

13) The first letter

of sentence must

be capitalized

“we”.

Strategy

Table 4.32

Student 30

Identification Classification

of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction

A (1)TOUR (2)TO

(3)CIBODAS

(4)on

Sunday(5)^ 9th

(6)^ (7)(8)maret,

(9)I and my

family went to

(10)the

(11)cibodas.

(12)we walked

down and got on

the bus.

1) Capitalization

2) Capitalization

3) Capitalization

4) Capitalization

5) Punctuation

6) Add a word

7) Capitalization

8) Spelling

9) Word order

10) Article

11) Capitalizati

on

12) Capitalizati

on

1) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“TOUR”.

2) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“TO”.

3) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“CIBODAS”.

4) The first letter of

paragraph must be

capitalized “on”.

5) The word need

be punctuated by

comma.

6) Adding a word

“of”.

7) The first letter of

proper noun must

be capitalized

“maret”.

8) Misspelling

“maret”.

9) Incorrect word

order “I and my

family”.

10) Incorrect

placing article

“the cibodas”.

11) The first letter

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Communication

Strategy

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Communication

Strategy

6) Interlingual

Transfer

7) Communication

Strategy

8) Communication

Strategy

9) Interlingual

Transfer

10) Intralingual

Transfer

11) Communication

Strategy

12) Communication

Strategy

A Tour to Cibodas

On Sunday, 9th

of March, my

family and I went

to Cibodas. We

walked down and

got on the bus.

57

of proper noun

must be

capitalized

“cibodas”.

12) The first letter

of sentence must

be capitalized

“we”.

(1)after (2)I

and my family (3)I arrived at

(4)the (5)cibodas.

(6)we (7)past

pause under the

trees and (8)^

(9)luch. (10)and

my mother read us

some of the

information.

1) Capitalization

2) Word order

3) Omit a word

4) Article

5) Capitalization

6) Capitalization

7) Meaning not

clear

8) Add a word

9) Spelling

10) Capitalizati

on

1) The first letter of

paragraph must be

capitalized “after”

2) Incorrect word

order “I and my

family”.

3) Omitting a word

“I”.

4) Incorrect placing

article “the

cibodas”.

5) The first letter of

proper noun must

be capitalized

“cibodas”.

6) The first letter of

sentence must be

capitalized “we”.

7) The sentence has

unclear meaning

“past pause”.

8) Adding a word

“had”.

9) Misspelling

“luch”.

10) The first letter

of sentence must

be capitalized

“and”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Intralingual

Transfer

5) Communication

Strategy

6) Communication

Strategy

7) Communication

Strategy

8) Interlingual

Transfer

9) Communication

Strategy

10) Communication

Strategy

After my family

and I arrived at

Cibodas. We

stopped under the

trees and had

lunch. And my

mother read us

some of the

information.

Next we (1)go

(2)^ (3)swimming.

We looked at all

the lovely flowers

and animals (4)^

as orchid(5),

rabbit(6),

butterfly(7),

(8)And we took

some pictures.

1) Verb tense

2) Add a word

3) Word form

4) Omit a word

5) Singular-

plural

6) Singular-

plural

7) Singular-

plural

8) Capitalization

1) Incorrect verb

tens e “go”.

2) Adding a word

“to”.

3) Incorrect word

form

“swimming”.

4) Adding a word

“such”.

5) The word should

be plural noun

1) Interlingual

Transfer

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Intralingual

Transfer

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Context of

Learning

6) Context of

Next we went to

swim. We looked

at all the lovely

flowers and

animals such as

orchids, rabbits,

butterflies, and we

took some

pictures.

58

“orchid”.

6) The word should

be plural noun

“rabbit”.

7) The word should

be plural noun

“butterfly”.

8) Incorrect

capitalizing letter

“And”.

Learning

7) Context of

Learning

8) Communication

Strategy

Next we (1)go

(2)^ buy

souvenirs,(3)I

(4)buy bag, ring,

cap, apple,

pineapple, (5)^

pear. After (6)^

some souvenirs

(7)^ we went (8)to

for a walk and

(9)how much to

meet new friend

she is Lisa name.

1) Verb tense

2) Add a word

3) Punctuation

4) Verb tense

5) Add a word

6) Add a word

7) Run-on

sentence

8) Omit a word

9) Meaning not

clear

1) Incorrect verb

tense “go”.

2) Adding a word

“to”.

3) Incorrect

punctuation.

4) Incorrect verb

tense “buy”.

5) Adding a word

“and”.

6) Adding a word

“buying”.

7) The sentence

runs on caused

without

punctuation.

8) Omitting a word

“to”.

9) The meaning of

sentence doesn’t

clear.

1) Interlingual

Transfer

2) Interlingual

Transfer

3) Communication

Strategy

4) Interlingual

Transfer

5) Communication

Strategy

6) Communication

Strategy

7) Communication

Strategy

8) Intralingual

Transfer

9) Communication

Strategy

Next we went to

buy souvenirs. I

bought bag, ring,

cap, apple,

pineapple, and

pear. After buying

some souvenirs,

we went for a walk

and we met many

people, I had a

new friend, her

name was Lisa.

(1)Sone after

we had finished

(2)walk and (3)to

look for souvenirs,

we (4)want back

(5)^ the bus. And

we (6)to come

back to Jakarta.

We all were

happy.

1) Spelling

2) Word form

3) Word form

4) Spelling

5) Add a word

6) Word form

1) Misspelling

“Sone”.

2) Incorrect word

form “walk”.

3) Incorrect word

form “to look for”

4) Misspelling

“want”.

5) Adding a word

“to”.

6) Incorrect word

form “to come”.

1) Communication

Strategy

2) Intralingual

Transfer

3) Intralingual

Transfer

4) Communication

Strategy

5) Interlingual

Transfer

6) Intralingual

Transfer

Soon after we

had finished

walking and

looking for

souvenirs, we went

back to the bus.

And we came back

to Jakarta.

We All were

happy.