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Q U E EN ANN E C A R D TABLE
TauntonBOOKS & VIDEOS
farfellow enthusiasts
AMERICANFURNITURE
of the18thCENTURY
A merican furniture of the 18th century is prized for its
historical and artistic value by museums and collectors ,
and as a benchmark in design and craftsmanship by modern
day furniture makers.
In the first part of the book, Jeffrey Greene chronicles the
evolution of the design and construct ion of 18th-eentury
furniture, drawing on historical influences and th e tastes of
the period. In the second part, he explains and illustrates th e
techniques of the period furniture maker, including joinery
and authentic construction; carving, turning and inlay; tim e
honored finishing methods; and making working drawings.
The final part examines 24 important original examples in
detail for their design, construction and artistic merit.
Written by a professional period furniture maker, this
book is intended for anyone with an interest in 18th-eentury
furniture. For antiquarians, it will serve as a detailed guide to
the furniture maker's methods. For cabinetmakers of any
period, it will be an essential reference on connoisseurship
and historical methods.
ISBN 1-56158-104-6
Taunton Product # 070236
On the front cover
$45.00 U.S.
Prized for its historical and artist ic value,American furniture of th e 18th century isconsidered a benchmark in design and craftsmanship. This book takes a comprehensivelook at the period , brin ging togeth er historicaland woodworking information .
S CALLOPED-TOP DRE SSIN GTABLE
H30% in. w38 in. o23Y. in.
casew29%in.o 17¥. in.
CONNECTIC UT RIVER VALLEY OF MASSACHUSETTS(POSSIBLY NORTHAMPTON), 1760-1785
Cherry, mahogany (kneeblocks), white pine
Private collection
The book is divided into three distinct parts.The first part provides the historical perspective, focusing on the evolution of furniturestyles during th e 18th century.The secondpart explains and illustrates the techniquesof the l8th-eentury furniture maker. Thethird part is a gallery of 24 original pieces,with exploded drawings, color photos andhistorical and stru ctural analysis.
This book is an essential reference for anyonewith an interest in 18th-eentury furniture.
9000~
Taunton Product # 070236
ISBN 1-56158-104-6
A ERICANFURNITURE
a/the18th CENTURY
A m erican furniture of the 18th century is prized for its
historical and artistic value by museums and coll ectors,
and as a benchmark in design and craftsmanship by modern
day furniture makers.
In the first part of the book, Jeffrey Greene chronicles the
evolution of the design and construction of 18th-eentury
furniture, d rawing on historical influences and the tastes of
the period . In the second part, he explains and illustrates the
techniques of the period furniture maker, including joinery
and authe ntic construction; carving, turning and inlay; time
honored fini hing methods; and making working drawings.
The final pa examines 24 important original examples in
detail for th ir design, construction and artistic merit.
Written by a professional period furniture maker, this
book is interaded for anyone with an interest in 18th-eentury
furniture. F r antiquarians, it will serve as a detailed guide to
the furnitu re maker's methods. For cabinetmakers of any
period, it wi 11 be an essential reference on connoisseurship
and historicul methods.
BOOKS & VIDEOS
forfellow enthusiasts
Q U E E N ANNE C A R D T AB LE
Taunton
About the author
JeffreyP. Greene is a self-taught furnituremaker specializing in formal 18th-eenturydesigns. He has a degree in mechanicalengineering from MITand a life-longfamiliarity with period furniture. With hiswife, Greene operates the Ball & Claw, afurniture showroom of his piecesin Wickford,Rhode Island.
EVENTS
,--------------_._-_._-------------
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AMERICANFURNITURE
a/the18th CENTURY
AMERICANFURNITURE
of the18th CENTURY
Jeffrey P Greene
rnTheThunton Press
2. Furn iture-
Cover photo: ScottPhillips
Back-cover photo: Courtesy Yale UniversityArt Gallery,The MabelBrady Garuan Collection
Time-line art (end papers): Scott Bricher
TauntonBOOK S 8< VID EOS
Jorfellowenthusiasts
© 1996 by The Taunton Press, Inc.
All rights rese rved .
First print ing : 199 6
Prin ted in th e Un ite d Sta tes of Ameri ca
A FINEW OODWORKI NG Book
FINE WOODWORKING ® is a trad emark of The Taunton Press, Inc.,
registered in th e U.S. Pat ent and Tradem ark Office.
T he Tau nt on Press, 63 Sout h Main St reet, PO Box 5506,
Newtown, CT 06470-5506
Library of Congress Ca ta loging-in-Publicat ion Dat a
Greene, Jeffrey(Jeffrey P.l
American fu rn iture of the 18t h cent ury / Jcffrey G ree ne.
p. em.
Includ es index.
ISBN 1-56 158- 104-6
I. Furniture-Uni ted Stat es- H ist or y-1 8th ce ntury.
Uni ted States-I-listory- 19th cen tu ry. I. Title.
NK2406 .G74 199 6
749'.213'09033-dc20
96- 128 59
C IP
To Christ ine and our wonderful daughter Hayley,
for sharing an aspirat ion and helping to achieve it .
Special thanks to:
Alan Lotterman, a friend whose passionate ent husiasm
for eightee nth-eentury Am eri can furniture is inspi rati onal ,
and
John W. McAlister, Jr., a gentle ma n and cabinet ma ker, who suggested
this undertaki ng and whose enco urageme nt helped bring it to fruition .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Sincere thanks toall those whogalle generously of their timeand knowledge
to help in thisendeavorThey include:
Judy And erson and the Marblehead Historical Society
David Barquist, Yale Univer sity Art Gallery
Lind a Epp ich, Rhode Island Historical Societ y
Oliver and Elizabeth Greene
Daniel E. Kiern an 1II and th e Wethersfield Histori cal Society
Jean Landry
Arthur and Mr. and Mrs. Israel Liverant, Nath an Liverant and Son,
Colcheste r, Connect icut
Th oma s S. Michie and Jayne Stokes, Mu seum of Art, Rhode Island School of Design
Albert Sack and Deanne Levison , Israel Sack, Inc., New York
Dan iel Snydacker and th e ent ire staff of th e
Newport Histor ical Society
Bud Steere Antique Tools, North Kingstown , Rhod e Island
Steve Stenstrom, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Philip Zea, Hist oric Deerfi eld
Thanksalsoto the Inusellln staff members, archivistsand photographand slide librarians
who researched and provided many of thephotographsused throughout this book.
2
Part One
ONE 6
TW O 16
THREE 33
FO UR 58
F I VE 80
SIX 102
CONTENTS
Int rodu ction
TH E O RI GI " S A "D E V OL UTI O " O F A/o.IERI CA " F UR NIT URE STYLE S
Prelude toChmzge: The Jacobean Period ( 1607- 1690)
The Century ofCabinetmalang Begins: Th e William and Mary Period ( 1690- 1725)
Elegmlcealld Rejinement : The Q uee n Anne Style (1725-1 760)
Opulence and Stately Presence: Th e C hippenda le Style (1760-1 785 )
Designsfor the Ne ui Republic: Th e Federal Period (1785 -1 810)
ReuisitingA ncient Splendor: Am erican Empire (1810-1 830)
Part Two
SE V EN
EIGHT
N INE
TEN
ELEVEN
TWELVE
Til l RTEE N
Part Three
114
124
148
162
176
185
197
211
227
25 4
282
293
294
296
297
298
300
302
304
TH E ME TH OD S A N D M AT E RI A L S O F TH E 18TH-C ENT URY C AHI NE TI\IA K ER
Period Surfaces and Th eir Making
Constr uctio n Joinery
Cabriole Legs, Ball and Claw Feet
Surface O rna mentat ion
Turning
Finishing Materials and Techniques
Measurements and Drawings
E X A I\! PL ES OF S T YL E A" D S T RU CT U RE
William & Mary
Q ueen Anne
C hippendale
Federal
Appendix I: Wood and Wood Movement
Appendix II: Chro nology of Illust rated Publi cat ion s
Appendix l//: Period Varnis h Resins
Appendix IV Period Co lorants
Appendix V' Period Finishing Formulae
Glossary
Bibliography
Index
INTRODUCTION
A merican furn itu re of th e 18thcentury sta nds as one of th e pinnacles ofhu man creat ivity. In a newly settled land,often torn by politi cal and econo mic strife,
one would not expect th e design andcons truct ion of hou sehold furn ishi ngs to
advance to such a high sta te of refin em entas to be conside red amo ng th e greatest ofart ist ic achieveme nts . What occurred inAmerica in th e 18th century was a rarecom binat ion of resources, tradition ,inspiration and determination. Th e formsand st ructures that resulted rema in assta ndards of design and construct ion for allfu rni t ure th at followed.
During th is amaz ing century, furnituredesign seemed to awaken from a long postmedieval slumber and literally burst ontoth e world stage. Th e 18th century waswitness to four totally new design styles:William and Mary, Q uee n Anne,Chippe ndale and Neoclassical. Th ese stylesfollowed one another in rapid success ion,each a react ion to, or an advance me nt on,th e previous style. The designs were areflect ion of th e changing world at th et ime. Co m me rce, polit ics, social st ructu reand economics all cont ributed to th enew designs.
An tiqua rians, furn iture historians andfurn iture makers have ofte n approachedthe sub ject from different points of view.
To th ese groups , 18th-eentury furn it ureis ar t, art ifact or craft, but rarely a combination of all th ree, and th at is reflected inth e literature. Every museum and majorcollect ion has a cata log that documents its
2
holdings in great detail , and includes asmuch of th eir historical background aspossible. For those of us who have a strongint erest in period furnitu re, these books are
valuable resources. Without th em, few of uswould have been exposed to th e full depth
and breadth of American furniture. Inaddit ion, a number of superb furniturehistory books have been published thatpain stakin gly trace th e development ofstyles and place th em in contex t withtrends in int erior design and social andpolitical movem ents. Th e two landmarkbooks by Albert Sack, Fine PointsofFurniture (New York, 1950) and TheNewFine Points of Furniture (New York, 1993) ,are among th e few that address th e artisticmerits of originals and defin e th eir value tocollecto rs. Within th e last 30 years, booksdedicated to the craft of furniture makin ghave proliferated . Th e methods andtechniques th at were once th e secrets of th eapprent ice syste m are now available inprint. Th ese books illustrate some of theclassic designs, provid e measured drawingsand oft en give step-by-ste p descriptions ofth e building pro cess.
Wh at seemed to be missing from th eliterature was a work that sou ght com monground between art, artifact and craft : abook that presented th e viewpoints of th econnoisseur, historian and artisan to one
anothe r. Antiquarians and furnituremakers look at the sam e subj ect matter,
but with different perspectives. This bookis intended to present th e crafts man's artto th e connoisseur and connoisseurship toth e crafts ma n. It is not primarily meant tobe a book on how to make furniture, butrather on how period furniture was mad eand why.
Th e furn iture maker 's viewpoint wouldhelp antiquarians better und erstand th emethods of work th at yielded th e form s ofperiod pieces. It would also explain th eevolut ion of woodworkin g techniques thatenabled new styles to develop, as well asdesign trends that forced advances intechniques. It illustr ates th e limits placedon designs by mat erials and meth ods, andpresents th e dyn am ic nature of wood andits impli cat ions on st ructure and joinery.For example, an ant iquarian could betterunderst and th e degree of development of acabriole leg if he or she were familiar withth e process of shaping one from rough
stock, and could better determine th elevel of sophisticat ion achieved by th eoriginal maker.
Th e antiquarian 's view would benefitcabinetmakers by explaining th e import antaesthetic points of American furniture, andwh at differentiates a great expression ofstyle from a mediocre one. Th e antiquarian'sperspective st resses th e import ance of form
in furniture, and how th at form applies toth e style determines its merit. Stud ent sof Am erican furniture know th atornamenta tion does not make a piece greatand th at not everything old is worthvenerating. Antiquarian s have a sense for thehistor ical evolut ion of design and how worldevents helped shape it. Similarly, th eyunderstand th e effects of time and have areverence for th e color, surface and radiancethat period pieces achieve over centur ies.
All of th is cannot be achieved with outsome risk. I know that exp lor ing th e areawhere th e fields of th e connoisseur,historian and craftsman converge is boundto generate some discord . For one thing,some long-cherished myths may beendangered. Folkloric explanations andromant ic not ions are fascinati ng, butpract ical reasons ta ke precede nce. I havealso been so bold as to make aestheticjudgment s. Wh ile every piece of periodfurniture is impo rta nt for its cont ribu t ionto the body of knowledge on th e subject,some pieces uphold th e design ideals oftheir era better th an others. Subject iveevaluat ions are by th eir very natu re notquan tifiable and th erefore arguable, butsuch is the nature of th e discussion ofartist ic achieveme nt.
In addit ion, this book is full of referencesto the various per iods or styles of furn ituredesign that emerged over th e course of th e18th century. I have noticed an increasingreluctance to use th e traditional periodnames of Jacobean, William and Mary,Queen An ne, Chippendale, Hepplewh iteand Sheraton . Being nonjudgrnental caneasily extend to being nondescriptive, andavoidance of "labels"can mean avoiding th efact t hat there have been and will continueto be preferences in popul ar fashions.Grant ed, the names th at have come to beassociated with some of th ese styles are notwholly appropriate. Th e nam es of Englishmonarchs have on ly th e loosest associat ionwith the designs, and th e furnitu redesigners probably wouldn't recognizemuch of what in America came to beartheir names. However, th ese nam es dorepresent certain popul ar styles of furn itu re
design th at were in keep ing with th e idealsof th e day, and th ey are very useful forth at purpose.
With each phase of 18th-centu ryfurn iture design, underlying ph ilosophicalgoals manifested th em selves in th e variousstyles. These styles were more likely to bepar t of a desirable "look," with commondistin guishable att ributes, th an anyconsciously stated objectives. In each th ereare com mo n proportions, elemen ts andorna mentat ion that are cha racte rist ic ofth at t rend in design, and which different iate it from preceding and followin g styles.
Despi te th e colloquial origins of the stylenames, t hey can be usefu l and descr iptive inidentifying th ese trends, th eir evolut ion,and th e spread and du ration of th eirpop ularity. Taken for the ir gene ral descript ive value, style nam es are valuab le in
esta blishing a com mo n ground of understa nd ing amo ng historians and enthusiasts.
With such a broad subject to cover, thiscannot be an academically detail ed histor yof fu rn itu re design . As a result th ere aresome areas th at cannot be explored in th edeta il t hey deserve. Among th em are clocks,looking glasses and Windsor chairs. I havepurposely chosen to conce nt rate on th emain body of 18th-centu ry Americanfu rni ture and wou ld refer the reader tosources th at address th ese subjects in det ail(see th e bibliograph y on pp . 302-303).
As a professional fu rni ture maker whospecializes in the 18th -century Am ericanstyles, I learn ed the subject by study ing th eoriginals in depth and by building hundredsof examples. I feel th at t his has given me apract ical perspective on the tech niqu es anddesigns of th e era. Buildi ng th ese pieces on adaily basis imparts an insight int o th e waythe original makers th ought and worked
and adds anothe r d imension to even theclosest examination of a finished example.
If I can impart some insight into how th ecabinetma kers of th e 18th century th ought,worked and approached th eir designs, I willconside r thi s effort a success. Som e of th efinest furn it u re ever mad e was crafted withrelatively simple hand tools two or th reecentu ries ago, which underscores th eoriginal makers' skill as designers as well as
builders. Th eir work verifies th e fact t hataesthet ic achievement and technical skillare equally important , and it is a reminderth at a solid foundation in design andcraftsmanship is essent ial to th e successfulpracti ce of any craft . It also speaks to th ecapabilit ies and imp ortance of fundam entalhand tools, a point that is becomin g lostamid st th e pro liferation of modernequipment. To build furni tu re by trad it ionalmeth ods, fu rni ture th at has a soul, one hasto work with th e wood . Machi ning wood isjust somet hing done to it .
H istor y can often be reduced to a dr yseries of events, and a similar view of th ehistory of fu rn iture can rob it of itsingenuity and sponta ne ity. I have come toview this history as a vibrant accou nt ofhuman effort and t ry not to forget th atth e people of th is count ry two or threecenturies ago were not th at d ifferent fromwe who have inh er ited it . From thesurviving frui ts of th eir labor, I give theorigina l ma kers great cred it and respect forth eir efforts and ingenuity, and for theirskills as consum mate artists and craftsme n.
I N T RO D U C T I O N 3
Part OneTHE ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION
OF AMERICAN FURNITURE
4
STYLES
The account of how and why A merica11 f urniture reached such a high Ievel of
development during the 18th century is a [ascinating historical narrative. This furniture,
and the extraord inary achieuement it represented, was anything but the chance product
ofa distant colony. It was rather the logical outcomeofpractical requirements molded
by aesthetic trends. 111 addition, the injluencesof global commerce, shifti ngpolitical
alignments, evolvingsocial customs, personal preferences, market forces and all occasional
spark ofgeniusall contributed towardshaping the workofAmerican crajts men.
To understand lSth-century American f urniture, we must look outside the
lSth century and beyond the shores ofAmerica. Thedevelopment ofAmerica11
f urnitureduring this era had its origil1 deep in theprevious century, and it continued
well into the[allowing century, so the narratiuestretches Ollera spa11 of 200 years.
America was a part of the worldwide British Empirefor three-quarters of the
lSth century and remained closely linked with England ellel1 aft er the Reuolution.
Engusl: tasteswere injluenced greatly by those of continental Europe, especially the
French. If American styles followed British trends, then those influenceswere truly global
in scope. As a result}muchof the discussion ofAm ericanf urniture of the 18thcentury
takes place in other lands and during other times} since it was there that A merican
f urniture had its roots.
Theessence of lSth-century A merican[urniture is noteasily defined}but it isclearly
recognizable to those who havea passion for thesubject. A merican craftsmen, inspired
by English styles} infused a purity of lineand a refined senseof proportion into their
designs. Without the undueornamentation or uninspired appearance that plagued most
European work}A merican f urnitureof theperiod had a spirit and clarity that was
missingjrom the English pieces 011 which it was based. To what degree this resulted f rom
theconseruatiueand practical dictates of theA merican market or the independent spirit
of theA merican craf tsman is arguable}but the results areapparent. The 19th-century
essayist John Ruskin summarized theeffect in stating, 'No architecture isso haughty as
that which is simple."
The thread of refined simplicity nm s through lSth-century Am ericanf urniture
design}but simplicityofdesignshould notbeconf used with simplisticdesign. Refined
simplicity denotesan optimized form} whilesimplisticdesignsare undeveloped. Without
an aristocracy}A merican cabinetmakershad to achieve more with less. Cost wasan
object}and A merican tastes were more restrained than thoseof the wealthy English elite.
Early in thecentury}A merican cabinetmakersdeveloped a distinctivestylebased on
refined and well-proportioned forms. Their f urniture was neverjusta platformfor
ornament}and they were wary of short-lived stylistictrends. Even the more highly
ornamented A merican pieces haveat theircorecarefully proportioned and optimized
designs. As the important styleperiodsof the 18th century evolved and ebbed}A merican
artisans kept pace with thechanges and breathed theirown refinements into the designs.
5
1Prelude to C ha nge
THE JACOBEA N PERIOD
(1607 -1 6 9 0 )
h e 17th century was a period ofprofound transition in Europe, and nowh eremore so than in England . Colonizat ion,expanding commerce and governmentaluph eaval brou ght a change in th e pattern sof daily living and in England's role amongthe natio ns of th e world. With anincreasingly global network of trade camean infusion of new ideas and goods. Th erising affl uence of th e merchant middleclass fueled a demand for consu mer
products, whi ch was answered by a growin gnumber of skilled artisans. Th ese artisansfun ctioned as th e manufacturers of th eirday, choos ing from th e increasingly diversesupply of raw materials to produce fini shedgoods, including furn iture , for bothdomestic consumptio n and export to th eEnglish colonies. This combinat ion ofcommercial prosper ity and new cultu ralinfluences invited a dramatic change intaste and design, whi ch began in earne stwith th e Restoration of Charles II.
This detail from A Lady at Her Toilet, c.1660, by theDutch painter Gerard Terborch (1617-1681), illustratessome of the northern European tastes that wereamong the many global influences converging inEngland afterthe Restoration of CharlesII.(COURTESY THE DETROIT INSTITUTE OF ARTS!
6
Frame-and-Panel Chest Const ruct ionThi s prospe rity extended beyond
England itself. By mid-eentury th e recentlysettled colonies in Am erica were wellestablished and thriving. During th e ]630s,60,000 Englishmen left for Am erica, and20,000 of th em settled in New England.In 1634, colonist William Wood wro te ofthe need for "an ingenious Ca rpente r, acunning Joyner, a handi e Cooper, such aone as can make strong ware for th e use ofthe countr ie." A popul ar English song of th eday was entitled Summ ons to Ne w England.
Skilled craftspeople and people from allwalks of life came to America and brou ghtwith them th eir t radit ions, trades and adesire to carve out a new world.
The Restoration ofCharles IIIn May 1660, Charles II returne d toEngland from th e mainland of Euro pe. Hehad left England after th e executio n of hisfather, Charles I, in 164 9. Th e execut ionhad been preceded by six years of war, andwas followed by eight years of Puritan ruleunder Oliver Cro mwell. Th e Puritanregimen had brought what was left of th earts to a grinding halt and imposed a st rictmora l order th at reduced daily living to an
unending effor t to avoid damnation . Th erestoration of th e monarchy came as a greatliberation from th e burden of Puritan rul eand th e two years of virtual anarchy th athad followed.
With th e Restoration came a resurgenceof art and culture. Th e ten years th atCharles II had spent in Europe influencedthe prevailing court tastes of th e period .Two years after taking th e throne, Charlesmarried a Portuguese pr incess, Cathe rineof Braganza, whose dowr y included th eprivilege of free t rade with Portuguesepossessions.
England had been languishi ng in acultura l depression and stylistic slump fornearly two decades. Its int ern al st rife hadkept its attentio n focused inward, in starkcontrast with th e commer cial exuberancethat characte rized th e first half of th ecentury. With th e Restoration , England was
Rails
Floating panelsfit in grooves inframe members.
able to embrace som e ext ravagance, and itwas sudde nly inundated with th e mostfashionable tastes of th e French cour t of
Loui s XIV, th e Low Co unt ries and th ePortuguese and all th eir tradin g partners.
Of th ese various influences, th e Dutchinfluence was most important. Not onlyhad Holland been th e refuge for manyloyalists du rin g th e years of C romwell'sProtectorate govern me nt, but prosperit yand power were shifti ng from Holland toEngland afte r th e Restoration . Many Dutchcraftsme n were followin g this change bymoving to England, and many Dutchfurniture makers wh o chose to rem ain wereexport ing th eir finish ed work to England.Th e English furniture-making bu siness wassudde nly bu sy sup plying th e prosperou sand style-eonscious English, and it was evenbusi er aft er th e G reat Fire of London in1666, which dest royed two-thi rds of th ecity. London furn it ure makers were alsoexport ing fini shed fu rniture to Norway andDenmark in exchange for high-quality,cabinet-grade wood .
Mortise-and-tenon constructionthroughout
Jacobean FurnitureBefore th e Restoration of Cha rles II, Englishfurn itu re was built m uch as it had been forcentu ries. The cons t ruct ion of these pieceswas not unl ike th at of th e timber-framehou ses of the period, with a framework ofst raight members, square, or nea rly square,in cross sect ion . Th ese members werejoin ed at right angles by mortise-and-tenonjoints. Whereas timber-frame houses werecovered by a sheathing th at became thewalls and roof, th e flat sides of fu rni ture
were panels let int o th e sti les and rails of th est ruc ture (see th e dr awing above).
This frame-and-panel style as it wasmanifested in th e 17th century has come tobe known as Jacobean, from the Latin "ofJames." James I was king during th e firstquart er of th e century and th e predecessorof th e ill-fated Charles I. As with most
furniture-design t rends named after royalty,th e style includes many aspects that wereint roduced ou ts ide of th e years ofJam es'sreign. In this case, what has come to be
TH E JA C OBE AN PERI OD 7
CHEST. CONNE CTIC UT ( PROBA BLY NEW HAV EN). 1640-1680 .
This frame-and-panel chest with a lift top typifies the structureandform of chests of the 17th century.Chestsof the second half of thecentury frequently included oneor twodrawers in the bottomof the case.{COURTESY YALEUNIVERSITYART GALLERY!
called Jacobean includes th e first th reequarte rs of th e 17th century.
While th e fram e-and-panel meth odof const ruct ion proved to be durableand practi cal, it was at th e sam e timestylist ically confining. Th e st raight framework and flat panel s limited th e overalldesigns to severe rect ilinear forms. Withinthi s syste m of bu ildin g th ere was nopracti cal way to incorporate sweepingcu rves or gentle contours, even thoughth ey wou ld have made the furniture morecomforta ble to the user. Decoration waslimited to surface carving of the panels ,applied geomet ric sha pes or ha lf-turnings.
CA RO LEA N FU RN ITU RETh e Late Jacobean , or Ca rolean per iod ,refers to th e period from th e Restorationuntil th e ascendancy of William and Maryin 1689. This period includes th e rul e ofCharles II, and th e bri ef reign of Jam es II,which lasted from 1685 to 1688.
Chests of dr awers, cabinets on stands,tall case clocks and tall-front writing
cabinets were amo ng th e newer form s th atflourished afte r th e Restoration . Walnutbegan to replace oak as th e wood of choicefor fine fu rn itu re, because of its warmcolor, att ract ive grain and workability.Scrolled legs, ball feet, exte nsive carving andinlaid marqu et ry were am ong th e elem entsth at were int roduced from th e Du tch .Brass mounts or pull s, in th e famil iar d ropshape , and likely of Ori ental design origin,
replaced earlier iron hardware.Many of th e changes th at were
int rodu ced in th e Carolean period havecome to be associated with th e William andMary style. Th e Ca rolean period is bestremembered as a tr ansitional period fromth e pre-Restoration Jacobean styles to th efully developed William and Mary style.During th e Carolean era, exte rna linfluences were havin g a powerfu l effect onEnglish furn iture design, and it wasundergoing dra stic changes in bothst ructure and appeara nce . In Am er ica,th ese changes had not yet come to the fore.Th roughout furniture history th ere was alag in th e time required for English styles to
become established in America. Many ofth e changes th at occurred in England after
8 C H A PT E R ONE
th e Restoration came to Am erica as partof t he later William and Mary style, soun til th e last decade of th e 17th century,th e English Jacobean style dominatedAm erican furniture design.
American JacobeanFormsIn Am erica, th e first furniture had comefrom England with th e early settle rs.Alm ost immediately, however, furniturethat was needed tor th e use of th e set tle rswas also mad e dom estically. From th eoutset, tr adespeople wh o came to Am ericafound th eir skills in dem and in a newmarket . Th e Gr eat Migration that followedth e first settlers brought more specializedcraftspeo ple, along with th eir methods andstyles. The regional variati ons of Englandwere transplanted to Am erica. For mu ch ofth e 17th century, Am erican furniture was acont inuatio n of th e prevailing Englishtastes, which included th e infusion of
Dutch tastes and European Renaissance
influences that sta rted to find their wayint o th e forms after th e Restorat ion.
CASE PIECESO ne of th e most famili ar forms ofAm erican Jacobean furniture is the chest,which for most of th e period had a lift top
and often one or two drawe rs at the bot tom.Depending on th e place of or igin, th eexte rior, and in par t icular th e front, waseither carved or decorated with app liedhalf-turni ngs or geometric shapes (photoabove). Th e st iles at th e front and backcorners cont inued beyond th e bottom ofth e case to form th e feet as well. Th esechests share a commo n structure and traceth eir roots to medieval pieces.
A distin ction shou ld be mad e betweenchests with d rawers and chests of drawe rs.C hests comprised entirely of drawers,usually four, appeared later in the periodand were seen in Ame rica with increasingfrequency afte r about 1670. Documentsfro m th e time often refer to th em as cases
of drawers, and early 17th-centu ry Englishreferences menti on cases of drawing boxes.
PRE SS CUPBOARD .
ESSE X COUN TY .
MASSACHUSETTS .
16 7 5- 16 9 5 .
Press cupboardsare amongthemost impressive of 17thcentury pieces. This exampleshows contrastingebonizedbalusters and half-turn ings.(COURTESY MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS.
BOSTON)
TABLE WITH DRAWER .
PLYMOUT H. MASSACHUSETTS . 16 6 0-16BO.
Most tables of theperiod have stretchers andstoutturnings and are related to similar English tables.This example features shallow lunette carvings onthedrawer front. Larger versions. without thedrawer,functioned asdining tables.(COURTESY SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION)
The Dutch influence aft er th eRestoration brought about one of th e morespectac ular case pieces of the period: th e
cupboard . Cupboards had an English originin Elizabethan designs of th e previouscentury, but th e Dut ch infl uences gavethem a new stature. They are visuallycomplicated, with strong horizontallylayered elements and except ionally boldturnings. As is th e case with chests, th eseturnings and half-turnings are usuallyebonized. Ebonizing involves paintingth ese parts a strongly pigmented black tomake them stand apart from th e lightercolored case (see pp. 194-195). The useof cont rast ing light and dark colors, notun like th e painting s of the Dutch masters,is a theme th at runs through mu ch ofJacobean-era design.
Cupboards were made to stand in th emost important room of th e hou se, andwere a reflection of wealth and socialstanding. Needless to say,only th e very
wealthy owned th em, since th e complexityof these pieces made th em prohibitivelyexpensive. Apa rt from its role as a symbolof refinement, the cupboard 's primaryfun ction was to store linens. Textil eswere very valuab le in th e 17th and 18th
centu ries, and many important pieces werededicated to th eir storage and protection.Jacobean cupboards are categorized today aseither press cupboards, which have th eir
lower portion enclosed, or cou rt cupboards,which have th e bottom part open.
TABLESStylish tables of the period featured turnedlegs and st retchers, and were similar toEnglish examples. Th ey were made in arange of sizes from about 3 ft . to over 6 ft.
in length and served a variety of purposes.Their primary requirement was th eirfun ctionality, so th ey were usually builtwithout as much decoration as oth er pieces.In addi t ion, trestle-type tables were in lise,some t imes of the variety that was easilydisassembled for storage. Anoth er varietywas the chair-table, th e hin ged top of whichallowed it to be converted from table tochair. With space at a premium in manyearly hou ses, tab les that folded ordisassembled were not un common .
T HE J A C OBEA N P ER I OD 9
CHAMBER TABLE . SALEM . MASSACHUSETTS . 16 9 0 .
Chamber tables functioned asdressing tables. Thistable is oneof the few 17th-eentury pieces to moveaway from the lowhorizontal Jacobean formal.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR MUSEUM)
J OI NT STOOL .
MASSACHUSETTS .
16 9 0-1 715 .
Jointstools with turnedandsplayed legs weremade in great quantityfor use asseatingfurniture into the early18th century.(COURTESY YAt E UNIVERSITY
ART GALLERY)
10 C I I A I' T E R ON E
O ne very unusual form th at survivesfrom th e 17th century is th e chambe r table(top photo at left) . A chamber table is bestdescribed as a small lift-top chest with onedrawe r beneath, but bu ilt on tall tu rnedlegs with decorative st retchers. Th econst ructio n is frame and panel withmort ise-and-tenon joinery th roughout. Itspurpose was to hold personal effects in th ebedroom, and th e interiors of th e drawerand case were divided by part itions. In th isway,chamber tables fulfilled much th esame pu rpose as dressing tables or lowboysdid during th e 18th century. Th e personalnature and intricate design of th e originalssuggest th at they may have been built, andperhaps given as gifts, to mark importantevents like marriages or th e coming of age.
SEAT ING FU RN ITU REO ne of th e most commonly used pieces ofseat ing furniture of th e Jacobean periodwas th e joint stoo l (bottom photo at left ).Joint stoo ls are compr ised of four turned
and splayed legs joined by an apron andst retchers, with a board top. Struc tu rally,they have more in common with tablesth an with chairs, and when needed theycou ld double as small tables. Joint stoo lswere the most affordab le and common typeof seating fu rni ture of th e period . In a
household th at may have had only one ortwo regular chairs, th e remaining familymembers would use joint stoo ls for dining
or sit t ing near th e fire. An elongatedversion of th e joint stool, called a form,was more like a bench and could seat twoor more people. Th ere was a certa inpracticality to th e use of joint stoo ls,conside ring both th e bulkiness of winterclothing and th e pract ice of rearrangingth e furn iture in a room according to th e
act ivity going on th ere.Among the more conventional chairs
were a number of standard designs.Wainscot chairs were built with th e frameand -panel meth od of constr uct ion. Theorna men tation of th ese chairs wasprimarily surface carving of th e panels andframe members. Turned chairs werecom prised of elements th at were all turnedon th e lath e. Thi s meth od allowed for th ecom ponen t part s to be tu rned to decorative
WAINS COT ARMCHAIR . CO NNE CTICUT. 1640 - 16 80 .
Frame-and-panel wainscot chairs are highly rectilinearin form . As on chests, the flat panels andframemembers were decorated with shallow moldingsand carving. This Con necticut example hasturnedfront legs.(COURTESY CONNECTICUTHISTORICAL SOCIETY)
profi les,and resulted in visually interest ingchairs. Because turned chairs are comprisedof spindles rath er th an pane ls, th ey can belooked through as well as at . Th e beauty ofturned chairs is in th eir silhouette, whileth at of wainscot chairs is on th eir surface .Turned chairs are sometimes categorized aseither Brewster or Carver chairs, afterWilliam Brewster, an original chair owner,or John Carver, th e first governo r ofPlymouth. Brewster chairs have vert icaltu rned spindles und er the seat , whereasCarver chairs do not . It was customary touse a separate upholstered cushion on th ehard seat panels ofJacobean-era chairs.
Anoth er form of chair, somet imes calleda Cro mwellian chair, is a very rect ilinearform of joined chair.Th ese chairs appearedin th e last quart er of th e century, well afterthe others. Rath er than having inset panels,the backs were either upholstered in fabricor leath er, or colonnaded with vertica lspind les. In either case, th ey are usuallywithout arms (to accommodate th e bulkydress of th e day) and have a large spacebetween the seat and the back. The stark
TURNED GREAT CHAIR .
EASTERN MASSACHUSETTS , 1640-1680 .
This strikingarmchair, made contemporaneously withwainscot chairs, is comprised entirely of turnedelements. Chairs of this type with vertical spindlesbelowtheseat are often referred to as Brewster chairs.(COURTESYTHE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART)
CROMWElLIAN CHAIR .
MASSACHUSETTS . 1670-1700 .
Side chairs of this rectilineardesign weremade inquantity in Boston in the last quarter of the 17thcentury. This example retains its original 'Tu rkeywork: a European imitation of Middle Easternupholstery fabric.(COURTESY THE METROPOLI TAN MUSEUM OF ART)
TURNED ARMCHAIR . SOUTHEASTERN
MASSACHUSETTS . 1640-1680 .
Similar to the turned great chair, this turned armchair(or Carver chair) from the same period hasno verticalspindle turnings below the seat.(COURTESYCOLONIAL WILLIAMSBURG FOUNOATlON)
SIDE CHAIR . PHILADElPHIA . 1680-1705 .
Similar in form to the Boston chairs, this Phi ladelphiaversion has twist-turned stretchers andspindles, anEnglishdesign element from after the Restoration.(COURTESYWINTERTHUR MUSEUM)
THE JA C OB EA N P ERI O D 11
plainn ess of some of th ese chairs beliesth eir age and associatio n with th e Jacobeanperiod . Exist ing examples show th at th osewith a ew England herit age are uph olsteredin leath er or fabric with marsh-grassstuffing and have ball-turned st retcherand leg deta ils. An elongated version with
arms is th e basis for an early couch. Anunu pholstered Philadelphia chair fromduring or after the 1680s shows th e twistturned spindles and str etchers th at hadcome into fashion in London aft er th eRestoration (see th e bottom right photo onp. II ). In a slightly different style, th e
Dut ch traditi on of using horizontal slatsacross th e backs of turned chairs cont inuedin th e regions th at th ey populated, namel yth e New York and New Jersey coastal areas.
BEDSTEADSDuring th e 17th century, th e term "bed"referred to th e mattress itself, and th ebedstead was intended as both a frame for
th e rope suspension and th e bed hangings.With the inherent cold and draft of earlyhouses, it was essential th at th e bed be welloff th e floor and sur rounded by cu rta ins.Th ough none sur vive, it is know n th roughdocumentary evide nce th at th ere wereframe-and-panel bedsteads with turnedposts. Anoth er type of bedstead, called aFrench bed, was a light frame of a simplestyle th at held th e mattress and han gings.T his form probably evolved int o th ecommon pencil-post bed of slende rproportions in th e 18th centu ry. Examplesof a third type of bed, with low posts andtu rned elements, are reminiscent of th eBrewster and Carver chairs (see th e photoat right) .
TURNED BEDSTEAD .
NEW ENGLAND . 1670-1710 .
With the exception of the rails, this bedstead is madeup of turned elements. The use of turnings and theprofiles of thespindlesareremini scent of the turnedchairs of the mid-17th century.(COURTESY MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS. BOSTON)
12 C II A I' T E R ONE
Jacobean Structure
Because it was built from stout framemembers, American Jacobean furnitu rewas ru gged enough to withstand heavyuse. As in England, oak was a favoritewood. In New England, oak and ash werein abundant supply, and th ey were th ewoods with wh ich most immigrant joinerswere exper ienced . Furthermore, th esewoods were st rong and durable, andwithout th e brittle characterist ics of fruitwoods. Frame members and panels wereeasily split from short logs with a froe anddr essed to final dimension s with a handplan e. Co mpared to sawing, thi s methodwas qui ck and easy. The mortise-and-tenonjoin ery and floating panel s were seeminglyimp ervious to th e ravages of clim at icext remes and consta nt use.
Relatively few tools were requ ired tomake th e st ructura l elements ofJacobeanfurniture. Joiners, as furniture makers ofth e 17th century were known, needed only
an auger, saw and chisels to make a snugfitti ng joint . H igher levels of sophist icat ionor decoration requ ired a more extensivearray of tools. Th ere was a certainmodularity to this kind of const ruct ion.Th e same kind of elements that made up achest also made a wainscot chair or a cradle.T he same tools and techniques were usedto make th e elements of each, but th edimensions were varied to fit th e piece.
Th e mort ise and tenon was a basic anduniversal joint during thi s tim e, and th ejoiner's skills were employed in more th an
just fu rn iture makin g. Joiners oftendoubled as housewrights, wagon buildersand general repairmen as well. Since nearlyeverything was mad e out of wood and th ejoiner was th e primary tradesman of th emedium, he often wore many hats.
Parts of furniture th at couldn't be joined
by mortise and tenon were usually nailed.Unt il th e end of th e 18th century, nailswere hand-wrought . Th e mu ltifaceted headgaveth em the name "rosehead." Chest
17th-Century Drawer Constru ction
Drawerpartsneeded to besubstantial enoughto withstandassembly withhand-wrought nails.
Applied molding
Back butted tosideand nailed
Drawer frontrabbeted for sidesand bottom
Drawer sidenailed on
Groove for runner
Drawer bottomnailed on
bottom s and backs were often nailed inplace, as were hin ges and any otherhard ware th at was attac hed. Unti l near theend of th e century, drawers were also nailedtogether (see th e top drawin g at left) . Th esides were nailed to th e front and back, andth e bottom was nailed on as well.
The standa rd method of suspe nding adrawer in a case was to have a groove cutalong th e cente r of th e drawe r side fromfront to back, which rode on two runnersnailed to th e inside of th e case. These areknown as side-hu ng drawers (see th e
bottom drawing at left). To accommoda teth e grooves and th e nails, th e drawer part sneeded to be thick. Som e examples havedrawer parts as thi ck as I in . Since th e woodof choice was usually oak, th e drawers werevery heavy.
The mass of th ese thi ck drawers, alongwith th at of frame-and-panel construction,did not facilita te th e building of tall ordelicate furnitu re. By its very st ruc ture,Jacobean furniture was obliged to maintainth e low, solid and horizontal format thatwas indicative of th e style.
Side-Hung Drawer
Groove indrawer side
Seventeent h-Cent uryDecoration
Th e solid ity and practicality of earlyJacobean pieces did not preclud e th emfrom being hand som e, decorat ive and wellprop ortioned . With a simple lath e, th ejoiner could produce turnings for table legsand st retchers as well as chair and bedparts, and thereby add some decorat iveembellishment to otherwise utilitar ianforms. The flat panels ofJacobean pieceswere also well suited to sha llow carving,a style of decoration used widely duri ngth e period .
T URNIN G SSeventeenth-eentury turnings are noted forbeing robust, often bord erin g on stout,th ough some turnings of great delicacy andrefin em ent appea red as orna mentat ion onchairs and bedsteads. Half-turn ings wereapplied to chest and cup board surfaces asan alte rnative or addit ion to carved panels.Th e distinctive shapes of turnings
T HE J A C 0 H E A N PER I 0 D 13
differentiate th e work of various craftsme nand region s, and are important details indetermining th e origin of pieces.
By th eir very nature, turnings arein here ntly decorative. Woodturningcomprised an important subset ofwood working th at had developed as a fieldin itself. In areas th at had th e populationdensity to support fu ll-t ime turners,joine rs ofte n purchased th eir turningsfrom th ese specia lists . While most join ersowned lathes, economy ofte n dictated th atrepe t it ive or elabora te turnings be bou ghtfro m specialists . Throughout mu ch ofAm erican furniture history, t u rners were agrou p separate and apart fro m joiners andlater cabinetmakers. Th e two groupsenjoyed a para llel development and th eirpaths crossed cont inua lly. Not only d idturners supply join ers with turnedeleme nts, but th ey also developed th eirown kinds of furniture, most ofte n chairs.In th e Am erican Jacobean period , join ersbuilt th eir wainscot chai rs from squareor rectangular members with panels
inco rpo rated int o th em . Th e joine ry wasth e pegged mortise-and-tenon joint usedon a variety of pieces. Turners' chairswere th e Brewster and Ca rver cha irs, madeent irely of turned pieces and put togetherwith round turned tenon s and round
drill ed mortises.
CA RV ING
Ca rving had been an important part ofornamentation for millennia, and, besidesturnings, was th e predominant met hod ofembellishing th e flat sur faces of fram es andpanel s. Most of th e carving on 17th-eenturyAme rican furniture was botanical in natureand derived from Renaissance designs. Aswith most orna me nta t ion, each region had
an ident ifiable set of designs.Th e very first Am erican chests were
stylized with scratc h or shadow moldings(top photo at right ). Th ese shallow profileswere literally scraped lengthwise into th estiles and rails to give some visua l relief toan othe rwise plain fram e-and-panel facade.
Th e most recognizab le kind of carvingwas th e shallow relief carving of pan els,
often done in conjunction with th e use ofhalf-turnings (bottom photo at right) . One
14 C H A P T E R O NE
CHEST WITH DRAWERS . WETHERSFIELD .
CONNECTICUT. 16 7 5-1 71 0.
This chest is attributed to Peter Blin of Wethersfield.The design, includingtheshallow relief carving of thesunflower and the use of half-tu rnings, is nearlyidentical to several other chests attributed to him.(COURTESYWETHERSFiElD HISTORICAL SOCIETY)
of th e most prolific practitioners ofthis style was Peter Blin of Wethersfield ,Co nnecticut, wh o was working during
th e last quarter of th e century. Blincarved th e panels with th e sunflower (orperh aps marigold) and tulip design th atbecame a signato ry det ail of th at region .A consum mate craftsma n, Blin plannedhis carving carefully and stayed within th econfines of th e panels. O n th e North Shoreof Massachusetts at about th e same time,Thomas Dennis and William Searle were
CHEST. CON NECTIC UT
RIV ER VALL EY OF
MASSA CHUSETTS .
1685 -1700 .
Th is oakchest isclearlyof frame-andpanel construction.Like many chests ofthe 17th century, itsonly ornamentation istheshallow shadowmoldings on the stilesand rails.(COURTESY HISTORIC
DEERFiElD)
carving in a similar way, but including morefree-Flowin g orname ntat ion, scrolls andreferences to more med ieval designs. Som echests of coasta l New England origin haveapplied geomet ric designs on th e panels anddrawer fronts, wh ich was another infl uenceof Dutch taste on th e English styles.
Som e of th e most int erestin g examplesof carved orna menta t ion come from farthernorth in th e Co nnecticut River Valley,namely th e Hadl ey, Massachusetts, area.Alth ough th e st ruc ture of th e furniturefrom thi s area was nearly th e same aselsewh ere, its proportions were somewhatlight er and its carving was remarkable. Th efronts of Had ley-area chests are coveredwith all sorts of fanciful carvings in veryshallow relief (see th e photo on th e facingpage). At first glance th e designs app ear tobe a whimsical kind of folk art, but th e styleis consistent among a number of pieces andshows a high degree of sophist ication. Th edesigns include all kinds of botanical
subjects, stylized animals and figures, andgeomet rical and compass designs. Thecarv ings know no bou nds and extend allover th e front of th ese chests. Despite theirexuberance, th e carvings are arranged in anorde rly manner and are consistent withinth eir respective frame member or panel.O n close examination th ey are like noothe r kind of carving, and, despit e th eir
magnificence, th e observer cannot help butwonder how th eir creato rs were inspired .
CHEST OVER ORAWER . CONNECTICUT RIVER VALLEY OF MASSACHUSETTS . 1670- 1 7 10 .
This painted Hadley chesthas thecharacteristicshallowrelief carvingof stylized botanicalelements.Over 125origina l chests with this type of ornament exist. andnearly half of them are of this form.(COURTESYYALE UNIVERSITY ART GALLERY)
PAI NTS A N D STA I N SCarved pieces were very often pain ted aswell. The entire spectrum was to be foundhighlighting th e carvings or coloring th eground between raised portions. Deep reds,blues, greens and ivory are frequently seencolors on surviving examples. While itwas to be anot her two centur ies beforecommercially prod uced pain ts wereavailable, a number of naturally occurringpigments could be ground with linseed oilfrom flax seed to make a very good paint.Some of thes e pigments were availablelocally, and others were imported. In urbanareas th ere was enough of a demand forpaint and decoration to support a separateprofession by the end of th e centur y.
It is not known for certain wha t kind ofstains (if any) were used in 17t h-century
America. Based on the sophistication of thefurniture, it is probable th at t he bui lders ofthe period wou ld have used some kind of
tinted wash to impart at least an even ton eif not darken th e wood . Any number ofplant materials , like bark , roots or nutshells, could be boiled in water to ext ractth eir dye. Throughout th e 18th century ,wate r-based dyes cont inued to be amo ngth e formu lae for colorants.
Any colorants were likely sealed int o th e
wood with a top coat of boiled linseed oil orwax. Both linseed oil and beeswax werereadily availab le, and th ey could be appliedalone or in success ion to give a protectivefinish with a nice luster. Both material s arerubbed in and buffed off, making th emvery easy to apply. With eit he r fini sh, th eoxidation of th e sur face deepened th e color
of the wood in time. Almond and walnutoil were also used as furniture fini shes inearly Am erica. It has been suggested th atsom e of these pieces were not originallyfin ished , and that th eir present surface is aresult of centu ries of use. This seems highly
unlikely, since raw wood quickly becom esdirty wh en handl ed, and it is even moreimp robable th at a piece would be handl edall over to give it th e pat ina we see today.Th e or iginal makers were t rained andskilled craftspeo ple, and applying an oil orwax finish would have protected andenhanced th eir work. (For more on periodfinishes, see Chapte r 12.)
Th e spirited decoration of 17th-century
American furniture, whi le seemi ngly incont rast to th e strict mo ral valu es of aPuritan society, was a holdover from th e
Renaissance and th e ju bilance ofElizabethan England. While th ere was sinin public overindulgence, th ere was nolimit in indulging in fanc ifully decoratedfurnitu re. Own ing a highly decorated piecewas a way of showing one's wealth orimp ort ance in society, since most households had few pieces of furn itu re and th eforms of th e pieces were fairly uniform.Th e Purit ans did not frown on success, andth e deco rat ive arts were a measure of it .According to Puritan ethics, materi alsuccess could be cons idered a reflection ofone's goodness in th e eyes of God. As apract ical point, at a t ime when most peop lehad relati vely few possessions and hou seswere poorly lit, it seems natural th atbrilli ant colors and extensive carvings
would be in fashion. Ju st as spinning andweaving were winter work for wom en ,elabo rate carving and painting were likelyind oor pastimes for men, especially inisolated rural areas. Many of th e pieces ofth e pe riod show evidence th at th ey werecarved afte r th ey were built, suggest ing th atth e decorati ve work was taken up wh enth ere was time for it.
Historians all too ofte n atte mpt to findserious reasons for every aspect of earlyAm erican life, as if th ese were dour sou lswho needed a solid reason for every act ion.Like all people th ey cou ld appreciate a bolddes ign and some bright colors. After all,th ese designs were rooted in th eir recentEnglish history, and th e long New England
winters called for something to bright enth em up . To deny th ese people th eirspontaneity robs th eir su rviving work ofsome of th e creat ivity and indi vidu alismth at is inh erent in any hand craft .
TIl E .IA C 0 HEA N I' ERIO D 15
2The Century of Cabinetmaking Begins
THE WILLIAM AND MARY PERIOD
h e many influ ences th at converged inEngland after th e Restorat ion of Charles IIcombined to form a new style th at began acentury of rapidly changing furnituredesign. Th e new style was uniquely English,but American craftsmen add ed th eir ownrefinements of design and prop ortion, basedon th e tastes and needs of th e flourishin gcolonies.Th e American int erpretation ofth e English designs imbued th em with adistin ctive spirit that was to cont inue as a
hallmark of Ameri can design.
Foreign Influences andBaroque IdealsWith th e ascend ancy of William and Maryin 1689, th e Dutch influences th at hadarr ived in England with th e return ofCharles II were further reinforced. Both th eDutch and Portuguese were tr adingexte nsively with th e Ori ent, and th eir tasteswere colored by cu ltu res far different fromth eir own.
Cabinetmakers to th e cou rt wereinstru menta l in incorporatin g th e newforeign influ ences and helping to synthesizea new style. O ne of th e leading cabinet
makers of th e day was Gerreit Jensen, acraftsman of Flemi sh and Dutch origin who
16
(1690-1725)
was a cabinetmaker to th e Crown from1680to 1715. He was skilled in marquetryand lacquerwork and worked underCharles II, James II, William and Mary andQu een Anne. His skill and versat ility wereinstrumental in keeping th e royal famili essupplied with furniture of th e latest tastes.An influenti al craftsman best known for his
The Tea-Table isanengraving byanunknown English artistpublished in Londonabout 1710. In additionto showing cane-backchairs anda gatelegdrop-leaftable in theWilliam and Mary style,it documents therelationship betweenincreasing prosperityand leisure timeandthe growing importanceof furniture as thecenterpiece of socialgatherings.(COURTESY BRITISH MUSEUM,
LONDON, ENGLAND)
carving techn ique was Grinling Gibbons( 1648- 1720). Gibbons was born in
Rotterdam but had moved to Englandshortly after th e Restoration. He is knownfor his deep, airy and fluid style of carvingof both architectura l details and furniture.His style perm eated Late Jacobeanornament, and set a standa rd in carveddesign that continued into th e William and
Mary style.
Th e revocation of th e Edict of Nantes in1685 led many French Hu guenot craftsmento flee France for other European count riesand America. On e of th ese FrenchProtestants was Daniel Marot (1662 -1752).Marot was an architect and a designer ofboth furniture and ornament . He fled toHolland and th en came to England withWilliam III. Marot served as King William 's
architect before return ing to Holland in1698. He brought with him a decidedlyFrench taste in th e style of Loui s XIV,and int rodu ced some details th at were to
become synonymous with th e William andMary style. Amo ng th ese are crossstre tchers and th e turned leg in th e trumpetand inverted cup shape.
THE BAROQUE STYLEApart from th e stylist ic influencesbrou ght to England by trade, monarchsor th eir spouses, and foreign craftsmen,th e emerging designs were also th emanifestation of th e Baroqu e style. Th eBaroque is a term th at is used to describeth e artist ic style prevalent in Europe fromabout 1600 th rough 1750. It spreadnorthward from Rom e and did not comeinto vogue in England until after th eRestoration . While Renaissance design wasrefined but stat ic, th e Baroqu e was
intend ed to be dynami c. In addition, workwas to be done with a flourish and everything was to app ear effortless. Th ere is anincreased sense of dr ama and flair in th efu rniture designs of th e per iod , in keepingwith th e Baroque idea that art ists andscientists were, according to art historianHelen Gardner, "brilliant performers" and"virtuosi proud of th eir technique andcapable of asto nishing quantities of work."
Th e difference is evide nt wh en comparingth e solid, rectangular forms of th e bestRenaissance-inspired Jacobean style withthe complexity and bold undertaking ofWilliam and Mary designs.
Furn iture met th e Baroqu e ideals bybecoming more vertical and more orna te .
By Baroqu e sta ndards, one of th e best waysto create an impressive piece of furniturewas to make it tall. Cour t furniture makerswere bu ilding taller and taller pieces to fillthe increasingly caverno us int eriors of
palaces th at were being built at Versaillesand elsewhere. Chests becam e nearlysquare and were full of drawers. Som echests were placed on top of stands (seeth e ph oto above). Chairs became tall er andwere crowned with orn ate carved designs.
In addition , case pieces were given theflourish of elaborate moldings at top andbottom. Legs becam e excuses for showingoff dramatic turnings. Apron s andst retc he rs becam e decorative as well asfunctional , and wildly grained veneers wereeverywhere. Th ose of th e old school mu sthave shaken th eir heads in disb elief.
CAB IN ET-O N-STAN 0 ,
ANTWERP , FLANDERS .
1680-1690 .
The ancestry of theEnglish and Americanhighchest is evident inthis pieceof late-17thcentury Flemish courtfurniture,(COURTESY TOLEDO MUSEUM
OF ART)
At th e same time th at Baroqu e designwas encouraging dr amatic results,Enlighte nme nt ideals were demanding logicand ord er. Th e two were not at odds in th eWilliam and Mary designs, and in fact th eymerged nicely.Th e new sty le was a veryorde rly display of dr am a. Pieces weredesigned to be impressive, and part of th iswas in th e logical arrangem ent of th eircomponent parts and th e great attent ionpaid to sym met ry and order. In subtle ways,th e vertical mass of th ese pieces was madeapparent. Feet and bases were designed toshow that th ey carried weight. It was as ifEnlight enment logic sought to make itevident that designers went to great length sto achieve Baroqu e dr am a.
T HE W IL L IAM & MARY PER I OD 17
THE USE OFSTYLE NAMES
A s with most styles, it isimpossible to trace th e
lineage of th e emerging design offurn iture, wh ich would come tobe known as th e William andMary style, to anyone place orperson. It is instead th e sum ofmany global influences and th ewillin gness of th e enlightenedEnglish aristocracy to embracethem. Th e William and Marynam e is a modern one, and liketh e nam es of other periods, it isnot ent irely accurate. In Englandth e style had started to developunder Charles II, in th e so-calledCarolean period, and th eprevailing tastes during his reignactually had more to do with th e
fundamental development ofthe style than th e influencesbrou ght by William and Mary' sascension nearly 30 years later.
As with all other furnitureperiods named after royalty, th e
monarchs were usually gone byth e time th e styles becam epopular in Am erica. William
and Mary's joint rule endedwith her death in 1694, andWilliam III ruled alone until1702, just as the style wasemerging as an important tr endin Am erican design. Like mostemerging styles, what we nowcall the William and Maryperiod in retrospect was simplycalled th e "new furniture" orth e "latest English style" in its
day. In American furniture, theWilliam and Mary style firstappeared toward the end of the17th century and dominated th efirst quarter of th e 18th centu ry,roughly from 1690 to 1725.
18 C II A P T E R TW O
The Convergence ofDesign and TechniqueSome detail s of the William and Mary stylecan be traced to specific origins. Spanishfeet, delicate turnings and th e colonnadedbases of high chests were Moorish in nature,and ind icate the influence of England'sconnect ions with Portugal. Scrolled legs,trumpet and ball turnings, and invertedcup-shaped turnings used for legs can betraced directly to Dutch and earlier Frenchdesigns. Distant tr ading partners likeAfri ca, India, Ceylon and China inspired
th e use of exot ic burl ed and figured veneerson th e faces of pieces. Decorative brasshardware such as drawer pull s andescutcheo ns, inspired by th e Orient, addeda new element of design to fun ct ionality.
TH E DOVE TA IL JO INTTh e single most important cont ribut ionthat enabled th e development of th e
William and Mary style was th e increaseduse of th e dovetail joint. Dovetail jointsmade it possible to join two thin pieces ofwood at right angles by cutting interlockingtriangular elements int o th eir ends.Dovetail joinery had been used by th eancient Egypti ans, and occasionally byRenai ssance craftsmen, but it wasn't until
CH EST· ON· STAN O.
PROBABLY BOSTON ,
ABO UT 1700 .
Standing less than 3 ft.tall, this chest-en-standis amongthe few piecesof American furniturebuilt with frame-andpanel construction thatroseabove the horizontalJacobean format.(COURTESYMUSEUM OF ART,
RHODE ISLAND SCHOOL OF
DESIGN)
th e 17th century th at its use formed th ebasis for a whole system of st ructure.
Th e dovetail enabled drawers to be builtof very thin wood, because th ey no longerneeded to be nailed togeth er. Case piecescould be dovetailed togeth er as well,superseding the fram e-and-panel methodthat had been th e basis for Jacobean pieces.Th e lighter const ruction facilitated by thi sjoint enabled chests to be taller and allowedfor th e design trend s th at were synonymouswith th e Baroque.
Dovetails had sta rted to show up inAm erican furn iture long before th eWilliam and Mary style arrived in America.Toward th e end of th e 17th century,dovetail ed drawers were becoming morefrequent in frame-and-panel cases. At firstth e doveta ils were large and crude, perhapsonly one or two on a drawer corner, but astime progressed th ey became smaller andmore closely spaced and th e drawer part sbecame thinner. Whil e it is t rue th atWilliam and Mary designs would not havebeen possible without th e advent ofdovetail joinery, furniture makers did notseem to be at an impasse for want of bett erjoinery.With th e except ion of a handful oflate-17th-eentury pieces made with longlegs or stands (see th e photo below), th ere
are no existing pieces tha t indicate aconscious effort to move to a more verti calformat while using frame-and-panel
constructio n. Dovetails were one of th emany innovations in techn ique and designthat converged at th e t ime and enabled th edevelopm ent of th e William and Mary styleas we know it today.
The William and MaryStyle in AmericaSince th e first settlers had arr ived in NewEngland in 1620, th ere had been a consta ntinflux of new craftsme n and new ideas indesign from overseas, primarily fromEngland. It stands to reason that th e majorseaports would have been th e first to receivenew trend s, and that th e new fashionswould work th eir way inland over time. Th elocal tastes, skills and available materialswould alter th e puri ty of th e importeddesign as the style found acceptance fartherinland from th e coast . As th e 17t h centur ywas draw ing to a close, the most impo rta ntpoin ts of ent ry for new furniture designswere Boston, New York and Philadelphi a.Through th ose bustling ports were cominga new sense of design and a new approachto furniture making.
Just as England was ready to embracenew designs following th e Restorat ion ofCharles II, so was New England ready toaccept th e William and Mary style some 30years later. Th e tid e of th e Great Migrationhad been stemmed in th e 1640s with th eoutbreak of war between th e forces of th eCrown and th ose of th e Puritans andnonconformists. New Englanders found
th emselves somewhat isolated, withoutfrequent infusions of new ideas andstruggling to hold onto Pur itan ideals whilebecoming increasingly prosp erous. Th eyheld onto fashions and mann ers that hadlong since passed ou t of style in England.As late as 1689 an English visito r wrotethat th ey were "very home-bred " and
"exceedingly wedded in th eir own way."As their prosper ity and commerceincreased, however, so did th eir appet itefor new fashions.
Th e acceptance of William and Maryfurn iture in Ame rica was based on anAme rican desire to remain stylist icallycompet it ive with England. By th e last twodecades of th e 17th cen tu ry, travelersbetween lew England and England wereprimar ily engaged in govern ment orprivate bu siness. The colonies had becom estable tradin g partners and were enjoying
a prosperity of their own making.Government officials and merchants werein frequ ent contact with London, andanything unavailable in Am erica cou ldeasily be imported. To the most affluentcolonists, th e latest and most stylishdesigns in furnitu re and ot her goods werereadily available.
By 1700, th e William and Mary styles
had captured th e imaginati on of styleconscious bu yers in th e major Americanseaport cities . Am erican furniture makers,quick to capita lize on th eir afflue ntcustomers' desire to keep pace with bothLondon and th eir neighbors, took up th enew style wh oleheart edly. Human naturedictates th at when one successfu l family
received new furniture, othe rs would soonfollow. "Equal or Sup erior to th e MostFashionable London Styles," or a variati on
thereof was a phrase that was found in theadvertisements and labels of Americanfurniture makers for another hu ndred years.
CHES T OV ER DRAW ERS ,
NEW ENGLAND .
17 00-1735 .
This chestshows thenear-square proportionsof William and Marychests with double-archmoldings and ball feet.This example is actuallya chest over twodrawersbuilt to looklike a moreup-to-date four-d rawerchest.(COURTESY YALE UNIVERSITY
ART GALLERY)
William and Mary Forms
Because of th e changes in st ructure bro ughtabout by th e use of th e dovet ail joint,William and Mary pieces were able to takeon forms th at were not possible with earlierfram e-and-panel const ruct ion. Generally,th e use of th e dovetail joint allowed forseveral levels of drawers to be stacke d in one
case, and for cases to be tall or placed up onstands. Seating furniture, whil e not affected
by th e new methods of const ruct ion,followed th e Baroque trend for greate rheight and ornamentation.
C HE STSTh e design possibilities enabled by th e useof th e dovetail joint gave a new impetus tocase pieces such as chests . Drawers hadproven to be very practical, and withdovetail join ery drawers and th eir casescould be made light and strong. Chestsevolved to include more drawers, andchests-on-frame and tall chests continuedth e shift toward th e vertica l format .
Chests of drawersDuring thi s period , chests took on nearlysquare proportions (see th e ph oto above).
While th e earlier fashion of a lift-top chestwith one or two drawers undern eath
T ilE W JL L JA M & MAR Y I' E R J0 0 19
HIGH CHEST OF
DRAWERS . EASTERN
MASSACHUSE TTS ,
16 95-1 72 0 .
The earliest Americanhigh chests used thestandard form of chestsof drawers on lowbaseswith turned legs andstretchers.(COURTESYHISTORIC
OEERFIELO)
continued in America through the firstquarter of th e 18th century, th e coastalstyle cente rs were bu ilding chests with fourdrawers as early as 1670 . As with everystylistic change, th e transition from oneperiod to another is best descr ibed as anevolut ion. Th e horizontal forms evolvedinto th e familiar square form, and thi s stylespread out fro m th e urban cente rs ofdesign. Many of th e early lSth-centurychests th at were built with drawers and lifttops were made to look like th e more sty lishexamples with four drawers. Rectangularlegs, wh ich had been th e extension of th evertical corne r st iles in fram e-and-panelconst ruction, were phased out in favor ofplump turned ball feet . Simple, bold
20 C II A PT E R T WO
moldings graced th e top and bott om ofthe case, adding definiti on and flair. Halfrou nd moldi ngs on th e case front, eitheralone or in pairs and called arch or dou blearch moldings, sur rounded the plaindrawer fro nts.
High ches tsBy placing a chest of drawers on a stand, anew form of furniture came to America inth e early 18th century.Th e high chest (orhighboy as it came to be known in the late1800s) was a form that had been known inlate Renaissan ce Europe (see th e photo onp. (7) and had come into fashion after theRestoration in England. American high
HIGH CHEST OF DRAWERS ,
MASSACHUSETTS , 1700-1 725 .
In its most developed form. the proportions of theWilliam and Mary high chestbecame more refinedand better expressed the Baroque ideals of heightand order.(COURTESYMUSEUM OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON)
chests, first seen about 1700, were init iallylittl e more th an chests standing on baseswith turned legs, st retchers and perhapsone wide drawer (photo at left above). Earlybases show legs that were twist-turned, sawnfrom flat stock in the shape of Flemishscrolls or turned in familiar inverted-cup ortrumpet-shaped profiles. As the styledeveloped, th e design of th e chest and th ebase became more integrated and th eproportion s of th e piece as a whole becamemore refined (photo at right above). As withany other chest, th e high chest was intendedfor th e sto rageofclothing or linens.
High chests were th e most impressivepieces of furni ture in th eir day, as the
cupboard had been in the previous centur y.
As such, th e maker and his custo mer couldmaximize th eir impact by building a piecethat embodied all th e maker 's talent andexhibited his customer's good taste. Thushigh chests tend to be some of th e bestexamples of William and Mary design andtechn ique and show th e full breadth ofdesign elements and decorative meth ods inuse at th e tim e. High chests exemplify th eperiod so well th at a separate discussion ofth eir design is taken up later in thi s chapte r(see pp. 30-32).
DESKSAnoth er form that was new to Americaduring th e William and Mary period wasth e slant-front desk (photo below).Previously, th e fun ction of desks to sto repapers had been given to document boxes,sometimes with sloping lids, th at wereportable and used on tabletops. The newdesk was an integration of a chest ofdrawers with a slanted front th at foldeddown to become a writing surface. It islikely th at th e slant-fron t desk evolved froma small number of bureau-eabin ets th atwere made before th e turn of th e centu ry.Th ese pieces were cabinets of many small
BUREAU·CABINET.
PHILADELPHIA . 1707.
The case and tall-trentwritingsurface of turn-ofthe-centurybureaucabinets were forebearsof the familiar slant-frontdesk.(COURTESY COLONIAL
WilLIA MSBURG FOUNOATION)
DESK . BOSTON , 1700-1725.
Williamand Mary desks used most of thesameornamental andconstruction details aschests of theperiod.(COURTESYHENRY FORO MUSEUM ANO GREENFIELD VilL AGE)
compartments and drawers, fronted by a
panel that folded down to doubl e as awriting surfa ce (ph oto above). Th e base ofth e cabinet was a case of drawers, with th eusual William and Mar y detailing (flu shfitting drawers, surrounding moldin gs andball feet) .
Freestanding cabinets that concealeddrawers and compartments behind doors orpanels had been popular in England, butwere not practical enough to warrantwidespread use in Am erica. In th e case ofth e Am erican bureau-cabin et , th e uppercabinet could be of a shallow depth, butth e base needed to be as deep as a chest ofdrawers for sta bility. The slanted lid provedto be an elegant way to make th e tr ansit ionbetween th e two halves. Th e subst itu tion ofa bookcase top yielded th e desk bookcaseform th at would continue to evolve th roughth e centu ry (ph oto at right). Th e base alone,with th e slanted lid on top and drawersbelow, was able to stand on its own as acomplete piece.
DESK BOOKCASE .
CONNECTICUT OR NEW YORK . 1700-1730 .
The inclusion of a bookcase top was the beginningofan important form that would continueto develop overthe rest of the century.(COURTESY YALE UNIVERSITY ART GALLERY)
T H E WI L L I A M & M AR Y I' E R I O 0 21
DRESS ING TAB LE , MASSAC HUSET T S, 1710 - 173 5,
With bold turned legs andstretchers, dress ingtablesshared a similar structure with the bases of highchests, This piece, which is acknowledged to be thefinest example of the form , has all the best attributesof Wi lliamand Mary dressingtables.(PRIVATECOLLECTION, PHOTO COURTESY
ISRAEl SACK, INC., NEW YORK)
T AB L ESTh e William and Mary period brought aproliferation of tables for various purposes.Dressing tables, for use in th e bed chamber,evolved from th e chamber table, Tea andtavern tabl es were made in great number astea d rinking, card playing and other socialpastimes becam e important. Large tabl eswith drop leaves came into use andcombined ample dining sur faces with anease of sto rage.
Dressing tablesDressing tables (or "lowboys," as th ey cam e
to be called in th e late 1800s) served afunct ion similar to that of th e chambertable of th e previou s century, in t hat t heywere bedroom pieces th at held jewelry andpersonal effects. Since th ey were usuallyused in th e same room as a high chest, it isnot un common to find dressing tables andhigh chests th at were mad e as a mat ching
22 C H A I' T E R TWO
set. Str ucturally, dressing tables are verysim ilar to the bases of high chests, exceptfor the inclusion of the tabletop.
A typical William and Mary dr essingtable has four turned legs, whereas highchests usua lly had six. While th eir apro ndes igns are similar, dr essing tab les oftenhave two turned drop fini als below theapron wh ere a high chest would have hadtwo front legs. It was also custo ma ry tost rengt hen the legs by connect ing th emwith cross st retc he rs just above th e foot .
Frequ en tly a third fin ial, pointing up , islocated at the int ersect ion of th e stre tchers .
Tea or tavern tablesA number of other tab les from thi s periodsurvive, and they document a blossom ing ofth e form in th e early 18th century. Small,mu ltip urpose tables with turned legs andst retchers aboun ded . Th ese are called teatables or tavern tables, but, in fact, th ey
TAB L E, ESSEX CO UNTY, MA SSAC HUSETTS ,
1710-1 750 .
Small tables of va ried design proliferated in the earlypart of the century. This one,with Spanish feet andwell-turned and splayed legs, is oneof themore stylishexamples.(COURTESY IIISTORIC DEERFIElD)
were used any time a compact hori zontalsur face was needed . Within thi s one groupthere is a wide variati on of shape and deta il.Rectan gular, oval and octagonal tops can befound, and th e bases vary from rectilinearform s with gentle turnings to splayed-legexamples with deep and robust leg profiles.
Drop-leaf tablesTh e drop-leaf gateleg table reached itszenith during th e William and Maryperiod . Used primarily as a dining table, itsgatelegs swung out fro m a cent ral frame tosupport two leaves (top photo at right).Wh en not in use, th e table was easily foldedto about one-third of its fully opened widthand moved out of th e way.Th e vastmajority of gateleg tables are round or oval,and about 4 ft . or 5 ft . long. Som e of th emost spectacular examples of this form
appeared early in th e century. Th ey featurerobust turned legs and st retc hers th at make
th e base as visually interestin g as any otherpiece of William and Mary furniture.
Anoth er type of drop-l eaf table usedfoldin g wings to swing out in su pport of th eleaves (bottom photo at right ). This varietyis generally known as a butterfl y tabl e.Without th e fully swinging leg, th ese tabl eswere not as stable as gatelegs, and thus were
usually somewhat smaller. Both butterfl yand gateleg tables often have d rawers inth e end of th eir bases. Drop-leaf tables, inone form or another, remained in useth roughout th e enti re 18th century. Th eirflexibility and functionality were wellsuited to th e demand s of space and utilityto which life at th at time subjected th em .
SEATING FURNI TUREIn keeping with Baroqu e ideals and th epractical considerations of comfort, seatingfurniture took on a distin ctive William andMary style. Chairs continued th e th em e of avertical format and were orna me nted in amore fluid style th an th eir predecessors.Fully upholstered easy chairs, most ofte nused by th e aged or infirm, came into
widespread use. Co uches, based up on th eprevailing designs of chairs, served asfurn iture for both sitt ing and reclining.
DI NIN G TABLE. BOST ON AREA . 1715 -1735 .
The drop-leafdiningtable was a form that was to continuefor most of the centu ry.Wi lliam and Mary drop-leaf tables have bold turnings and stretchers and ofteninclude a drawer at oneend.(COURTESYMUSEUM OF ART, RHODE ISLAND SCHOOL OF DESIGN)
TA BL E. CON N ECT I CUT. AFTE R 171 0.
Butterfly tablesweresmall drop-leaf tables, usually with splayed legs for increasedstability,which featured hinged wingsto support the leaves.(COURTESYWADSWOR TH ATHENEUM. HARTFORD)
T H E w I L L I A 1'.1 & 1'.1 A R Y I' E R IO 0 23
C hai rsAlthough chairs were not subject to mu chst ructural change, th ey underwent a
t ransformation to conform to th e Baroqu eideals of th e day and embody many of th eimpo rta nt elements of William and Marydesign. Dramatically turned legs andstre tchers were inco rporated along withgracefully curved arms with scrolled ends(photo at left below). In comparison toJacobean forms, th ese chairs were mu chtaller, someti mes more th an 4 ft. tall.T he backs of th e chairs, whil e still stra ight,were slanted back from th e vertical at anot iceable angle (no doubt a smallconcession to th ose who had to sit in th em).
Th e backs consisted of two vertical st iles,cont inuat ions of th e back legs, with eithervert ical bani sters or a nar row panel ofcan ing or leath er upholstery. Th e crowningof any of th ese chairs was a tall andelabora tely carved crest rail. Th ese rails,while taking many forms, carry th e eye
ARMCHAI R. COA ST AL N EW ENG LAND ( PROBA BLY
MASSACHUSETTS). 1700-1720.
The dynamic flourishof Baroque ornament isevident in the turnings, arms and crest rail of thisMassachusetts-area banister-back chair. The cantedback provided a great improvement in comfort overearlier chairs.(COURTESYMUSEUM OF FINE ARTS. BOSTON)
24 C H A I' T E R TWO
upward and emphasize th e height of th echair. Most crest rails are about half as tallas th ey are wid e, and rise to an apex in th ecente r (see th e photo on p. 28 ). In th e
Philadelphia area, arched crest rails oververt ical banisters were in favor. In NewEngland, th e designs were based on Flemi shscrolls, and th e rails were pierced anddeeply carved. As if to counte rbalance th eorna te crest rails, carved Spani sh feet wereusually used on th e front legs of th e bestNew England chairs.
A subset of th e chairs of th e period arethose with caned back pan els and seats(cen ter photo below). Caning was quite
fashionab le in London at th e start of th e18t h century, and th e style found its wayto Boston shortly thereaft er with th eimp ortation of some English chairs. Rath erth an caning th e ent ire back of th e chair,Am erican craftsmen built a vert ical frameinsid e th e rear posts and caned th at. Thi sleft tall narrow spaces on either side of th e
SIDE CHA IR . BOSTON . 1710- 1725 .
Imported English chairs withcaned seats and backswere fashionable at the turn of thecentury,whichspurred Boston chair makers to adopt the style for theirown useover the next two decades.(COURTESYHISTORIC DEERFIELD)
caning, and allowed th e rear posts to beturned. Th e arrangement as a wholeemphasizes th e vert ical bett er th an some ofth e English imports, and creates an effectivecon t rast of solids and voids th at lends thedesign a lively vigor. Th ese caned chairs datefrom th e first quart er of th e century.
Another important subset of Williamand Mary chairs is a leath er-upholstereddesign th at is called a Boston chair (photo atright below). Th ese chairs were in voguesta rt ing about 1715 and were made forabout another 35 years. Boston chairs usedturned front legs and stretchers, Spanish
feet and verti cal prop orti ons like otherchairs, bu t th e narrow back panel and seatwere uph olstered in leath er fastened withdecorative round-headed brass tacks. At th etim e, leath er was less expensive th an eithercane or fabric. In its most common form,th e crest rail is of a simple cyma-eurveshape, rising to a flat plateau at th e center,th ough variat ions exist. The rear posts are
SIDE CHA IR . BOSTON . 1720-1750 .
'Bostonchairs,' upholstered in leather, were made inquantity for sale outside of New England. Their cyrnashaped rear stile and back shape were innovative andforeshadowed the later evolutionof chair design.(COURTESYCOLDNIAL WILLIAMSBURG FOUNDATION)
flat faced with beading at either side, aprofile th at carries th rou gh th e crest .
Boston chairs are important for tworeasons. First , when viewed from th e side,th e back of th e chair has th e shape of agentle S or cyma curve, making th e cha iractually comfortable to sit in. In literatureof th e period, th ese chai rs are ofte n calledcrooked-back chairs. Stylistically, th ey werea great departure from th e stra ight-backedchairs th at had preceded th em . Rath er th anbeing turned on a lath e, th e cur vedelements could only be shaped and moldedby hand from solid mate rial. As a result,even leath er crooked-back chairs were threeor four times more expe nsive than commo nban ister backs. Second, thi s design was aforeru nner of th e Qu een Anne style in th esecond quart er of th e centu ry.
Boston chairs were made in greatnumbers and exported to New York andPhiladelphi a, mu ch to th e chagrin of th eindigenous furn iture makers. In both th osecities, resident craftsme n were forced tocompete with th e Boston imports byoffering lower prices or better style, but th eimports continued to do well. T his exampledemonstrates th e exte nt of int ercoloni alcommerce in existe nce early in th e 18thcentury, completely debunking th e idea
that furnit ure makin g was a relaxedbu siness cate ring to a local clientele. In th eurban areas it was as mu ch of a large-scalebusiness as any other, and its owners sought
to capture as mu ch of th e market sha re aspossible. Business conce rns were very mu cha part of th e trade.
Upholstered piecesFully upholstered easy chairs, known todayas win g chairs, also made th eir debut in th eWilliam and Mary period. These were th efirst pieces of seat ing fu rn itu re to be
enveloped in permanently attac hedupholstery. Like other pieces of th e per iod ,th ey employ bold turnings as st retche rs andfront legs, and th ey have Spani sh feet . Theknown original examples have hori zontalar m rolls at th e arms and vert ical rolls overth e front legs. Th e ends of th e two rolls areconnected by a sweeping curve (ph oto atright) . The folkloric explanat ion for th ewings is th at th ey were protection fromdraft s, which seems plausible enough. Th eorigina l upholstery padding is known tohave been quite full, and th e seat cushionswere thi ck and fu ll of down , in keepingwith a long history of th ick cushio ns forunu pholstered chairs. Springs were notused during the 18th century, and
COUCH . BOSTON AREA . 1710-1730 .
Couchesarestylistically linked to the chairs of theperiod and sharemany similarities in their backs andturnings. The back of this example is hinged forreclining.(COURTESYMUSEUM OF FINE ARTS. BOSTON)
EASY CHAIR. BOSTON. 1710 -172 5.
Fu lly upholstered easychairs first appeared in theWilliam and Mary period. The upholstery on this chairis an accurate reconstruction of the appearanceof theoriginal. The seat cushion is thick because springswerenot used in 18th-century upholstered pieces.(COURTESY MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS. BOSTON)
upholstered pieces were dependen t onstretc hed webb ing or fabri c and a variety ofstuffings for comfort and support. Pecu liarto the period is th e shaped and upholsteredfront rail. Text iles were exp ensive in the18th cen tury, and thus easy cha irsrepresented a consid erable investment .Th ey are known to have been bedroompieces at the t ime, and were not used in th emain room of th e house.
Couches, today known as daybeds,
are a variat ion on William and Mary chairdesigns. They have most of th e same designelem ents as un upholstered chairs of theperiod , but have dr amati cally differen tproportion s. Their backs are shorter, andth e seats can be more than 5 ft . long (ph otoat left) . The stuffed cushions are separate .Co uches were made for reclining, and thebacks are freq uently hinged and adjustableto any angle. The extra length necessitatedas many as eight legs and a host of turned
st retc he rs to conn ect th em.
THE w ILL I A Iv! & Iv! A R Y I' E R IO D 25
Dovetailed Case Construction
Drawerdividersdovetailedinto frontof case
On lowcases, top-case dovetailscan be covered by moldings.
William and MaryStructu reTh e st ructure th at is th e basis for Williamand Mary pieces revolutioni zed th e wayfurn iture was to be built for th e rest of th e
18th century and beyond. As discussedearlier, th e dovetail joint had rendered theframe-and-panel method of const ruct ionobsolete. T he light ness of drawers and casesafforded by dovetai l joinery allowed for th emore vertical forms of th e William and
Mary period.
CA SE C ON ST RUC T IO NThe cases of chests, including th e upperhalf of high chests and desks, shared similarstr uctures. In each of th ese examples, th ecases consisted of two sides, a top and abotto m. Th e beginnings of th ese casesresembled a vert ical box without a front orback. Rath er th an being a panel set inside aframe, each of th e parts was one wid e boardor two glued side to side. They were join edto each other at th e corne rs by a row of
26 C II A P T E R TWO
Through or halfblinddovetails attop of case
Through or halfblind slidingdovetails
Throughdovetai ls
dovetail joints, as shown in th e drawingabove. Since th e grain ran along th e lengthof each piece, th ey all expanded andcont racted in uni son with changes inhumidity.T he resultin g case was very light ,strong and easily built.
Drawer dividers were let into the front ofthe case with sliding dovetail joints th atoften extended through th e sides to theou tside of th e case. Runners to support thedrawers were nailed to th e inside of the casebehi nd th e divide rs, sometimes in shallowdado es to hold them in position. The backof th e case consisted of thin boards ofsecondary wood nailed int o rabbets in the
back of th e case. Th e moldings at the topand bottom were nailed in place on th e sidesand front. Ball feet , if th ey were included,were fastened with a round tenon, turned as
part of th e foot, glued and inserted into ahole drill ed int o th e case bottom .
The use of attac hed parts, like moldin gsand feet , seems to reflect an increasedacceptance of glue and nails, which were nodoubt more readi ly available and of betterquality than th ey had been in th e previous
centu ry. In Jacobean forms, both moldin gsand feet tend ed to be built int o th est ructure of th e piece, which limit ed th eiruse as visually important components ofth e overall design.
Th e cases of dressing tables and highchest bases were structurally similar butdiffered from th ose of chest and desk cases.In th ese cases, th e grain ran horizontallyon th e four pieces th at comprised th e sides,front and back (see th e top drawing onp. 140). Th e pieces were dovetailed at allfour corne rs, with th e row of dovetailsrunning vertically. Th e bare case was
essentially a horizon ta l box with no top orbottom. Like chest cases, the componentsexpanded and contrac ted together,allowing th e joinery to reta in its int egrity.For aesth etic reasons, the dovetails wereusually half-blind, tha t is, th ey did notextend through th e case sides. Runn ers andguides for drawers were mortised into th efront and back. As with other case pieces,horizontal and vert ical drawer dividers
were dovetailed in place.Thi s light case const ruct ion did not
provide a convenient place to attach th eturned legs used on dressing tables andhigh chests. Therefore, large blocks wereglued inside th e corne rs of th e cases, whichwere th en bored to receive th e tenons ofth e turnings. Since th e legs were not anint egral part of th e case, and since Williamand Mary turnings were very thin in someplaces, flat stretchers connect ing th e legs,just above the feet, were structura llynecessary.
DRAWER CONSTRUCTIONDrawer construct ion saw a great evolutionduring the William and Mary period. Atth e beginning of th e 18th century, drawercomponents were thi ck, heavy and joinedby a few large dovetails. Th e drawerbottoms were nailed in place. By 1725 , th ecomponents were light , thin and elegantlyjoined by a series of finer dovetails. Drawerbottoms were glued and nailed int o arabbeted drawer, or slid into grooves fromth e back. Drawer development was amicrocosm of const ruction techniques as
Drawer Constructio n
Groove in drawer fronthidden bydovetail
Drawer side
Groove in sidesand front to receive
drawer bottom
Back view
Drawer back
Drawer bottom
Turnings were important decorati ve focalpoints for many case pieces and offered asimple and effect ive method of orna me ntfor a variety of other pieces. Moldings,previously int egral to fram e-and -panelconstruct ion, were now add ed to dovetailedcases, offering a new flexibility in th eir
design and placem ent.
F IGU RE D VENEE R SFigured veneers were th e primary surfa cedecoration of th e per iod . Th e use of veneerssuperseded th e Jacobean penchant forintricate but sha llow surface carving on th efront face of case pieces. Th e very word"venee r" has becom e a pejorative term fromits use in the late 19th and 20th centu ries.It impli es a thin layer of high-qualitymaterial over a base of inferior qu ality, andit earne d a poor connota tio n wh en it wasused for th at purpose.
a whole. It represent ed th e introduct ion ofa new method of joinery and th e evolu tionth at ensued to optimize the detail s of th enew furniture forms.
TABLES AND C HA I R STables and chairs cont inued to be madewith mor tise-and-tenon const ruct ion, sincemost were comprised of turned or narrowelements. With the notable except ion ofdressing tables, tab le aprons were tenonedinto th e legs. Like the turnings on casepieces, th e legs requ ired st retchers to t ieth em together. On chairs and tables, thesestretchers were usually turned to famili arWilliam and Mary profil es and tenonedinto leg mortises.
Decorative ElementsThe decorative details of William and Marydesigns fall into three main categories: theuse of figured veneers, deep carving anddramatic turnings. Figured veneers allowedthe cabinetmakers of th e period to achievestriking surfaces but necessitated th e use ofvarnishes to protect and enhance th e wood.Carving, in the manner of Gibbons, becam e
an important embellishment for chairs.
HIGH CHEST OF
ORAWERS .
N EW ENGLAND .
PROBABLY
MASSACHUSETTS,
1700 - 1725 .
The highly figured veneerof this piece is its mostimportantdecorativeelement. To extend theeffect, the cabinetmakersimulated the figuredpattern with paint on theturned legs of the base.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR
MUSEUM!
T HE w I L L I A M & MAR Y PER I 0 D 27
In th e case of William and Maryoriginals, th e use of veneer has no negat iveimp lications . Veneering a piece was a laborintensive process requiring hard-to-findmateria ls, but it gavea high level ofsophist icated decorat ion to a piece. Thereare some st rictly pract ical reasons forapplying figu red wood as a veneer. Burled orfigured wood is not easy to come by, and bysawing it into thin sheets, th e yield of wellfigure d wood is increased . Because of itsswirling grain, it lacks st rength forst ructu ral pur poses and would be nearlyimpossible to work with in solid form.Sawing highly figured wood int o veneer isth e only practical way to use it, and since itis app lied to th e sur face, th e joinery andst ructural work can be done in more easilyworked material, like pin e or mapl e.
Consecutive sheets of veneer have nearlyiden tica l grain, and th ey can be opened andapplied to a surface to give a perfectlysym met rical, or book matched , grain. Thiskind of symmet ry was imp ortant toWilliam and Mary design and exemplifiedthe logic and order that accompaniedEnlightenment ideals. It is not un commonto see four or even eight bookm atchedveneers across a drawer front, divid ing itevenly into identical, symmet rically grainedsect ions. T his pattern was repeated on everydr awer and on th e front of th e case itself.Four sect ions of veneer, sym met rical aboutthe cente r point, were used to decoratelarger areas like desk lids and dr essing-tabletops. In most examples, veneered panel s
and drawer fronts are fram ed with a bord erof cont rast ing veneer-often a herringbonebord er consist ing of two veneer st rips cut at45 0 to th e orientat ion of th e grain. A crossbanding, a st rip cut at 90 0 to th e grain, wassomet imes used in conju nct ion with th eherringbone inlay.
Th e veneers of th e period were mu chthicker than modern veneers- as mu ch asl/ S in. thick. Th ey were sawn from a solidblock of figur ed stoc k with a fram e saw, andI/ S in. was probably about as thin a veneer asthat method would allow. Th e subst rate towhich th e veneer was to be applied was
prepared by rou ghening its surface with afinely toothed plane to imp rove th eadhesion of th e glue. Th e veneers wereglued in place with a hid e glue, and held inplace until th e glue cure d. Documentaryevide nce from th e period shows th at th evenee rs were held in place by weight s orclamped between board s. (For more onperiod veneering, see Chapter 10.)
These highly figur ed pieces required a
fini sh that would enhance th e grain, protectth e wood and impart a nice luster to th esu rface better than th e oils and waxes of th eprevious century. William and Mary piecesrequired th e use of varn ishes, which at th etime enco mpassed all kinds of clear, hardfini shes. Like many aspects of William andMary furniture, th e raw materials for th esefinishes carne from extensive foreign trade.There were a number of different treeresin s from Africa and th e O rient that
could be dissolved in alcohol (distilled fromwine) or sometimes oil, to make a hard,glossy fin ish. It was long th ought th atshellac, refined from th e deposits of th eAsian lac insect and dissolved in alcohol,
was th e primary 18th-eentury finish.Recent analysis has disproven th is, however,
and shellac did not corne into widespreaduse until th e next centur y. A number ofothe r resins, prin cipally sandarac, weresoluble in alcohol and no doubt weresimilar in application and appearance.An oth er resin, copal, was soluble in hot oil.Although it was more difficult to prepare, it
is known to have been used th roughout th ecentur y, but especially after 1776 when th eformula and procedure for making it werepublished. (For more on period varnishresins, see Appendix IIIon p. 296.)
CARVINGCarving took on a new sense of pur poseduring th e William and Mary period . Th eprimary focus of th e carver's attention waschairs, which were well suited to thi s kind
of decorati on . Wh ereas Jacobean carvingwas a thin surface treatment th at includedRenaissance and medieval botanical,st rapwo rk and geomet ric motifs, th ecarving of William and Mary chairs wasmostly of Baroqu e Flemish design, and wasmore integrated into th e form of th e piece.Th ese carvings were deep, bold and
dr am atic. Th e carving of compone nts ofWilliam and Mary chairs defined thosecomponents, not just decorated th em .
28 C II A I' T E R T WO
CREST-RAil DETAil .
ARMCHAIR . PROBABLY
MASSACHUSETTS .
1700-1720 .
Thebold carvingofperiod chairs followedthestandards set inpost-Restoration Englandby such craftsmen asGrinlingGibbons.(COURTESY MUSEUM OF FINE
ARTS. BOSTON)
TABLE. CONNECTICUT. 1700-1735 .
This table has spindle turnings of simple vasiformprofile that aresymmetrical about their midpoint.(COURTESY WAOSWORTH ATHENEUM. HARTFORO)
LEG DETAIL .
DINING TABLE .
CONNECTICUT OR
NEW YORK .
1710-1725 .
Gateleg tables andchairs of the periodshow a variety ofelements included inmore complex anddecorativeturnings.(PRIVATE COLLECTION)
Th e crest rails of chairs were freque ntlycomprised of two or more Flemi sh scrolls, aC-shaped scroll with volutes on either end(see th e photo on th e facing page). Th ey
were of conside rable depth, and th e woodwas cut and pierced to silhouette th em .Similar cut and pierced scrolled elementswere used as front st retchers on a numberof Boston examples, a detail seen on Englishchairs of th e period. Th e arm s of arm chairs,or elbow chairs as they were th en called,were th emselves long sweeping cur vesterminating in tight carved volutes.
Th e other carved element in chairs andoccasionally small tables was th e Spanishfoot . Spanish feet were of Portuguese originand were not as sculptura l as Flemishcarved details. Th ese feet are square in crosssection and have a simple flared, brushl ikeprofile. Th e only carving on th em is a fewsimple flutes shaped to follow th eir curve.
TURNINGS
Turnings became an important part of th edecorative and st ructural aspects of Williamand Mary furn iture. As with carvings, th eiruse was more an integral part of th e design
and less a superficia l decorati on. Turningsof th e period fall int o three categories
depending on th eir use and design.Spindle turnings, which are found on
table legs and st retchers, are inh erently thinand of shallow profil e (top photo at left) .Their turned designs are frequently symmetrical about the midpoint and includerings and greatly elongated vasiform shapes.
Chair and gateleg-table componentsshow a greate r degree of sophist icat ion withdeeper turned profil es and morecomplicated shapes (top photo at right).
These shapes could be a combinat ion of anynumber of elements from a sta ndard groupth at includes beads and rings, vase shapes,cylindrical cups and tulip forms. They areseen stac ked in a variety of combinat ions,often alterna t ing with a square sect ion ofth e stock. As with many other details ofdesign, th ese turned elements showregional characte rist ics th at are helpful indetermining origins.
By far th e most notable turnings of th eperiod are th ose used as legs on dressingtables and high chests (bott om photo atright) . Th ey too are assembl ed from a basic
TURNED LEG .
DRESSING TABLE .
MASSACHUSETTS .
1700-1725 .
Dressing table and highchest legs show a morecomplex profile thattraces its origin toFrance by way ofEngland and Holland.(PRIVATE COLLECTION)
T HE W I L L I A 11,1 & 11,1 A R Y I' E RI O 0 29
lexicon of shapes, but th ey are verydifferent elements from th ose describ edprevious ly. These turnings were recent
transplants from Flemi sh and French cour tfu rni tu re, and th ey were free fro m th epractica l conside ratio ns of fun ctionin g aschair or table legs. Th ey were th e legs ofexpensive and conspicuous pieces, and th eirstyling was not intended to be restrained.Among th e elements included in th eseturnings are inverted bowl and cup forms,ball and vase shapes, flared trumpet profilesand th e familiar flattened ball foot on atapered pad.
Th e drama in th ese turnings is in th eirext reme variation in diameter at variou spoints. Th ey are turned from stock that is atleast 3 in. square, and th e diameters rangefrom 3 in. to less th en I in. at th e narrowestpoints. Th e design of th e turnings makesth em look even more dramatic. Th e largestdiameter and mass is about three-quartersof th e way up th e leg, giving th e leg aninherently dynamic quality.Thi s shapingimparts to th em an up ward , almostfoun ta inlike appeara nce. The mass iscounterbalanced, seemingly anc hored, bythe large diameter of th e foot. Th e mass ofthe case and th e unifying effect of th est retchers are needed to put th ese legs incontext and have th em make sense inrelation to th e whole. Th e spectac ular effectof th e legs would be wasted if th ey wereused in a context other th an to support
case pieces.
MOLDINGSMoldings should also be mentioned as animportant part of orna mentat ion beginningin th e William and Mar y period . Visually,moldin gs played an important role infinishing off th e ext remit ies of case piecesin th e absence of case frame memb ers. Thecove, cyma and torus moldings th at becamepart of a stan da rd repertoire of profil es, allhad th eir origins in classical architectureand had been resurrected in th e lateRenaissance with th e designs of AndreaPallad io ( 1508- 1580), among others.Palladio was a Venetian architect whosedesigns drew on th ose of ancient Rom e,and, th rough his published work , he had a
30 C II A I' T E R TWO
lastin g influence in England and Am ericafor nearly two centuries after his death. Th einfluence of architectura l details can be
att ributed in part to th e massive rebuildingof Lond on necessitated by th e Great Fire of1666, just a few years afte r th e Restoration
and th e marri age of Charles II, and at acritica l time in th e development of th enew styles.
Logic, Order, Proportionand the BaroqueTh e incept ion of William and Maryfurniture designs came at a time when
Baroque trend s were requ irin g stylisticth eatrics, and th e Age of Reason wasprompting a search for th e underlying orde rof th e physical world . Th e William andMar y style found a way to int egrate th etwo seemingly opposed aims int o a wellst ructure d grandeur. Since th e high chestembodies more of th e design philosophyth an any other piece of th e period, it is agood piece to analyze (see th e photo on th efacing page). The insight revealed by th e
careful conside rat ion of a such a piece isquite astounding, and it makes oneappreciate th e sophistica tion of th e designand its creato rs all th e more.
Studying th e form of th e piece reveals avery logical and precise approach to itsdesign. Th e upper case, for example, is
nearly square. Th e drawer heights aregraduated in an arithmetic progression,meaning that each drawer is larger than th eone above it by an equal amount. Thi sarrangement gives th e visual suggest ion ofheight and, from a practical aspect, puts th esmaller and lighter drawers at th e top of th ecase. It was sta ndard form to have two or
three small d rawers in th e top row, wh ichcould be removed from th e case to view
th e contents.The base of th e high chest is somewhat
more complicated. Th e case itself is inproportion to what wou ld have been th enext drawer down from th e upper case, andth erefore cont inues th e arithmetic
progression from th e top. Th e verti caldrawer dividers align with the centerline ofth e two inner legs. Th e two outside drawersecho th e same prop ortion as th e entire base.The center drawer is roughly half th e heightof th e outer ones and relates visually to th esmaller drawers in th e top row. Th e th reelarge spaces across th e front , th ose th at arebounded by th e legs and apron, are of thesame prop orti on . Alth ough th e spacebetween th e two center legs is greate r th anth e spaces on either side, th e apron heightis taller to maintain th e prop orti onality.Th e shape of th e apron is echoed in th eshape of th e stretchers (a fact that is morereadily apparent when you see th e piece inperson th an in a photograph). Finally, th emassive, large diameter on th e legs isbalanced and visually sta bilized by the massof th e ball foot that is squarelyconnected toth e ground.
Each of th e drawers is divided into twoor four equal sections by the bookmatchedveneers and th e placement of th e brasspulls and escutcheons. Th eir positioni ng
is deliberately math ematical. Each draweris bordered by veneer bands set in a herringbone patt ern, and each drawer opening isframed by a double-arch moldin g.Th eveneer on th e apron is bookm atched to beperfectly symmetrical about th e center, andeven th e left and right drawers, at both thetop and bottom, have mat ched veneers tomaintain symmet ry.
Lookin g at th e piece as a whole, th e highchest has three stron g and nearly equallyspaced hori zontal s: th e corn ice mold ing,th e midmoldin g and th e st retchers. Th esethree elements extend all th e way aroundth e piece, making th em all th e more stro ngwhen viewin g th e piece in person.
Alth ough th e high chest is quite tall, thesethree horizontals are uni fying elements th atalso emphasize th e top, th e bott om and th emeeting point of th e two cases. Th ehorizontals are countered by th e stro ngvertica l lines of th e legs and feet.
The Baroque considerations are not aseasily quanti fied as th e logical proportions,but rath er rely on the movement that thevarious elements imply. Th e most noticeableeffect of Baroque design is th e vertical
H IGH CH EST OF DRAWERS,
MAS SACHU SETT S, 1700-1725 .
(COURTESY MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON)
~--~- Strongcornice, midmoldingandstretcherhorizontals are balancedby bold vertical linesof base.
.,----.+- Uppercase is nearlysquare.
,..-----.!..- Each draweris borderedwith veneer banding.
-------;-- Each draweropening is framedbydouble-arch molding.
Drawer heights aregraduated inarithmeticprogression. All drawersare divided evenly byplacementof brasses and bookmatched veneer.
Centerdrawerrelates visuallyto top-row drawers.
----~- Lowercase is in proportionto upper-case dividers.
'-- .L-_ Outside drawers echosameproportion as base.
~ .L-_ Vertical drawerdividers arealignedwith turnedlegs.
,........-----=---- Case veneers maintainsymmetry.
-----~- Apronshape is repeated in- - - - --- stretchershape.
Three front spaces, thoughdifferentsizes, are in proportionto oneanother.
High placementof masson legs is balanced by massive footwith largecontactarea to ground.
T HE W I L L I A M & M AR Y I' E RI O D 31
format of the piece. A typical William andMary high chest is more th an half as tall as itis wide. This is a dramatic change from th e
horizontal Jacobean forms. Second, th epiece is up on legs. To have something asmassive as a chest of drawers perched on legs
is a spectacular departure from th e earliernorm. Th e lifted mass was intended to benot iced. Th is piece is held up by six legs,which emphasizes the mass of th e uppercase. The ornate profile of th e turned legsdraws attention to their number andfunction . The eye-catching stre tcheremphasizes th at th e legs are sup por t ing a
great mass, and th e flatt ened ball feet testifyto th e weight of th at mass. Everythingabout th e base of thi s piece is meant tooveremp hasize th e str uctu ral conside rat ionsof ach ieving a vert ical format. It was to beevident to all that the designer had put agreat mass at a great height.
While making th is qu ite clea r, thedesigner also sough t to give the piece an
inherent lift of its own . The re are a numberof elemen ts th at d raw the eye up and out,visua lly rein forcing th e height of th e piece.Just having th e cases floating on fountainlike turn ings exhib its th e greates t display ofdesigned lift . The legs th emselves exhibitthis upward and outwa rd fla ir, six times ina row, to stress an internal feeling of lift .
The apron shapes arch up above t he spacebetween legs. The drawers march upwardin orderly progression . The midm olding,and espec ially th e cornice molding, echothi s progress ion wit h a flourish . Often asimple but well-flared corn ice moldin g cancap off the squa re upper case with justthe right spir it. On some examples, th ecornice molding is so dramatic th at itbecomes the dominant element in th epiece. In either case, the eye is drawn upthe length of th e legs, across the expanseof highly Figured, but well-orde red casefronts, and out t hrough th e top by way ofthe crown ing moldings.
The seemingly cont radictory needs forBaroque extravagance and Enlightenmentlogic coexist in a design that simultaneo usly
32 C II A I' T E R TWO
espouses lift while emphasizing its ownmass, and does it all within measuredproportions. That is a remarkable designachievement .
The Advent of theCa binetma kerTh e design and const ruct ion of Williamand Mary fu rn iture marked a radicaldeparture from all th at had preceded it, andit requ ired very different techniques fro m
th ose employed by th e tr aditi onal joiner.Th e use of dovetail joinery, decorativeveneers and extensive turnings called formore specialized skills than fram e-and
panel const ruction. Thi s developmentmarked th e emergence of a Field ded icatedto thi s new kind of furniture making, th atof th e cabinetmaker.
Joiners con t inued in th eir role astr adesmen in wood, but cabinetmakerswere fin e-furniture specialists . Joiners whodid not make th e transition to th e newerstyles of furniture making st ill had theirwork in utilitarian furniture, carpent ry andrepairs, all of which were important aspectsof th eir work even before th e William andMary style.
In ru ral areas, where th ere was not th epopulat ion density to support specialists,joiners were th e cabinetmakers, carpente rsand repairm en for th e local clientele untillate in th e century. Account books from th eperiod show that rural cabin etmakers builtcoffins, renovated and bu ilt buildings,made wagon parts and somet imes did alittl e farmi ng in addition to cabinetmaking.Building fu rn iture was only part of th eirwork, which is another reason why th enewest designs of th e period took a while tocome int o vogue in outlying areas.
T HE A P P REN T ICE SYS TEMTh e apprentice system in Am erica was acont inuat ion of the longstanding Englishsystem. An apprenticeship provided th epract ical traini ng th at a young man neededto learn a profession. Both urban and rura lcabinetmakers took on app rentices for more
th an th e proliferatio n of th eir trade. In atime before th e Indu stri al Revolution,apprent ices were often th e power
equipment of th eir day. Much of th ecabinetmaker's work was labor-intensive,and apprenti ces were expected to take care
of most of th e drudgery. Some of thiswould include sawing stock, planin g sawnboards flat and to an even thi ckness,turning th e great wheel of a lath e, stackinglumber, cleaning up and running errands.As th e apprentice grew older and learnedmore skills, his work would includ e thefiner aspects of th e trade, such as joinery
and Finishin g. As apprentices progressed,new ones would take up th e menial work.
Wh en th e terms of th e apprenti ceshiphad been fulfill ed, th e apprentice became ajourneyman and was free to cont inue in thepaid employment of th e shop master orseek employment elsewhere. Manyjourneymen worked in a number of shopsand eventually opened th eir own, and inthat way learn ed a number of different
aspects of th e trade. History records manyjourneymen cabinetmakers as beingsomewhat tr ansient, moving from shop toshop and town to town in th e employmentof esta blished cabinetmakers. However, theterm journeyman derives from th e Frenchjournee, meaning a day's work, rath er th an
fro m any idea th at th ese men were willingor able to tr avel.
Apart from th e journeymen who did
travel, th e apprentices who continued inthe employment of th eir shop masters orwho set up shop in th e area prop agated th estyles and methods of th e master. Giventhi s linear system of passing on skills, itwould be expected th at th e cabinetmakersof one region would develop a set ofcharacteris tics in th eir work th at woulddifferenti ate th eir work from th at of others.As th e 18th century progressed, th eseregional variations became more numerousand pron ounced.
3Elegance and Refinement
THE QUEEN ANNE
(1725-1760)
STYLE
A s Americans prospered during th esecond quarte r of th e 18th century, adistinct social hierarchy became morepronou nced. Successful families and civicleaders recognized th eir role in shapingcivilization in America, and th eirsur roundings and furnishings becameimportant reflections of th eir refin ement.In England, th e taste in furniture hadshifted toward an elegant, refined styleth at exemplified grace and comfort .What eventually came to be known asth e Qu een Anne style was well suited toAmerican tastes.
The Growing Prosperityof AmericaAmerican pursuance of a genteel societyand th e interest in a refined style in th edecorative arts were made possible by th epeace and prosperity of th e era. In bothEngland and th e colonies, a growingmerchant middle class fueled an inte rest in
the produ cts of tradesmen and art isans.With th e end of th e Spanish War of
Succession in 1713, England , und er stableleadership , emerged as th e dominantEuropean power. Th e Navigation Acts, aseries of laws passed beginning in 1650 to
protect English industr y, encouraged th ecolonies to build merchant fleets andesta blished shipbuilding and shipping asbusinesses th at accelerated Am er icanprosperity. As early as 1676, Boston washome port for 230 vessels, and by 1748 th atnumber had reached 491, with another 131
The refinement and grace that underscored the lifestyleand furnishings of the second quarterof the 18thcentury areportrayed in Tea Party at LordHarrington'sHouse,a 1739 oil on canvas by English painterCharles Philips.(COURTESY YALE CENTER FOR BRITISH ART)
33
POPULATION OF AMERICAN CITIES
1690 1720 1743 1760 1775
BOS TO N 7,000 12,000 16,000 16,000 16,000
PH I LAD ELPH IA 4,000 10,000 13,000 23,7 50 40,000
NEW YORK 3,900 7,000 11,000 18,000 25,000
NEW PORT 2,60 0 3,8 00 6,200 7,500 11,000
CHA RL ES T OWN 1,100 3,500 6,800 8,000 12,000
NOTE: For comparison, thepopulation of London grewfrom about 685,000 in 1690, to725,000 in 1740, to an estimated 800,000 in 1775.
ships sailing from neighboring Salem.Similarly, th ere was a growt h in commercialfishing, iron smelt ing and th e productionof agricult u ral products such as flour,cotton and tobacco for both domesticmarkets and export.
With prosperity came improvementsin th e standa rd of living and th e standardsof aesthetics, as personal possessionsand hom es reflected that success. Th eprosperity enabled th e decorative arts tocont inue to thrive and evolve. For any suchevolu tion th ere needs to be a market bothto dem and and afford it, and such was th e
case in th e early part of th e 18th centur y.Th ere was always a desire on th e partof the Am ericans to rem ain stylisti callycompet it ive with England . Anything thatwas needed from England could easily havebeen imported , but Am erican preferencesin furniture were divergin g from those ofth e English.
Early in th e 18th century, Am ericanswere showing th eir int erest in light,exube rant designs that captu red what couldonly be called a unique Am erican spirit : aspirit inh erent in th e colonial designs , butnot seen in English pieces. Th e desire toremain competit ive did not manifest itselfin increasing English imports, nor wereEnglish pieces copied wholesale to any greatexte nt. From th e Am erican pieces it isevident th at th eir makers wanted tomainta in a separation in style but an equal
level of sophisticat ion, as if to make clear
34 C HAl' T E R T H R E E
th ey were part of a separate but equalAm erican culture that was followin g aparall el path of its own making.
THE EMERGENCE OF ASOC IAL H IERARCHYThe beginning of th e 18th century
marked the start of a more pronouncedstratification of Am erican society. Awealthier upper class was rising fromamong th e colonists, and th e wealthyformed th eir own social network.Within this group, civility and refinementindi cative of status differentiated its
members from those of lesser means . Th esuccessful people of th e 18th century wereexp ected to be part of a polite society thatexuded grace, charm, self-confidence andpoise-sand all without app arent effort .This exte nded to th eir furnishings as well,which were chosen to reinforce and testifyto th e refin ement of their own ers . Finefurnishings were less a display of wealth
than the accouterments of an elegant life.It should be noted that Am erica in th e
18th centu ry was a very rural place. Lessthan 5%of the population lived in cities,and by mid-c entury only five citiesPhiladelphia, New York, Boston, Newp ortand Charles Town (South Carolinaj-shadpopulations in excess of 7,000 (see th echart below). The othe r 95%were spreadout in smaller towns , most of th em farmingand pursuing various small businesses.
Apart from neighborly gathe rings and
churc h activities, there were few culturalevents and th e arts were slow to progress.Throughout th e history of Americanfurniture th ere is a distin ction betweenurban and rural styles of furniture designand const ruction. Th e urban areas, with th egreate r concent rat ion of wealth, had bothth e demands of a sophist icated clienteleand th e skilled craftsmen to carry th em out .Here, new designs were introduced andevolved in th eir purely American style.Once esta blished, th ey served as standardsfor th e cabinetma kers and custo mers ofsmaller town s. Th e designs emanated, withadaptatio ns and variations, inland from th ecoasta l cit ies, somet imes taking decades togain accepta nce.
Origins of the QueenAnne StyleWith its height , orna menta tio n and verticalemphasis,William and Mary furniture hadmarked a dram atic departure from earlier
styles. Th e Queen Ann e style was acontinuat ion of th at same trend to an evenlofti er Baroqu e sta ndard, but with somemid -course correct ions. As if in a finaldeparture from th e heavy and solidfurn itu re of th e past, Quee n Ann e designsbalanced mass with space, making th e sizeand shape of th e space betweencomponents as important to th e overall
design as th e components th emselves.Qu een Anne furn iture was made to be seenand to be seen th rough. Equally importantto th e style was th e more completeintegrati on of th e cyma curve intofurniture. Th e shallow S shaped curve wasin favor with late Baroque designers as anessential elem ent in all things beautiful ,and it was incorp orated in Queen Annefurniture in cur ved pedim ents, apronshapes and, most important, cabr iole legs.
Th e Q uee n Ann e style as we know itoriginated in England, but it was inspiredby t rends in mainland Euro pe and even th eOri ent. Two decades before th e death ofLoui s XIV in 1715, th ere began a relaxationof th e tremendously orna te Baroqu e
sta nda rds that had been set at Versailles.Louis XV became king at age five, but
(COURTESY THE WALLACE COLLECTiON. LONDON)
BUREAU PLAT, PARIS , C.1700 .
Cabinetmaker Andre-CharlesBoutte was instrumental in introducing gently curved elements into French courtfurniturein the 1690s, signaling a relaxation of Baroque standardsand inspiring English furniture designers. Thisbureau plat. or writingdesk, is likely from the Boulle workshops and is veneered in ebony with inlaid boutlework oftortoiseshell and brass.
cu rved leg, wh ich was th e forerun ner of th ecabriolc leg. His protege, Cha rles Crcssent(1685-1 768), continued his styles underth e Regent , wh ere he had a lead ing role indevelopin g the less orna te and moregracefu l court fu rn it ure and establishedwh at was to become th e Loui s XV style.References often cite Th om as Hogarth, th eEnglish designer and painter, as a leadi ngproponent of th e cyma cu rve since heexto lled its virt ues in his book, A nalysi: ofBeauty. His praise was in retrospect ,however, since th e book was published in175 3, more th an half a century afte r Boull cbegan to use th e cyma in France.
Th e Flemi sh Baroqu e had run its cour sein England as well. Since th e restoration ofC harles II in 1660, th e style-starvedaristocracy had em braced th e Flem ish andMoorish styles and th e ext ravagances of th e
Baroque. Th e intricate orna me nta tio n ofth e post-Restoration trends, culminating in
th e William and Mary style, was abandonedin favor of more reserved designs, since, asone historian noted, "alt hough th eyperiod ically succumb to 'foreign excesses:th e English are inh erently adverse toext ravagant design: In 1712, LordShaft sbury wrote of th e trend to subd ueth e drama of th e Baroqu e: "In sho rt we areto carry thi s rem embrance st ill along withus, that th e fewer th e objects are besideth ose whi ch are absolutely necessary in apiece, th e easier it is for th e eye by onesimple act, and in one view to comprehendth e su m or whole." It seems clear th at t heEnglish were never quite comfortable withth e busy nature of th e Baroqu e,
T HE I N F L U E N C E O F C H INAImported C hinese furn itu re also played akey role in shaping th e eme rging QueenAnn e style . C hinese furni ture had beenimported to Europe in th e late 17th andearly 18th centur ies, C hinese objects wereof great inte rest to Europeans since theywere both exotic and aesthetica lly pleasing.Th e fu rn iture had a simp licity of form and
CHAIR , CH I NA , C.1700.
Chinese objects wereof interest to Europeansthroughout the 17th and 18th centuries. The simplicityof design was inspirational after theexcesses of theBaroque.(COURTESY DOVER PUBLICATiONS)
Phillipe, Duke of O rleans, served as Regentfor eight years. Th e high Baroque hadreached a peak in furn iture design, and th e
coronatio n of a new, young monarchoffered the cour t designers an opportunityto explore more practical, comfo rtable andgraceful designs.
T H E I N F L U E N C E OF BOULLEAndre-Charl es Boull e (1642-173 2) was a
French cabinetma ker to the cour t who gavehis country's furni ture a style of its own
beginn ing in th e 1690s. Prior to this time,French furni ture had been somecombination of Dutch and Italian styles,but with a full complemen t of Baroqueornamenta tion. Boulle is best know n for hismarquetry of tor toiseshell, brass, silver,horn , ivory and mother of pearl, whichcame to be called boulleworle (see th e photoabove). He also used or molu (gilded bronze)mounts both as decorative eleme nts and asa means of fasten ing inlaid panels. Moreimporta nt, he int rodu ced curved shapes tofurn iture forms, including th e gentle cyma-
T II E (.) U E E 1'1 1\ NN E STY 1.E 35
elegance of line th at was admired andemulated by Euro pean designers at manypoints in history. As th e Baroqu e ideals ofexuberance were being modified to lessenth e grandiose orna mentat ion of furniture,Chinese pieces served as qu iet inspirationfor more conservat ive designs.
T HE I N F L U E N C E OFA RCH ITECTU RAL DESIGNTh e architect ura l books of Palladio and th edesigns of Inigo Jones (1573-1652), wh ofollowed in th e Palladian style as architect toJames [ and Charles I, had been influentialin England (especially in th e rebuilding ofLondon afte r th e fire of 1666), and hadbeen inspira tio nal during th e William andMary period. Th rough th e sta rt of th e nextcentury th ere was a continuing int erest inarchitectu ral design as an app ropriatepast ime for th e English ar istoc racy, and itcont ributed to the develop me nt of a quieterBaroqu e style in fu rniture. Th e classicmold ing profiles were revisited with an eyetoward th eir beauty and clean lines.Palladio's drawings of vasiform balusterspresented another cyma-based form th atwas well-su ited for inclu sion in th e newstyle. Th e parallels between th e QueenAnne style at its incept ion and as it evolvedand th ose of Palladian and Georgian
architecture are numerou s.
CA BR IOLE LEGS
The graceful curves of th e new Frenchstyles and th e simple elegance of Chinesepieces combined with remnant s of th eFlemish scrolled legs of th e Baroque to yieldth e familiar cabriole leg in abou t 1700.Th e cabriole shape is based on that of anan imal's leg, and the name derives from th e
G reek leapros, meanin g wild boar, or th eLati n capreolus, mean ing goat or roebuck (asmall Euro pean deer). Th e use of a stylizedan imal leg was not a new concept; th e formhad been seen repeatedly since at least th eEgyptian T hird Dynasty (265 0 B.C.). Thestyle originated on th e Co nt inen t, wasfur ther developed in England and sawacceptance in other par ts of Euro pe as partof th e spread of English tastes early in th esecond quarter of the century.
36 C H A P T E R T II R E E
Early English legs terminated in clovendoe (pied de biche) and horses' hoofs, whichevolved int o flatter pad feet , somet imescalled Dutch feet . Animal claw feet,especially ball and claw feet of Chineseorigin, were of int erest in England , and th eFrench had a preference for whorl feet,whi ch were scrolled volut es. It was inEngland and its colonies th at th e cabrioleleg found an endur ing reign of popul arityas a basic element of th e Qu een Ann estyle, a characte ristically English style thatth oroughly suited th e English need forrestrained elegance. (Cabrio le legs arediscussed in det ail in Chapter 9.)
HIG H CHEST.
ENGLAND . LATE 17TH
C ENTU RY.
London's Great Fire of1666 destroyed twothirds of thecity, andamassive rebuilding effortensued . The resultinginterest in arch itecturaltrends was among themany influences thatconverged upon Englishfurniture designers andcraftsmen late in the17th century. Thecornice molding of thisEnglishhigh chestre lates directly to thedetails of theclassicorders of architecture aspresented byPalladio.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR
MUSEUM)
Queen AnneDesign GoalsEven th ough th e new trend in Englishdesign was very different from th eprecedin g William and Mary period, it stillrepresented a continuation of Baroqueideals. Q ueen Anne furniture retained th eBaroqu e preference for visually impressivepieces, usu ally th rough th e use of height,but it did so with a reliance upon gracerath er th an orna mentation. Queen Ann epieces continued th e shift of format toth e vertica l and increased it to even
lofti er heights .One important aspect of th e style is its
intenti on to disguise th e mass of furniture.
HIGH CHESTS OF DRAWERS .
(ABOVE) MASSACHUSETTS . 1700- 17 10 .
(R IGHT) CONNECTICU T, 17 40 -1760 .
The many powerful legs of theWilliam and Mary highchest (above) ensure that theaccomplishment of araised mass does notgounnoticed. The gracefulcabriole legs of theQueen Anne design (right) loft themass without apparent effort.(ABOVE: COURTESY MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON: RIGHT:
COURTESY THE BROOKlYN MUSEUM)
Soaring vertical pieces look even moreso if they appear to be light. William andMary pieces had pioneered the verticalformat by raising th e mass, but it was not togo unnoticed. A William and Mary highchest, for instance, was sup ported by sixpowerfu l legs, th e design of whichemphasized th eir weight-bearing role(see the photo above). Queen Anne designs
replaced the busy colonnaded base withfour slende r and gracefully cu rved legs thatappeared to loft th e upper case with styleand ease (see th e photo at right) . Williamand Mary chests and desks were supportedby ball feet th at seemed to be bu lgingunder th e st rain. Queen Anne counterpartswere supported by shor t cabriole or bracketfeet that performed th eir task withoutapparent effort . Like th eir owners,
American Queen Ann e pieces were toexude an effortless grace.
T II E QUE E NAN N EST Y L E 37
DESK AND BOOKCASE ,
BOSTON ,1 7 30 -1750.
Anexaggeration of thevertical emphasis of theperiod is exemplified bythis desk andbookcase,which is just under30 in. wide but stands88 in. tall. The soaringpediment, archedpaneleddoors andstraight legs furtherenhance theeffectofthe tall proportions.(COURTESY MUSEUM OF FINE
ARTS. BOSTON)
There were othe r design changes that
fur the red th e aim of making Queen Annefurniture seem light. Th e proportions ofcase pieces were st retc hed taller than thest ill somewhat squat shape of many Williamand Mary pieces (see th e photos above).Features th at emphasized th e surface, suchas expanses of highly figured veneer andextensi ve carving, were replaced by smooth
38 C H A P T E R TI IREE
surfa ces of plainer wood, with carving usedquite sparingly. Cur ved pediment tops andfinia l orname nts further exaggerated th eheight of ta ll case pieces, and visua lly dr ewth e eye upward so the height couldn't beoverlooked. The emphasis had changedfrom a visua l int erest directed toward th esurface to a visual int erest in th e shape, andth e resu lt was lofty furniture with an
ethereal quality, seemingly un encumberedby its mass.
Th e role of mass and space in Qu eenAnn e furniture is so important that itwarrants closer examinat ion. As th e Qu eenAnne pieces were mad e to belie th eir massand emphasize th eir shape, th e spacesbetween shaped components became moreprominent and visua lly important inth em selves. In a design trend that st ressed
curved shapes, the spaces left by th emincreasingly became part of th e design,Th ere could be no better way to lighten apiece th an to design it with space as well aswith material. Thus th e balance of solid andvoid was used to fur the r th e aim ofreducing th e apparent mass of a piece.
In Queen Ann e examples, this balance isexhibited in two ways. In chairs of th eperiod , th ere is an interpl ay of solid andvoid th rou ghout th e composi tion, and itsrendering requ ires more skill th an one may
at first imagine. Some very min or changesin th e th ickness of compo nents, as littl e asli s in., could make th e chair appear eit her
too spindly or too stout . By adhe ring to th eproper balance of solid and void, th e chairhas th e appeara nce of st rength with graceand neither the eleme nts nor th e spacesth ey leave dominate th e composition. Ofpart icular interest in Queen Anne chairs isth e way th e central splat is designed inconjunctio n with th e voids on either side ofit. Makers purposefully shaped vasiformsplats to leave bird-shaped voids (see th e
photo below). Although workin g in solidwood, th e makers were working as mu chwith th e space left by its absence.
Th e other use of th e balance of solidand void is to give case pieces and tables"lift." In Queen Ann e furn iture, lift is th eattribute of achieving a light appearance in
the body of th e piece by giving it a sta ncethat contradicts its mass. This gives Qu eenAnne pieces th eir "perching" quality, a
SIDE CHAIR . NEWPORT AREA . 1735-1750 .
The careful balance of solid andvoid and the use ofopen space asa design element yield forms that are tobelooked through aswell asat.(PR/VATE COLLECTION!
characterist ic exhibited by better examplesof th e period th at is mu ch sought afte r byconnoisseurs . Good lift was achieved by th euse of long, slender and gracefully shapedlegs, along with a high apron of a sweepingcurved profile (see th e ph oto above). Th eresult lift ed th e mass of th e piece high offth e ground, reinforcing th e height andweightl essness of th e piece. Th e large spaceleft under th e piece allowed th e shape ofth e legs to be seen without distra ction, andth e shape of th e apro n spanning th e voidbecam e an imp ortant eleme nt in th e overalldesign . With thi s kind of sta nce, Qu eenAnne furniture does not seem int ended tostand sta tically on th e floor. Outstandingexamples seem poised to go en pointe.
The Queen AnneStyle in AmericaQueen Anne, Mary's younger siste r,assumed th e th rone afte r William Ill'sdeath in 1702 . Although she reigned untilonly 1714, th e style that was given her name
had only its most funda me nta l beginningsduring her reign. Th e style first eme rged inAm erica about 1725, and over th e nextdecade came to dominate furniture design.Th e style cont inued to evolve and remainedpopul ar until about 1760. In some areas
SQUARE TEA TABLE .
NEW ENGLAND .
1740-1760.
'Lift ' is the perchingquality of Queen Annefurniture that gives it alight appeara nce throughthe use of a high apronand gracefully shapedlegs.(COURTESY THE
METROPOLITANMUSEUM
OF ART)
outside of th e style-eonsciou s cit ies, th eQuee n Anne style was peaking in cer tai nform s as late as th e 1780s. Thecabinetma kers of th e Dee rfield,Massachusetts, area had th eir own distinctstyle and produced some of th e finestexamples of Queen Anne pieces after th eRevolution wh en th e style had long sincepassed out of favor elsewh ere. Throughout
Am erican furniture histor y, styles are moreimportant th en dates, and references tocertain eras or periods pertain more to th estylist ic trends th an to particular times.Com me rcial success, routes of travel andtrade, social custo ms and local preferences,skills and material s all con tributed to th eway styles changed or were ret ained .
While all Q uee n Anne designsdescended from an English or igin,American pieces varied in th eir degree ofdirect influence. In some cases, pieces wereclearly copied from English examples. Manycabinetma kers emigrated from England andbrought th eir meth ods and designs withth em . On th e othe r hand, many Am ericanpieces show just th e influence of newEnglish styles applied to existi ng Am ericanpieces. Of course, th ose exist ing pieces wereessentially English th em selves, but with ahistory of Am erican interpretation. Th efact that som e aspects of furniture designremain ed in fashion for decades, ofte n
T I-l E QUE E NAN N EST Y L E 39
coexist ing with ea rlier and lat e r styles,
ind icates that the Americans held onto the
fami liar d esign s they liked but were ope n to
newer styles if the change was warranted.
This app roach speaks to a certa in quality of
pract icality and frugality inherent in
co lon ia l Amer ican s and their d esire to have
fash ions that we re influen ced rather than
di ctated by the m other co u nt ry.
EA R LY GE O RG IAN STYL E
A meric an fu rn it u re sty les between 1725
and 1760 are often referred to as Queen
Anne and Early G eorgian, and so me
explanat ion of the latter is in order. Earl y
G eorgian refers to the reign of G eorge I,
1714-1727, and G eorge II, 1727-1 760 .
Su bsequent G eorges III and IV were o n the
throne u ntil 18 30. In America, the Earl y
G eo rgia n was not a separate sty le, but
rather the lat er evolu t ion of the Queen
An ne . In En gland the difference wa s m ore
dis t inct . The fi rst Q ueen Anne forms we re
see n in the first decad e of the 18th ce nt ury,
and during the reign of George 1the En glish
sty le cam e to include more carve d
d ecorat ion , m ostl y restrai ned she lls and
foliage, and began to assume so mew ha t
stou te r proportion s. This phas e is
so m et imes called t he Decorated Q ueen
SID E CH AI R. BOS TON . C. 17 30- 17 40 .
Inthe Early Georgian style. furniture proportionsbecame stouter and the use of carved ornamentincreased, as evidenced bythis Boston example thatclosely followed English tastes. Chairs of this stylewere previously thought to be of New York originbut haverecently been shown to have been made inBoston for shipment to other colonial cities.(COURTESY MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS. BOSTON)
Anne st yle. William Kent (1684-1748)
was an architect in the Pallad ian sty le and a
decorator who introduced lat e European
Baroque ornamenta t ion; he was influential
from 1725 unti l ab out 1740. Hi s furniture
d esign s for Palladian m an sions were
encrusted with she lls, fruit , foliage, eagles
and dolphin ca rv ings. Althou gh furniture
in the Kent m an ner was not for everyone in
En gland, hi s designs were influential in
steering En glish tastes toward m ore opu lent
ca rv ing (see the illustration below). Gi ven
Kent's architectural backgrou nd and t he
st ro ng interest in architectural design
among the ari stocra cy, elements of
a rch itect ure co nt inued to be an impo rta nt
part of bo th t he form and its decoration
throughout the Early G eorgian peri od .
The in creased use of ornam ent in the
Early G eorgian peri od co incid ed with a
change in material. Since shortly after the
Rest orati on and th rough England's Queen
Anne period , walnut was the wood of
choice for cabine t ma kers . Most of the
wa lnut used in En gland was imported from
France, but by 1720 it was in sho rt su pply.
To reduce its d epl etion an d to maintain
their domestic su pply, the Fren ch banned
its export. T he following year England
reduced its hi gh import duties on wood
-."
i
'<:>
j I, ! .JIillI~~~IDm
40 C I I A I' T E R T I I REE
DESIGN FOR A
MARBL E TABL E BY
T HOMAS LAN GL EY,
LONDON . 1739 .
The Palladianstylerepresented theuppermost limit ofEuropean Baroqueornament that could beapplied to furn iture ofQueen Anne-era design.The style wasadvancedbythe architect WilliamKent and was influentialin creatinga movementtoward moreopulentlycarved surfaces.(PRIVATECOLLECTION)
from the American colonies and th eWest Indies, and imported mahoganybegan to replace walnut in Englishfurniture. Th e change in material was forthe bett er. Dense West Indian and Ce nt ralAmerican mahogany was better suited tothe increasing amount of carving, and itcould be finish ed with a deeper and richersur face. In 1733 England repealed th eimport duty on mahogany, allowing forits nearly exclusive use over th e nextthree decades.
American trend s in design were runninga decade or two beh ind th e English, and
Americans were select ive in what th eychose to include. Th e American Qu eenAnne style was just sta rt ing as th e Englishwere entering th e Early Georgian phase ofornament. Pad feet were th e norm forAmerican cabriole legs at th e outset, butball and claw feet were later used on piecesof part icular importance beginning in th e1740s, some 20 years afte r th ey becamepopular in England. Th e ext ravagances ofWilliam Kent were not adopted in th eAmerican colonies. Th ey were not inkeeping with American tast es, and th erewas no aristocracy with either th e palatialhomes or th e unlimited wealth required forsuch furn iture . Th e use of an occasional,well-placed shell was in keepin g with th eAmerica n view of Queen Ann e, and gild ingthose shells was th e limit of accepta bleflamboyance. Th e archit ectural aspect ofthe Early Georgian period was influential inAmerica, since design books were plentifuland inspirati onal for craftsmen. Before th eRevoluti onary War, at least 85 differentarchitectura l guide books were known tohave been available, and most all of th emfollowed the Palladian precept s. As th e style
progressed, more fluted pilasters, plinths,arched pedim ents and architecturallyrend ered moldin gs found th eir way int ofurniture designs.
CHEST OF ORAWERS . ATTRIBUTED TO JOHN
TOWNSEND. NEWPORT. C.1750 .
Theuse of bracket feet.delicate moldings and a morerefined graduation of lippeddrawers broughtcasepieces into theQueen Anne period.(PRIVATE COLLECTION)
American Queen AnneFormsTh e shift to th e more reserved style ofQ ueen Anne, along with th e cont inuedinfluence of th e Baroque, yielded some newform s and brought th e evolut ion of someold ones. Case pieces, whil e maintainingmost of their str uctu ral details, weremodifi ed to include cabriole legs or bracketfeet , improved drawers and archedpedim ent tops. Tables with bold turningsand st retchers were simplified to fourcabriole legs. Chairs underwent a th oroughredesign leaving th em quite unlike th eirpredecessors. Across th e board, intricateturnings and elaborate carvings gave way toth e sweeping lines and smooth surfaces ofth e relaxed Queen Ann e designs. As th estandard of living imp roved, social
int eract ion and pastim es increased, andnew forms of fu rn iture with specializedpurposes proliferated th roughout Englandand its colonies.
CHESTSChests with drawers had proven th eirpracticality with th e William and Marydesigns, and th eir evolutio n cont inued intoth e second quarter of th e centu ry. Highchests and chests-on-frame were well suitedto th e Queen Anne style, and Am ericancabinetmakers advan ced th e developmentof th ose pieces beyond th at of Englishexamples.
Chests ofdrawersTh e chest of drawers changed only
cosmetically with th e Q uee n Ann e style,since its st ructu re had been establishedduring the William and Mary years. Th eevolution from lift-top chests to th osecomprised ent irely of drawers was mostlycomplete as th e new style came int o vogue.C hests th at combined lift tops over drawerscont inued to be mad e in more rural areasint o th e second half of th e century, but th eyhad long since passed out of favor in urbanareas, wh ere chests of drawers were th e
T ilE QUEEN ANNE S T Y L E 41
HIGH CHEST OF ORAWERS , CONNECTI CUT , C.1 7 30 .
Early American Queen Anne high chests continuedmany of the proportions of earlier high chests.(PRIVATE COLLECTION, COURTESYNATHAN lIVERANT ANO SON.
COLCHESTER. CONNECTICUT)
standard. Moderni zing t he chest of drawersentailed replacing its decorative elements .Ball feet were replaced by bracket feet,giving th e piece a more sta ble stance and afoot th at was bett er integrated into th eoverall design. Th e arch moldi ngs th at hadsur rounded the drawers were eliminated asdrawers came to have overlapping lips. Thedrawer lips featured delicate bead moldingscut int o th e drawer fron ts, which cleaned
up th e appearance of th e piece by coveringthe space between th e drawer and its case.Top and bottom case moldin gs were given anew refinement in keeping with the qui eterstyle, and more attent ion was paid to th egraduation of drawer sizes to aid in creat ingth e appearance of height .
High ches tsHigh chests and chests-on-frame underwent a more obvious change in design th andid chests of drawers. (Ch ests-on-fram e are
generally distin guished from high chests by
42 C II A I' T E R T II R E E
HIGH CHEST OF DRAWERS ,
CONNECTICUT. 1750-1 780 .
Asthe style progressed, high chests assumed morevertical proportions and lost thevestigial remains ofearlier styles.(PRIVATE COLLECTION)
CHEST-ON -FRAME (AFT ER AN ORIGINA L).
NEWPORT. 1730-1760.
Animportant form for the period, the chest-on-framehadmany of the same endearing qualities asQueenAnne high chests.(PRIVATE COllECTIONI
th e absence of drawers in the base.) In bothexamples, th e bases were changeddrastically by replacing their numerous andbold legs and st retchers with four graceful
cabr iole legs. The effect was imm ediate andprofound and represented a stylistic leapforward. The early chests-on-frame andhigh chests retained th e case proporti ons ofthe William and Mary period, but th eyincreased in height as the style evolved.Simi larly, th e early bases reta ined aprondetails from th e previous era, and pairs ofdrop finials somet imes appear as th evest igial remains of what had been th e twocenter legs (photo at left above). As th e styleprogressed, th e apron designs came toinclud e more flowing curves to span th e
HIGH CHES T OF DRAWERS ,
CONNECTICUT. 1750-1770 .
At the apex of Baroque aesthetic, the arched pedimenttopcontributes to theethereal goals of theperiod .(COURTESY HENRY FOROMUSEUM AND GREENFIELDVILLAGE)
distance from side to side (top photos atcenter and right on th e facing page).
In keeping with th e cont inuing vert icalthrust, th e familiar arched pediment top forhigh chests emerged later in th e Quee nAnne style (see th e bottom photo on th efacing page). Th e ped iment profilerepresented th e purest form of th e cymacurve, and it added height and visualinterest to th e case top . In combinat ionwith the sweeping curves of th e cornicemoldin gs, cent ral and side fin ials wereintended to draw th e eye upward through
an impressive design.
DESKSDesks followed a similar developmentthrou gh th is per iod, and shared most of th eadvancements of other case pieces. As withchests of drawers, bracket feet andoverlapping drawers became the norm, and
when they were equipped with upperbookcases th ose cases were somet imes giventh e same arched pediment tops as highchests (see the photo at right). Shortcabriole legs, called bandy legs, were usedon chests but were most frequently seen ondesks of the period .
Part of th e splendor of Q uee n Annedesks was in th e complexity andsophisticat ion of their interiors. Behind th eslanted lid, th e interior drawers andcompartments were as carefully designed asthe piece as a whole, and represented anarea of both ut ility and focus . A dazzlingarray of drawers and doors, complete withshaped and carved fronts and secretcompartments, made for an impressivedesk. It was th e perfect place for acabinetmaker to exhibit consummate skilland a client to show exquisite taste. Th esame idea was exte nded to th e upperbookcase, if th e piece was so equipped, byrevealing carved shells beh ind th e archeddoors, and exte nsive and elaboratepartition ing.
TABL ESAs with case pieces, th e use of th e cabrioleleg drastically altered th e appeara nce oftables in th e Qu een Ann e era. Busy, tu rnedleg bases gave way to gracefully curved legs.
The continuing prosperity and th e increase
in available leisu re t ime gave rise to anumber of tables in th e Queen Anne styleto serve a wide range of specific purposes.
Dressing tablesDressing tables cont inued into th e Q ueenAn ne era with most of th e same changes asth e bases of high chests. Th e tu rned legsand stretc hers gave way to cabriole legs, andapron profiles took on more sweepingcu rves (see the ph oto at right). Withprosper ity mu st have come vanity, becausedr essing tables had more d rawers duri ngth e Q ueen Anne period . While mostWilliam and Mary dressing tabl es had threed rawers, Queen Anne designs frequentlyadded a shallow dr awer of fu ll width overth e others. Som e Boston examples have sixd rawers arranged in two rows of th ree.Eith er way, a slight increase in th e height ofthe case was necessary.
DESK AND BOOKCASE .
CONNECTICUT.
1740-1760 .
Thisdesk and bookcaseis on a frame with bandylegs andslipper feel. Thebookcase features anarched pediment ofunparalleled grace andcarved shells behind thearched doors.(PRI VATE COLLE CTION ,
COURTESY ISRAEl SACK, INC ,
N Y C.)
DRESSING TABLE . MASSACHUSETTS . 1735-1750 .
Queen Anne dressing tables share structural anddesign similarities with the bases of high chests, andthetwo forms were often made en suite,(PRIVATE COLLECTIO N, COUR TESY ISRAEl SACK, INC" NY,C.)
T I-I E QU E E NA N N E ST Y L E 43
TEA TABL E. BOSTON . 1755-1765 .
Astandard form for Boston rectangular tea tables,this example has a molding on the top and a gentlyscrolled apron that flows into the legs.(COURTESY THE SOCIETY FOR THE PRESERVA TlON OF NEW
ENGlANO ANTIQUITIES)
Tea tabl esTea tables deserve special recognition as anew form th at developed in conjunct ionwith a new social t rend. The drinking of teawas one of th e English customs th at becam every fashionable in th e I720s, and all th eimp lements required to serve it-porcelain ,silverware and th e furniture-were a focusof at te ntio n and had to be in th e best oftaste. William and Mar y tables, wit h turnedlegs and st retc hers, had fun ctioned as
occasional pieces and had been usedwh erever and whenever needed. Q ueenAnne tea tab les served a more dedicatedpurpose, and, being so cent ral (both literallyand figura t ively) to th e service of tea, th eydeveloped as some of th e most refin edexamples of th e style.
O ne of th e most fam iliar forms of th eQ uee n Anne tea table is th e rectangu larshape, with a shallow apron and slendercabriole legs. This family of tea tables hasth e top set into or on top of th e frame, withno overhang, but with an applied moldinggiving it a raised outer edge (see th e ph otosat left and cente r above). Very ofte n anapplied molding ru ns along th e bottom
44 C II 1\ I' T E R T H R E E
TEA TABLE . NEWPORT. 1750-1780 .
The Newport version of the rectangular tea tablefeatures slipper feet and a more austereapron.(COURTESY MUSEUM OF ART. RHODE ISLAND SCHDOl OF DESIGN)
edge of th e apro n, connecting th e knees ofthe legs, and thi s molding is shaped with acurving pro file. Many examples includeexte nsion slides on eithe r end th atincreased th e serving area.
Since th e top has no overhang, th e legsare at th e outermost corne rs of th ese tables,and th ey show an exceptionally sta blestance. It is th e short height of th e apro n,the scro lled apro n profi le and the slende rnature of the legs that main tain the delicacyand lightness that are so essential to th eperiod . Since tea tables were small andrelat ively simp le pieces, cabinetmakers wereable to modify th eir designs and adjust th ebalance of the components. Because teatables could be built qui ckly and were nottechnically difficult, more atte ntio n couldbe paid to th e subtle point s of th eir design.As a resu lt, th e maker 's skill as a designerand th e aims of th e Q ueen Anne period ingene ral are exhibited in th ese pieces.
Mixing tablesAs with any uni versally popular form, th ereis a wid e range of variat ion in small eleganttables. One subset of cabriole-Ieg tea tablesused delft ceramic tiles as th e top surfa ce,
MI XING TABLE . BOSTON AR EA . 17 3 5-1 74 5 .
Mixing tables arestylistically similar to tea tables, butfeature ceramic tile or marble tops to prevent damagefrom alcohol.(COURTESYWINTERTHUR MUSEUM)
while othe rs used marbl e instead of woodfor the tops. Tables with th ese tops aregene rally referred to as mixing tables sincetheir surfaces are well suited for the mixingof alcoholic beverages (see th e photo at rightabove). Th e period fin ishes of other teatables were subject to the ravages of hot teapots and water, bu t alcohol called for a moreimpe rvious su rface.
Informal tea tabl esInformal tea tables have turned taperedlegs that end in pad feet and overhangingtops of various shapes. Being somewhat lessexpensive, th ese tables were very commonin th eir day and a great many have su rvivedto the present. Most of these tables haveeithe r an oval or porri nger top measuring
about 2 ft . by 3 ft. Porr inger tops arerectangular with protruding roundedcorne rs, and were a commo n form in theRhode Island area (see th e top photo on th efacing page). Th e shape was probablyinspired by Boston gaming tables th at usedth e shape as an extension of a three-quart erround corne r turret on th e apro n from
TEA TABLE . NEWPORT. 1740-1770 .
Less formal tea tables enjoyed widespread use, withregional va riations in shapeand detail. The porringercorner shape of this table is indicative of the Newportarea .(COURTESY MUSEUM OF ART. RHODE ISLAND SCHOOL OF DESIGN)
which the leg extended (see the top photoon p. 47). On porringer tables it wasprimari ly a decorative treatment, th oughthe corners do suggest a convenien t and outof the way place for candlest icks or sauce rs.
Oval tops had uni versal appeal and wereused th roughout th e colonies. Variations in
top shapes, includ ing rectangular tops,round tops and some with incised corne rs,were seen regionally.
Th e base of th ese tabl es was very simple,but noneth eless elegant. Th e legs wereturned off-center to a delicate ankl e, belowwhich exte nded a dainty pad or Dutch foot .Th e apron, which was tenoned int o th e legto form the frame, had only its profile shapefor orna ment . Along with th e overhangingtop, th e design was quite pleasing and hadall the grace and style th at th e perioddemanded.
Th ese tables were less formal and lessexpens ive th an th ose with cabriole legs.Since the legs were turned, each leg couldbe made in minutes from 2-in. stock.
Cabriole legs were mu ch more involved and
took hours to make, and th ey had to becut from more expensive 3-in . stoc k.Th e entire table could be built in onequarter to one-th ird of th e time requiredfor a cabriole-leg tab le. Although th esetables were less formal, th ey were not ruralint erpret ations of city pieces. Som e of th eleading cabinetmakers of th e day mad eth em in quantity, but th e simplicity ofth eir design allowed less sophist icatedmakers in outlying areas to bui ld th em withgood results.
Fold ing tea tablesAnoth er variation on th e tea table was oneth at could fold flat and be stored away whennot in use. Sometimes called "tuckaway"tabl es, th ese tabl es featured very slendercabriole legs attached to an X-shaped fram eth at was hin ged at th e cente r to fold flat
(see th e ph oto below). Th e top, usuallyabout 28 in. in diameter, was attached to
th e fram e with hin ges so it swung to avertical posit ion. Th e folded tabl e was only5 in. or 6 in . thi ck and could be tu cked
away anywhere.Th ese tabl es were mechan ically clever,
and th eir aesthet ics ofte n exhibited a highlevel of sophistica tion. Exampl es haveslende r but well-formed cabriole legs, andth ey frequ ently have dished tops where anouter mo lded edge is left by dishing out allbut the edge of th e top . Both features areexpensive to produce and requ ireconsiderable skill. The fact that th ey aresophist icated but storable impli es that th eywere not the primary tea table in th e hom e,bu t rat her an ext ra tea table that wasbro ught out on occasion when needed .Folding tea tables were once com mo n,espec ially in the nor th ern colonies wh ereint erior space was ofte n at a premium. Th ey
have becom e exceed ingly scarce, and th oseof except ional form are greatly sought after.
FOL D I N G TE A TA BLE .
NEW HAMPS HIR E.
174 0- 176 0 .
With a hinged X-shapedframe and a hinged top,this table folds to lessthan 5 in. in thickness.(COURTESYMUSEUM OF FINE
ARTS. BOSTON)
T ilE Q UE E NAN N E ST Y L E 45
Tri pod ta blesCa ndlesta nds in th e tripod form hadbeen known since Jacobean England, but
th ey found a resurgence in beauty andusefuln ess in th e Queen Anne period.Th ese small tables, originally mad e to hold
a light ing device, had existed in a moreuti litarian form during th e William andMary era. The tripod design was wellsuited for cyma-eu rved legs and an architecturally inspired turned center, and thuscame to assu me a well-developed form.Because of th eir simplicity and usefulness.regional variat ions and degrees ofsophist icat ion abound.
Larger versions of th e tripod design wereused as tea tables and, in som e cases, weredesigned to allow th e top to turn to aid inserving. Th e tops were hin ged so th ey couldbe ti pped vertica lly, allowing th e table to beput aside wh en not in use. Th ese arecommonly know n as tip-top tables, wh ich isa modern appellat ion, but to earlyAme rican cabinetmakers th ey were knownas round tea tabl es. Earlier Englishexamples were descriptively called pillarand claw tables. denoting th e use of claw
TlP ·TOP TAB L E. PROBABLY PHI LADELPHIA .
17 40- 1 7 80 .
Tables and candlestands in this form came to a newlevel of development in the Queen Anne period. Thislater example hasa 'bird-cage' mechanism that allowsthe top to turn andtip upright.(COURTESY YALE UNIVERSITY ART GALLERY)
46 C I I A I' T E R T HREE
feet , and snap tables, since th e latches snapshut in th e horizontal position. Tip-toptables were an enormo usly popul ar form oftable th rou ghout th e colonies.Philadel phi ans were especially fond of th eform and would later take it to a high level
of development. The tripod form, withstylist ic changes, rem ained in com mo n usewell int o th e next century.
Sid e tabl esSide tabl es were a new form for th e QueenAnne period . Usua lly about 4 ft . long andwithout dr awers, th ey were th e foreru nnerof th e sideboard and were int ended to sta ndalong a wall as a seconda ry piece for servingfood or drink. Th e fact that many sidetables have marb le tops is indi cative of th eirfunction, and exp lains why later versionscame to be known as "slab tabl es." Sidetables have all th e att ributes of Queen Annetea tables, but th eir size and design speak toth eir specia lized role. Since th ey are largeand were used in serving, th ey would have
belonged to th e wealthier segme nt ofsociety, and original examples are few innumber. Th e term "console table" is often
used erroneo usly; console tables came at alater date and were mounted to the wall.
SIDE TA BL E.
PROB ABL Y
MA SSA CH USETT S.
1735-1770 .
Functioning as servingpieces, side tables werea new andspecializedform for the Queen Anneperiod.(COURTESY COLONIAL
WIL LIAMSBURG FOUNOATlON)
Card tabl esAs increasing prosperity brought moreleisure time and social interac tio n, anotherpopular activity, besides tea dr ink ing, wascard playing. Th e gamb ling craze hadsta rted in France, spread to England, andeventua lly come to America. Whil e th eirPuritan forebears wou ld have beendismayed, whist and oth er card gamesbecam e pleasant social pastimes among th ewell-to-do. Th e elite could afford to havetables built specially for th e purpose, basedup on th e latest English designs. Like formaltea tabl es, th ey were th e centerpieces of th eevening's activ ity and had to be of th e beststyle. Many featured needlework playingsurfaces, dished pockets for chips orcounte rs and recesses for candlesticks orbeverages (see th e top photo on th e facingpage). Wh ile th ey were mad e in severalshapes, English examples with four corne rturrets, from wh ich th e legs exte nded, wereth e most practical because th e legs werewell out of th e way of th e sitte rs' knees.Furthermore, th eir tops followed th e sameshape, giving th em increased surface areaand room for th e wells. This is th e shapetha t seems to have inspired th e familiarpor ringer top.
An important feature that wasestablished by early card tables was a topthat folded in half on itself, or opened to besupported by swinging legs. Wh en not inuse, th e table could stand against a wall,taki ng up half th e space. By folding the topin half, th e playing surface was protected
and as a result many st ill have th eir originalneedlework in excellent condit ion. After1730, some of the English examplesfeatured rear legs that swung out on ahinged accordion-like frame, which gave th etables fu ll aprons and a nicer appearancewhen open. Th e folding card table was anew form for th e period, but it esta blished aprecedent that card tables would followwell into th e next century.
CA RD TA BLE . BOSTON .
17 30 - 17 5 0 .
This card table featuresturreted frontcornersand a needlework topsurface. The rear legsopen outward to supportthe foldingtop.(COURTESYMUSEUM OF FINE
ARTS. BOSTON)
Q ueen Anne dining tabl es saw th e firstwidespread use of th e rule joint in joiningtheir leaves. Thi s joint concealed th e stee lleaf hin ges by placing th em within aqu art er-round mold ing th at ran th e lengthof th e joint and fit int o a correspondingcove molding on th e underside of th e leaf.Th e rule joint requ ired quite a bit of skill tomake accura te ly,but th e result was a tablewith a mu ch neater app earance. Rule-joined
CA RD PLAY ING
While th e Puritans frown edon them, amusements
and pastimes abounded in18th-eentu ry Am erica. Tavernswere popular esta blishmentswhere cards, billiards,backgammon , shuffleboard,d ice games and even bowling
augmented th e primary activityof drinking. Am ong th e favoritecard games of th e day were whist,lanterloo, put, piquet, cribbage andall fours. Th e chips or countersfor th ese games were called"fish" and were made of bone inth e shape of discs, stars or fish.The upper level of society alsoenjoyed cards, but since th ey didnot frequ ent taverns, th ey hadprivate gatherings of friend s athome. Th e dom est ic gamin gtables of th e day were mad e withpockets for th e counte rs, andth eir needlework playingsurfaces often depicted cards,counte rs and money.
Drop-leaf tablesTh e drop- leaf gateleg tab le of th e Williamand Mary period had proven to be versat ileand pract ical, and its design was carried int oth e Queen Ann e era with somemodification . Th e elaborate assemblageof
legs and stretchers was replaced by fourcabriole legs, two of which swung out onhinged frame members to support th eleaves. Table tops were either oval orrectangular when opened. The drawer onth e end of some William and Maryexamples was not seen in Qu een Ann epieces. Some examples from th e middleAtlan tic states have six legs, with th e swing(or fly) legs positioned just behi nd
stat ionary ones so as to increase th e table'ssturdiness and stability.
DI NING TABLE.
MASSA CHU SETTS .
17 4 0 - 17 BO.
The drop-leaf table wasan elegant and practicalform of table, well suitedto the needs of18th-century life. TheQueen Anne version hadcabriole legs, two ofwhich swing to supportthe leaves. and a gentlyshaped apron.(COURTESY COLONIAL
WILLIAMSBURG FOUNDATION)
TH E QUE E NAN N EST Y L E 47
SIDE CHAIR . CONN ECTICUT OR MASSACHUSETTS .
17 20 -1 740 .
The 'splat-back ' chair retains stretchersand front legsof an earlier style but has a back design similar to laterQueen Anne chairs.(COURTESY THE SOCIETY FOR THE PRESERVATION OF NEW
ENGLAND ANTIQUITIES)
leaves became th e standard method ofatta ching leaves for all subsequent drop-l eaftables. Cabinetmakers' account books ofth e period often refer to th ese as rule tabl es,
and th ey are priced by th e foot according toth e length of th e frame or, as they called it,th e bed.
A small version of th e drop-leaf d inin gtable was known as a breakfast tabl e andwas approx imately 36 in. in diameter. Thistable fun ction ed mu ch like a foldin g teatable; it could be used when need ed andstored away in little space when not in use.It was for occasional use, and its name is notind icative of its only purpose. Th ese tab leshave all th e same elements as full-sizedining tables and required nearly as mu chlabor to make. Th at mu ch effort for a table
of thi s size mad e th em qui te a bit moreexpensive than a common tea tab le andlimited th eir numbers. T heir diminutivesize and scaled-down detailing make t hemendearing littl e tables. When well executed,they are gems of Q uee n Ann e design.
48 C IIA P TE R T IIREE
SIDE CHAIR . BOSTON AREA. 1735 -1760.
The classic New England Queen Anne chair developedin Boston about 1730 andevo lved with regionalvariations over the next three decades.(COURTESY THE SOCIETY FOR THE PRESERVA TlON OF NEW
ENGLAND ANTIQUITIES)
SEATING F URNIT UR ETh e Queen Ann e style brou ght a greatadvance in th e design of chairs. Most chairsbefore thi s tim e were composed of st raightelements, wh ich limited both comfort andaesthetics. In the early part of th e century,Bosto n chairs had been the first Am ericanchair design to use th e cyma curve in th eback profi le whil e ret aining William andMary elements elsewhere (see pp . 24-25 ).Th is design was a preview of things to
come, as the fully developed Queen Ann echair kept th e cur ved back and included allth e new design elemen ts as well.
Splat-back chairsAn important and widely used NewEngland chair that developed afte r th eBoston chairs was an early Q ueen Ann edesign first seen in the 172 0s. This designincorporated a vasiform, or baluster
inspired, cur ved splat . Th e top of th e splatwas met by a double-arched crest rail th atcarried th e shape of th e splat over to meet
SIDE CHAIR . PHILADELPHIA. 1740-17 6 0.
A Philadelphia chair shows the greater propensity forsculptu ralelements and carved details outside of NewEngland.(COURTESY MUSEUM OF ART. RHODEISLAND SCHOOL OF DESIGN)
th e molded shape of th e vert ical stiles.Th e base of th e splat was secured by adistinctive horizontal rail a few inchesabove th e seat (ph oto at left above). Thi syoke-shap e crest includ ed a scooped saddleon the crest above the splat, wh ich was tocont inue as a standard form in Qu een Annechairs. To differenti ate th ese chairs fromother varieties, th ey are often called splatback chairs.
More th an a purel y transiti onal or ruralversion of a higher style, thi s design shows
the New England penchant fo r combiningth e new Q ueen Ann e elements withexist ing designs. Some variations of th esechairs used block-and -turned front legswith either ball or Spanish feet , whileothers employed th e cabriole shape.Existing examples includ e some with rushseats and oth ers with loose seats and overth e-rail upholsterin g.
Thi s style enjoyed a widespread andlong-lived acceptance, which accounts for
its many variations. Examples date from the
early part of th e second quart er of th ecentury and cont inue until th e time of theRevoluti on in some areas. While splat backswere superseded by more stylish designs inth e major cities in th e 1730s, th ey rem ainedin favor elsewhere as locally producedexamples of th e Quee n Anne aesthet ic.
Queen Anne cha irsTh e Queen Anne side chair, in its bestknown form, is comprised of curved backst iles, arching th rough a crest rail to meet asplat of th e familiar vasiform shape (see th ecenter photo on th e facing page). Th ebottom of th e splat joins th e seat railth rough a molded shoe. Cabriole legs, wellroun ded in cross sect ion, support eit her asqua re seat or a roun ded compass(sometimes called balloon) seat . Each ofthese shapes would have held a slip seat, a
separate upholstered seat frame th at dropsinto place. The front and back legs arejoined by block and turned st retchers, and
two swelled turni ngs form th e rear andmedial stretchers.
Thi s style of chai r, in its Am erican form,is known to have developed in Boston noearlier than 1730 , and it soon became asta ndard for New England Q ueen Ann echairs. While all th e design elem ents arefrom th e English Quee n Anne, th e design
evolved by applying th ose elements toexisting American chai rs rath er th andirectly copying English examples, sinceEnglish chairs did not have th e samevertical proportions.
Regional variat ions of th e form appearedas its popularity spread. Newp ort versionswere nearly identi cal to th e sta ndard form,but with subt le differences in the delicacyof th e elements th at gave th e chair a lighterappea rance (see th e photo at bottom onp. 39). Farther south, in New York andPhiladelphia , Qu een Anne chairs hadshor ter and wider proportions (more likethe English style), and th ey were likely toincorporate more dynami c sculpturalelemen ts in th e rear st iles and splat shap e,along with a more extensive use of carving(see the photo at right on th e facing page).
Once th e style had been established in eachcity, th e variations grew as each developedin accordance with local tastes.
Th e divergence between Philadelphiaand New England style becom es apparentin th e Queen Anne designs and is typifiedin th e chairs. At first glance, th econservative restraint of New Englandmakers is obvious in comparison to th erelatively daring flamboyance of th eirPhi ladelphian counterparts. A more subtlepoint is th e growing stylistic kin shipbetween Philad elphi a and London, whil eNew England maintain ed a separateidentity. Wh ereas th e Phi ladelphia makersand th eir clientele were readily willing to
embrace th e latest English designs, th e NewEngland market was more comfor ta ble inapplying th e influence of th ose designs toexisting pieces. Part of this had to do withth e growt h rate of both regions. Th epopulations of New York and Philadelphiawere sta rt ing to skyrocket, whil e in NewEngland growt h was mu ch more modest .During th e third quarter of th e century, th epopulat ion of New York and Philadelphi aroughly doubled whil e th e growt h rate in
Boston was flat . By th e time of th eRevoluti on , Philadelphia had a popu lationtwo and a half times th at of Boston. Most of
th ose who swelled th e population ofPhiladelphia, including ind entured servantsand tradespeople, came directly fromEngland. With th em came both th eappetite for and th e designs of th e latestEnglish furniture.
Upholste red piecesFab rics and shape were both important
elements in Qu een Anne design, soupholstered pieces in th e forms of easycha irs and sofas were well in keeping withth e style. Textil es were expensive (a locallywoven coverlet was close to a simple teatable in value), and th e finest and moststylish fabri cs were imported .Th e prosperityof th e times and th e accompanying pursuitof creatu re comforts made upholsteredpieces more available and desirable.
Easy chairs mad e a smooth t ransitionfrom th e William and Mary style int o th e
EASY CHAIR . BOSTON .
OR POSSIBLY RHOO E
IS L AND . 174 0 - 17 70 .
Easy chairs have a morerelaxed stance thanthose of earlier erasandshare leg and stretcherdesigns with other chairsof the period.(COURTESY YALE UNIVERSITY
ART GALLERY!
THE Q UE E NA N N E ST Y L E 49
SOFA , PHilADelPHIA ,
17 40- 17 50.
Sofaswerestill quiterare before mid-centurybecause of the cost ofupholstering andtheirspace requirements. Inkeeping with theQueenAnne aesthetic, theysharestylistic similaritieswitheasy chairs.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR
MUSEUM)
Q ueen Anne. In keepin g with th e designphilosophy of th e time, th ey becam ebroad er and more relaxed in shape, losingsome of th e vert ical thrust th at hadcharacterized th e earlier styles. Easy chairsassu med most of th e att ributes of otherQueen Anne chairs, with cabriole legs andsimplified turned st retchers.
Sofas were a new form for th e period,having evolved from a combinat ion ofearlier settees and fu lly upholstered easy
chairs. Since most hou ses of th e period hadlimited space, and since the amount offabric required to up holster a sofa wasprohibitively expensive, they were onlyaffordable to th e very wealthy. As a result,American Quee n Ann e sofas areexceptionally rare. Wh en th ey were mad eth ey followed th e convent ions of th e style,with cabriole legs, ar m rolls and serpent inebacks th at were harmon iou s with th edesigns of easy chai rs.
Couches, or day beds, conti nued in th eQueen Anne style, but th eir popularity waswaning as sofas became more desirable.Th e need for a large uph olstered piece wasbecoming more important for social reasonsrath er th an for purposes of repose, and sofas
were a more usefu l and elegant solution.Co uches increasingly becam e bedroompieces as th ey were displaced by sofas.
50 C II APT E R T H R E E
TAll-POST BEDSTEAD . RHODE I SLAN D, 173 5-1 7 5 0 .
The primary purpose of bedsteadswas to hold themattress and bed hangings. Little of the structure isseen except for the frontposts, which here featurecabriole legs.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR MUSEUM)
B EDST EAD SBedsteads continued to be frames for th epurpose of holding a mattress, and tall-postbeds were designed to suppo rt bed hangingsas well. In th at regard, th ey were valuedmore for th eir fun ction th an for theiraesthetics. Nonetheless, th ey were made inkeeping with th e Queen Ann e style, withcabriole front legs and a gently archedheadboard. Wh en fully equipped with bedhan gings, only th e front posts and legs andthe top of th e headboard remain ed visible,so most of th e bedsteads of th e period havea concentrated emphasis there. Low-postbeds were th e norm for th ose of moremodest means, but th ey too show th eatt ributes of the styling of th e period.
Queen Anne StructureWilliam and Mary pieces owed mu ch ofth eir design to th eir st ructure sincewidespread use of th e dovetail joint hadfundamentally changed th e way furni turewas built. Th e Queen Ann e style broughtan aesthetic evolut ion to th at st ructure, anda refinement to its method of construct ion,In some cases, th e changes were improvements in technique th at came withcont inued practice, and in other cases th e
Case Const ruction with Cabriole Legs
Theuse of cabriole legs withoutstretchers required that the legs bebetterintegrated into thestructureof thecase.
Top rail joinedto legwith tenonor dovetail
Sidetenonedinto leg
Leg iscontinuousand serves ascorner blockinto whichsides, frontand backaretenoned.
Th e redesign entailed droppin g th e ideaof dovetailing th e case edges, and insteadtenoning th e case parts into th e extende dleg block of th e cabriole (see the drawing atleft). Thi s meth od made th e legs an integralpart of th e case rather th an a lateratt achme nt, and gave th e piece solidi ty andun surpassed durability.Th e one drawbackwas th e inabil ity of th e tenonedcomponents to expand and cont ract freelyacross th e grain, and some cracking of casesides resulted. Nonetheless, th is methodwas vastly superior to th e former, and itbecam e th e univ ersally accepted meth od ofbuilding these pieces. Th e one notableexcept ion was in Newp ort, where casescont inued to be doveta iled at th e edges,with the cabriole-leg blocks attached to th einsid e corne rs. Thi s method ofconst ruct ion proved to be very practical
with high-ehest cases. Th e legs could beposition ed in th e case with attac hed blocksthat left th e legs free to slide out, and th ey
could th en be removed for shipping.
changes were necessitated by th e newcomponents th at made up th e Q ueenAnne style.
Case pieces remained st ructura llyunchanged from th e previou s era, but th econstruct ion techniques of cabinetmakersbecame more refined. Dovetails increasedin number and precision as met hods wereperfected. Co mponents like drawer par tsand case panels became thinner, ascabinetmakers learn ed tha t bu lk was not arequirement for st rengt h. Besides purel yaesthet ic and stylist ic improvements, suchas more delicate case moldings, bracketfeet and improved proportions, Qu eenAnne case pieces cont inued th e const ruction meth ods established with Williamand Mary pieces, but with two notableexceptions: th e str ucture of dressingtables and high chest bases, and th e useof lipped drawers.
CA SE C ON ST RU C T I O NTh e cases of dressing tables and th e bases ofhigh chests had consisted of four sides,dovetailed togeth er along their four vertica ledges. Th e turned legs were tenoned intointerior corne r blocks, which were glued in
place (see th e top drawing on p. 140) . Thiswas not an ideal method of const ruct ion,but given th at th e turned legs werenumerous (six in th e case of a high chest)
and tied together by st retchers, it provedadequat e for the William and Mary period.In th e Queen Anne style, where there wereonly four legs and no stre tchers, theirattachment required some redesign if theywere expected to endure.
LIPP ED DR AW ER SThe other notable change in th e str uct u reof case pieces involved th e use of lippeddrawers. Drawers with a lip at th e top andsides covered th e space between th e drawerand its case and gave th e piece a neaterapp earan ce. Single- and double-archmoldin g on th e case surro unding th edrawer opening fell out of favor in th eQ ueen Anne aesth etic, but delicate beadmoldin gs, less than 1/ 4 in. wide, took their
DRA WER DETA I L .
1730 - 175 0 .
Lippedor overlappingdrawers covered thespace between thedrawer and case andmade for a betterappearance. Aquarterround bead on the edgewas used universally.
T ilE Q U E E N AN N ES T Y L E 51
NEW ENGLAND BLIND TENON
PHILADELPHIA THROUGH TENON
Side-rail tenondoes not extendthrough rear leg.
Side-rail tenonextends throughbackof rear leg.
Side seat rail
Tenon usuallywedged aswell
Chair-Construction Detailsplace in outl ining th e drawer. Drawers werenot lipp ed along th e bott om edge, since thi slip would have quickly brok en off if th edrawer was removed from its case andplaced on a tab le or floor. (H ard-t o-reachtop dr awers were likely rem oved from thecase and put on a tabletop as a mattercourse. ) O therwise, th e const ruct ion ofdrawers cont inued with refin ements incomponent thi ckn ess and th e delicacy ofdovetailin g. As part of th e evolut ion,drawer bottom s came to be install ed byslid ing th em int o place from th e back, intogrooves cut in th e front and sides, and th eywere held in position by a small nail ortwo. Earlier methods of nailing th em toth e bottom of th e drawer componentsbecame obsolete .
C HA I R CONST RUCT IONWith th e divergence of styles betweenNew England and Philadelphi a came adivergence in constr uctio n methods, whichis most evident in chairs. Philadelphi amakers learned th at th ey could do without
st retchers between the legs, and did so,whi le northern makers cont inued to useth em . The Philadelphi a makers extendedth e tenon of th e side seat rail through th erear leg, where it sto pped flu sh with th esur face (see th e drawing at right). Th e
st rength of thi s very substantia l jointallowed th em to build chairs withoutst retchers. New England makers usedshallower mortises th at did not extendthrough th e leg.
Th e seat const ruct ion of compass-seatchairs also varied between th e two regions(see th e drawing on th e facing page).Philadelphia makers made th e seat rail as aunit by tenoning th e cur ved sides direct lyint o th e cur ved front rail with horizontal
tenons. Th e cabriole legs were th enattac hed to th e underside of th e seat rail bya single round tenon on th e leg glued int o alarge hole in th e rail. Th e lip to hold th e slipseat was attached separately afte r th e seatrail assembly was complete. New Englandmakers tenoned th e curved seat-railcomponents int o th e blocks of the frontlegs, and th en shaped th e blocks to conform
to th e seat cur ve. The material inside th e
52 C H A I' T E R T H R E E
Seat lip applied
SID E CH AIR . CONNECTICUT. 1740-1760 .
Though made in Connecticut, 'Porter' chairsof thistypehave structura l similarities with PhiladelphiaQueen Anne chairs.(PRIVATE COLLECTION)
seat rail was cut away to provide the recessfor th e slip seat. This method was iden t icalto th at used for a square, straigh t-sided seat.
St ructurally, th e New England meth od ofbuilding compass seats was superior sinceth e Philadelphia technique was depend enton th e int egrit y of th e glued joint.
Interestingly, th e Philadelphi a meth odof chair constr uctio n foun d a niche in th eheart of New England. A style of simple andunadorned compass-seat cha irs came to be acommon form in th e Connecticut RiverValley. Th ey were made just before midcentu ry for th e Porter family, and now arereferred to by th at name. Porter chairs haveall th e const ruct ion characte ristics of th ebest Philadelphia Q ueen Ann e chairs butnone of th e ornament (photo below). Th eyhave pad feet, a plain crest rail and nost retchers. Of fur ther interes t is th e fact
Sides tenonedinto front rail
Sides and fronttenoned intoleg block andpegged
Seat lip carvedfrom seat rail
Leg block shapedto follow contour ofcompass seat
Tenoned cornerblockadded
Legjoinedby large roundtenon
Front rail
NEW EN GLAND COMPASS SEAT
Compass Seats
PHILADELPHIA COMPASS SEAT
THE QU E E N AN N E ST Y L E 53
54 C II A I' T E R T H R E E
that many are made of walnut, th e wood ofchoice for high-style cabinetmakers in th ecit ies but not th e usual choice forcabinetmakers in the Co nnect icut RiverValley, where cherry was th e predomin ant
medium. Th e possible scenario of aPhiladelphia-train ed cabinetmaker bringing
his style to th e area is tant alizing and notwithout parallels in furniture history.
Other pieces continued to be bu ilt withmortise-and-tenon const ruct ion, since th erewere no other accept able meth ods. As withall pieces, th e precision of th e joinery
became increasingly important as th estr uctural members became more delicateand th e use of reinforcing st retchersdi minished. Thro ughout the period, th edesigns and their structures cont inued in
this process of optimization.
Decorative ElementsQueen Ann e decorative elements are bydefin ition few, or at least th ey were in th e
earliest and purest versions of th e style. Th ereaction to Baroque ext remes ensured th atbeauty was designed in and not added on.As th e style progressed in England,designers added increasing degrees oforna mentat ion until they arrived at QueenAnne forms dressed out in th e full regalia ofth e Italianate Baroque, but th e purity of th eunadorned Queen Ann e style had an innateapp eal to the Am ericans. Th ey usedornamentat ion sparin gly, to augment th edesign of the piece bu t not overpower it.American furniture was never a vehicle for
ornament.Apa rt from the role th at the cyma curve
played in replacing intri cate turnings andsevere lines with cabriole legs, gentleturnings and sweeping curved lines, other
decorative elements were used withrestraint. Veneer, usually walnut in th eearly decades of th e style, continued to beused on th e fronts of bett er high-style case
H I GH CHEST OF DRAWERS .
CHAR LESTOWN . MASSACHUSETTS , 1739.
The Baroque shells, heregilded on the Hartshorn highchest. represented theacceptable limit of ornament forAmerican tastes beforemid-eentury.(COURTESY MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS. BOSTON)
pieces, but it was intended to app ear rich,rathe r th an wild . Inlay, usually of crossbanding or herringbone design, was used to
border drawer front s and panels , but it wasnot as bold or cont rasting as it had beenpreviously. Th e surface was not int end ed tobe th e sole focus of att ention . Many pieceswere finished in a light color, increasing thevisual appearance of size. Th e Qu een Ann eideal was to have furni ture of lofty grace,with expanses of smooth warm wood,interrupted only occasionally by restrainedcarved embellishment.
CA RV IN G SShells and fans on American Qu een Annepieces were inspired by th e Englishobsession with th em, and th e English inturn had borrowed th e motif from Italian,French and Dutch decorat ive styles.American makers of th e period were carefulto use carvings in proper proportion andnumber to th e rest of th e piece, with an eyetoward only enhancing th e design (see th ephoto on th e facing page). Th eir carvingswere also well int egrated into th e overallform of th e piece, and gave th e impr essionof being designed in from the outset, rath erthan added on later.
Carvings were used more extensivelylater in the period to enliven familiar forms,
differentiate new pieces from earlier onesand feed an increasing appetite foropulence. Th e compl exity and extent ofcarving varied according to local tastes andthe price a customer was willing to pay.Philadelphians began to show a preferencefor more elaborate and detailed carving,which was to cont inue into th e next era offurni ture design. Following London styles,carved ball and claw feet appeared onBoston pieces as early as th e I730s and grewmore widespread afte r mid-eentury.
A RC H ITEC TU RA L D ETAILSAs mentioned previously, archit ecturalelements found th eir way into furniture as aresult of th e endu ring popu lar int erest inarchitecture and th e natural evolut ion ofthe style. In th e absence of furniture-designbooks, architectura l guides were often th eonly source of fashionable styles available to
designers and cabinetmakers. Decorative
HI GH CHES T OF DRAW ER S.
CON CORD . MAS SA CHUS ETT S. 1755-1775 .
The use of architectural details is evident in the uppercase of this highchest attributed to Joseph Hosmer,himself a housewrighl. More formal pieces alsoreflected the influence. Note the architectural styling ofthe entablature andthe pulvinated base and capital ofthe fluted pilasters.(COURT£SY TH£ SOCIETYFOR TH£ PR£S£RVA TlON OF N£W
£NGLAND ANTIQUITI£S!
T H E QU E E NAN N EST Y L E 55
56 C I I A I'T E R T II R E E
HIGH CHEST OF
ORAWERS . BOSTON .
1710 -17 30 .
This William andMaryhighchest is oneof theearliest known examplesof American japannedfurniture. Japanning. animitation of Orientallacquerware. waspracticed from about1712 until mid-century,coincidingwith both theWi lliamandMary andQueen Anne styles.(COURTESY THE
METROPOLITAN MUSEUM
orART)
features including fluting (especially ofpilasters), moldin g profiles, plinths andfinials, and arched pediments were usedwidely. Th e infusion of th ese elements wasstrong in England, where Palladianinflu ence continued to be felt , especiallyafter th e leadin g prop onent of Baroqu eornament, William Kent, published th ework of th e leadin g proponent of Palladianarchitecture in TheDesignsof InigoJonesin 1727.
In America, architectural design booksproliferated, but Batt y Langley's 1740
publi cation of TheCity and CountryBuilder'sand Workman's Treasuryof Designswas widely consulted. Langley's bookhelped reinforce existing architectura ldetails and infused new ones into Am ericanfurniture . It sta nds to reason th at a regionthat was growing and building at th e rate ofth e colonies would see an arch itecturalimpact on its furn iture design. More ofthese elemen ts would be included in th elater part of th e century.
JAPANNINGTh e ongoing merchant trade with th e FarEast kept alive a fascination with O rienta ldesign th at had been strong since th e late17th century. So different were O rienta ldesigns and so distant was th eir origin th atthey had a mysterious and exotic allure. Ofpart icular int erest was Chinese lacqu erware, usually chests of many compartme nts,covered with strange scenes and fini shed toperfect ion . Many were imported to Europeand England and put on twi st-turned basesof local origin. Euro pean cabinetmakers anddecorators were soon simulating th e fini shon pieces of th eir own making, a processknown as "japanning." England exper ienced
a great deal of exposure to th e O rienta lwork from Portuguese trade with th e east ,
fro m th e relation th rou gh marriage th atCha rles II had with Portugal, and from th eDutch East India Co mpany by way ofWilliam of Orange. In 1688, Joh n Stalkerand George Parker publ ished their Treatiseof Iapanningand Varnishing, in Oxford ,England , and for a whil e japanneddecoration became a fashionable pursuit ofyoung wome n, not unlike needlework. Itwas all t he rage, mu ch to th e dismay of th eclassicists who were touting th e purity ofclassical architectural design at about th esame time.
In Am erica, japanning first took hold inBoston . Boston experienced th e most rapidgrowt h in th e colonies just before th e sta rtof th e 18th century, and it was hom e to th emost affluent merchants who wanted th enewest London styles. Soon Bostoncabinetmakers and decorators were makingth eir own version of O rienta l lacqu er, andapplying it to th e sta ndard furn it u re forms.Th e first evide nce of japanning being donein Boston was in 1712 and it cont inued tobe fashio nable until th e middle of th ecentury. New York also took up th edecorative treatment, but its accepta nceand du rat ion trail ed th at of Boston byabout a decade. Japanning was not aninexpensive treatment; the time required to
japan a piece could easily exceed th e timerequired to build it. Since it was to beshow n off, it was usually done onimpressive pieces, like high chests or tallcase clocks, th ough some dr essing tablesand lookin g-glass frames were alsojapan ned.
During thi s period about a dozenjapanners worked in Boston; th e bestknown three (Robert Davis, Th om asJohnson and Will iam Randle) were bornand t rained in England . Fewer th an threedozen Boston japanned pieces rema in, twodozen of which are high chests . Th e periodduring which thi s decoration was appliedoverlapped th e William and Mary and
Q uee n Anne eras of design, and examplesof both styles were japanned . Of th e knownjapann ed Boston high chests, seven areWilliam and Mary, and seventeen are
Q uee n Anne.Like Orientallacqu erwork, japanning
cons isted of gold figures and designs inraised relief on a black or mottl edbackgrou nd. Pieces th at were to bejapann ed were built of a hard pine ormapl e, since th e wood wouldn't show. Thejapanner would draw th e design on th e barewood of th e piece and build up th e figures
with gesso, a thick paintl ike mixtu re madefro m whiting and glue . Th e en ti re piecewould be given a base coat of reddish-brownpigment in oil, and wh en th at had dried itwas given a similar coat of black. Wh ile theblack paint was wet , it could be dau bed orbru shed to allow a hint of th e base color toshow th rou gh, giving th e paint th e mottl edeffect of tortoiseshell. Th e figures th at hadbeen raised with gesso were th en gildedeithe r with leaf or gold powd er paint, andadditional detailin g was added over th at inblack. The ent ire piece was given severalcoats of a varnish and rubbed to a glossyfini sh. (For more on th e technique ofjapanning, see Cha pte r 12.)
The many layers of dissimil ar materials,
th eir varyin g degrees of adherence to oneanothe r and th e sometimes brittle qua lityof gesso made japanned decoration verydelicate, and few original pieces havesu rvived with th eir decoration int act .Jap anning is especially int olerant ofext remes of temperature and hu midity, andth e expansion and cont ract ion of th eunderlying wood loosens or cracks th egesso. Eight eenth-eentury hom es offeredpoor conditio ns for th e well-being of
japanned pieces, but modern clim atecont rols can at least prevent furtherdeteriorati on.
Ti lE Q UEEN AN NE S TY LE 57
4O p ulence and Stately Presence
THE CHIPPENDALE
(1760-1785)
STYLE
Refined grace evolved into a stately elega nce with theChippendale-era designs,and the attentionto opulent detail is evident in the side chair in The AmericanSchool, a 1765 oil by Matthew Pratt (1734- 1805).(COURTESY THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART)
58
h e increased st rat ification of th e
American social structure after midcentury led th e wealthy elite to continueth eir quest for elegant sur roundings. Wh athad previously been expressed th roughelegance increasingly became defined withopulence. In an effort to infus e a richnessinto th eir furnishin gs, Americansembraced the English styles propagated byTh omas Chippenda le: Grace gave way tost rength and und erstatement yielded tobold presence.
The Rise of anAmerican AristocracyIn th e absence of inherited titl es and th eEuropean system of class structure, social
status was det ermined prim arily by wealth.The prosperity of th e colonies had enabledth e merchant families to amassconsiderable wealth, and most used it toexpand th eir holdin gs. Th eir earn ingsenabled th em to buy propert y and invest inbu siness ventures th at people of lessermeans were unable to do. In th e 100 yearsbefore th e Revolution, th e most wealthy15%of Bostonians went from owning onehalf of th e city's assessable assets to owning
two-thirds. Th e concent ration of wealth
(and poverty) was prop ort iona l to the sizeof the city. Throughout colonial Am erica,the larger cities had a greater percentage of
their assets under th e control of th ewealthiest few, and they had a largerpercenta ge of poor.
With in th e cities, occupations werenumerous and diverse. Th e Boston tax andprobate records for 1780 show that, amongthose who were taxed, 36%were artisansand 29%were engaged in shipping andt rade. Professional men accounted for 4%,and the rest were laborers, servants, clerksand mar iners. Philadelph ia tax lists for 1769show that at least 25%were art isans,though many more were employed asartisans but d id not have taxable assets .Given th at art isans like tailors, silversmithsand cabinetmakers were th e manu facturersof their day, th ese high numbers are not
sur prising.Social status and class distinct ions
became more pronounced as th e centuryprogressed, and so did th e accompanyingprivileges and t rappings of wealth. Theimage of opulence that surrou nded th eemerging American aristocracy is port rayedin th is descrip tion of Bostonian PeterFaneui l ( 1700- 1743), a very successful
merchant trader and accomplishedsmu ggler:
We see him on Sundays, splendid in hissnuff-brown velvet suit and fullbottomed wig, crossing the st reet fromhis residence to King's Chapel andentering to take his accustomed seat .His mansion he inherited from his uncleAndrew Faneui l, and he livedsumptuously with his Negro slaves, hissilver plate, his coach and chariot, andhis fine English horses. (Just in Weaver,ed., Memorial History of Boston,1880-1 88])
On e can be certain th at Peter Faneuilhad the latest and most fashionablefurniture that could be imported fromLondon or made in the colonies. Hisbelongings, like those of other very wealthy
members of society, were rich and opu lentreflections of his wealth and status.
DESI GN FOR A CA RT OUCHE. HE NR Y CO PEL A N D.
A NEW BOOK OF ORNA ME NTS (LO N DON . 17 4 6) .
The designers of Rococo ornament abandonedBaroque standards of symmetry andorder to createunusual asymmetrical designs using free-flowing scrollsand foliage.(COURTESY THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART)
In England, where a t rue aristocracyexisted, th e need for elegant furn ishingswas stro nger th an ever. Govern menta lpower had increasingly come into the hand sof the third estate (th e merchant orbusiness class) and a powerful andcompetent (though th oroughly corrupt)prime minister who kept England peacefuland prosperou s until th e middle of th ecentury. Free from most of th e unpleasantdetails of ruling, th e nobility concerneditself with architectural pursuits andintellectual discourse, and availed itself
of luxuries and furnishings of th e verybest style.
Origins of theChippendale StyleEnglish Queen Anne fu rn itu re had becom eincreasingly ornate as a result of th e desire
for increased opulence. Th e trend hadreached its zenith with th e designs ofWilliam Kent, whose Italian Baroqueornamentat ion was used to great excess on
the furnitu re of Pallad ian mansions andestate houses. His Palladian style had aninfluence on th e furnitu re of less grandhou ses as well, and lingered th rough the
1740s. By mid-eentur y th e Palladian stylewas yield ing to som ething quite different:th e Rococo.
THE ROCOCOThe Rococo is more a style of ornamentthan a style of fu rn iture design. It is basedon natural forms-foliage, flowers, frui t,shells, st reams of water and waves-arranged
to appear loose, casual and relaxed in form .Baroque ornament used many of the samemot ifs arranged with orde r and symmet ry,but th e most nota ble featu re of the Rococoorna ment was its asymmetry. Scrolling leaffronds and natura l cur ves were arrangedand joined to yield unusual new shapes that
were asymmet rical and lopsided, and lackedth e sta bility of shape of convent ionaldesigns. The inverted pear shape was one ofth ese shapes, and it defied th e usual normsof design by being larger on th e top th an thebottom. Th e looseness of th e ornament andth e peculiar shapes it inspi red were inmarked cont rast to th e orde rly nature ofBaroque design.
Grottoes were a pop ular feature offormal gardens at th e time, and many of th enatu ral elements in Rococo design wereinspired by th eir ornamen t . The wordrococo derives from the French rocaille,meaning rock work, possibly with acont ract ion of coquillage, or shell work. Itwas first used as a pejorat ive term in the late1790s, when designers looked back on th estyle and coined th e term to portray it as anantiquated and overly orna te tr end th atexemplified bad taste. But th e term wasdescriptive, and it eventually lost its badconnotatio n as th e ornament came to bebetter understood and app reciated.
Like most English styles, th e Rococo wastr ansplanted from France, where it hadbeen developing as a form of orna mentsince th e death of Louis XIV in 17 IS. Two
decades previously, th e high standards ofth e Baroqu e were relaxed with the designsof Boulle. This tr end was cont inued byCr essent during th e French Regence, (Theper iod's name comes from th e yearsbetween l7 IS and 172 3, when Phillipe,
T HE C H I P PEN D ALE STY L E 59
CARVED FAUTEUIL .
PARI S. 17 0 0 - 17 2 5 .
The curved lines of theLouis XV style, whichhad been developingsincethe turn of thecentury, became theperfect platform forRococo ornament.(COURTESY THE
METROPOLITANMUSEUM
OF ART)
Duke of O rleans, served as Regent unti lLouis XV reached age 13 and wasconsidered old enough to take the th rone.)Even before the turn of the century theFrench designers had introduced the cyrnashaped leg, but not until the reign of Lou isXV did the flowi ng cur ves thatcharacte rized the French Regence reachth eir fu ll developm ent. The remainingclassical elements of design weresupplanted by und ulati ng curves, swelledshapes and swirling ornament.
Rococo ornament became synonymouswith the Louis XV style, th ough th eextent of its use varied through th e years.It reached its peak during the 173 0sand declined until th e mid -I ? 50s, whenth e Louis XV style faded from fashion.Youn g English noblemen who made th eGrand Tour of European cities as par t ofth eir cultural educat ion were no doubtexposed to th e height of th e Rococo style,but it was not unt il Kent's Palladian style
60 C II A I' T E R F 0 U R
had waned that th e English too k up th enew trend .
O nce again, English furn iture designhad gone complete ly to an ext reme andneeded to be reigned in to something th atwas more comfortable and pract ical. Kent's
designs had become monu menta l andmassive, and were made more for show th anfor use. T he relaxed, delicate and gracefuldesigns of French fu rni tu re th at had beendeveloping in France since 1715 offered arefreshin g change. Th e English began totake up aspects of th e French style in th e1740s, and it remained in vogue th roughth e 1760s. Wh ereas th e French had spentover th ree decades in developing th e style,th e English merely took up th e aspects of itth at th ey liked, especia lly the dynamic andunrest rained nature of Rococo ornament .French Hu guenot goldsmiths who wereworking in England had sta rted to use someRococo ornament during th e 1730s, as didengravers, illustrators and ceramists. Aft er1740, some French orna ment, like carved
ribbons and cabochons, began to be
includ ed in some exist ing forms of Englishfu rni ture , but it was not unt il several designbooks were published th at th e style came toth e fore.
Design books
The ornate and fanciful nature of Rococodesign made design books necessary for th eprop agation of th e style, and th ey werepopular and int eresting as well. Illustratedbooks proliferated during thi s time andcame to be an important part of th e designbusiness from th en on. One of th ese workswas by Matthias Lock, a carver andproponent of th e Rococo in England. Hiswork, A New Book of Ornaments withTwelveLeaves, was published with HenryCo peland in 1752 and presented Rococodesigns of girandoles (elaboratelyorna mented wall-hung mirror frames, oftenwith candleholde rs), some of whichincluded Chinese motifs.
THE ALLURE OF THE ORIENTA travel book had been publi shed in 173 5th at had rekindled Euro pean interest inChina. Europe's fascination withchinoiserie had endu red since th e end ofth e previous century, and upon th erejection of yet another overly orna te style,its simple grace once again beckoned. Th e1757 publication of Sir William Chambers'Designsfor Chinese Buildingsand Furniturekept th e interest alive. The mysterious
allu re and exotic nature of th e Orient werein keeping with th e Rococo in an unusualway. Chinese design elements were admiredin part because th ey were fanciful andwholly foreign to th e English. Th ey evokedimages of stra nge places where th e people,architecture and land scape seemedunworldly.
The proponents of chinoiserie, most ofwhom had never left Euro pe, took th eirown libert ies with O rienta l decora t ion andoffered fanciful interpretations of Chinesedesign. Rococo ornament had noconnect ion with Chinese moti fs, but itappealed to th e same kind of fascinationwith fant astic designs. Th ere were no rulesas to symmetry, balance or stability, and th emost int eresting Rococo designs were th emost fanciful. Both styles broke all theexist ing rules, and neither was confined to a
ADVERSEREACT ION TOTHE CHINESE
TASTE
A ccording to th e presentprevailing whim,
everything is Chinese, or in th eChinese taste; or, as it issometimes more modestlyexpressed, partly after theChinese manner. Chairs, tabl es,chimney-pieces, frames forlooking-glasses, and even ourmost vulgar ut ensils are allreduced to this new-fangled
standard; and without doors ithas spread, th at every gate to acow-yard is in Ts and Zs, andevery hovel for th e cows has bellshanging at th e corne rs." (FromThe World,Lond on, 175 3)
new set of rules. Th e imaginat ive nature ofRococo and chinoiserie could be combinedto represent scenery th at came from purefantasy, and th e stra nger it was, th e better.
GOT HIC R EVI VA LAnoth er style th at emerged at mid-centurywas a Goth ic "revival." It was championedby the author Horace Walpole (1717- 1797),who furnished his entire home in th eGothic style. Walpole had a small followingthat was committed to int rodu cing Gothi celements in architecture and furn ishings.Th eir interest in th e Gothic was spurred byBatty and Thomas Langley's A ncientA rchitectureof 1742. As was th e case withRococo and Chinese designs, th e adhere nceto actual Gothic designs was loose at best .Designers in th e Gothi c style borrowedpointed arches, t refoils, cinquefo ils, tra ceryand cluster columns and worked th em int oexist ing forms whe rever th ey would havethe most dramatic effect. Some of th e mostfashionable houses would later have a
"Gothick" room, but th e tr end never grewmu ch beyond its cult status. As with th eother trends of th e period, it was a fancifu l
int erpretation based on exot ic imagery. Liketh e Rococo and C hinese designs, it evokedan intriguing mood th at was far removedfrom th e designs of classical ant iqu ity. Th emovement did lead to th e literary form ofth e Gothic novel, rep lete with all th epointed arches and du ngeons Got hicenth usiasts had failed to introdu ce intoEnglish manor hou ses.
Thomas ChippendaleT homas Chippendale ( 1718- 1779) iscredited with having combined Frenchstyle, Rococo ornament, Chinese design andth e passing interes t in th e Gothic int o afu rn iture design book that captu red th eimaginat ion of anyone interested in th elatest fashionable styles. That book was TheGentleman and Cabinet-Maker's Director,published in Apri l 1754. Th e Directorushered in a new era in furniture designand forever changed th e way furnituredesigns evolved and were disseminated .
TH E LI F E OF CH I PPENDALELittl e is known of Thomas Chippenda lebefore th e publicat ion of th e Director, but
what is known is quite telling. He was borninto a family of joiners in th e Yorkshiretown of Otley in 1718. Th e next record ofChippenda le does not appea r until 1747; itis an ent ry in an accoun t book noti ng th atChippe nda le had been paid by th e Earl ofBurlington, presumably for sup plyingfu rni ture for one th e Earl's mansions.Traditi on has Chippenda le working at othermanor hou ses (Nostell Priory andHar ewood House), and by 1748 he was inbusiness in Lond on . Over th e next six yearshe moved his business four t imes, on eachoccasion to a more fashionable location,eventually occupying three houses in St.Martin's Lane. Th ere he was in partnershipwit h James Rannie, an esta blishedcabinetmake r and upholsterer.Chippendale's shop was directly acrossfrom Old Slaughter's Coffee House, afavorite gathering spot for enthusiasts of th enew Rococo style, and very near St . Marti n'sLane Academy, where prominent art ists
including William Hogarth taught.Chippe nda le was well posit ioned for th epublication of the Directorin early 1754.Since having been established in Lond on,th e firm had grown cont inually and isknown to have employed at least 22workmen by 1755.
Thomas Chippendale's met eoric rise toprominence and his many moves to moreprestigio us locat ions demonstra te hisint ention to evaluate the needs of th emarket and posit ion his firm to provide forthem. His location in St. Mar tin 's Lane, at
the hear t of th e developing styles, wasvalued at ten ti mes th at of his first Lond onaddress on ly six years earlier. The move toSt. Mar t in's Lane and th e publication of th eDirectorwere each large undertakings, yetth ey were done simultan eous ly. Alth ou ghvirtually nothing is known of his schoolingor early years in th e t rade, his rapid rise tosuccess, his demonst rated business acumenand his ab ility to work for and wit hdemand ing aristocratic patrons all indi catethat he was a man with unusually adroitentrepreneurial skills and an ext raordinarypersonality.
The publication of The Director helped make ThomasChippendalethe best-known cabinetmaker of the era,and he has acquired a legendary (and usually overromanticized) statusas a result.(FROM THE BOOK Of KNOWLEDGE, 1933)
THE C H I P P E N D A L E STYLE 61
THE
Moll: E LEG ANT and USE F U L DES I G N S
GENTLE MAN and CAB 1N ET-MAKER's
Being a large COL L E C T ION of the
C hippendale's skills are legendary, but
alt hough th ere are man y pieces th at havebeen traced to the firm , th ere are none th at
are authe nt icated to him personally. He
was, however, unusually ade pt at gat hering
ta lent aro u nd him, and effect ively
market ing th e except iona l skills of his firmin furnishing th e interiors of th e grand
hou ses of the day, wh ole rooms at a t ime.
oTcERID
THE T H I R D E D I T ION.
In the Moll F AS H I O N AB LET AS T E.
Including a g reat VA Rl ET y of
CABINET-MAKER and UPHOLSTER ER, in sr, Martin's Lane, London.
THE DIR ECTORTh e publi cation of The Gentleman and
Cabinet-Maleer'sDirectorof 1754 was
C hippenda le's most imp or tant
cont ribut ion to furn iture design, but it wasimport ant for more th an th e designs it
contained. Previous to th e Director,architectural gu ide books pro liferated, and
t hey somet imes touched on th e design offurniture, especially when it was designed
to compleme nt th e bui ldings. The Directorwas the fir st guide of its kind toacknowledge th e importance of furni ture
design as a field in itse lf.
Th e Director, as th e first in a long series
of furniture-design books (see Appendix IIon pp . 294-295), also served to popul ar ize
fu rn iture design . A century earlier,
fu rn itu re styles had th eir development andevolut ion wit h in th e cou rt and amo ng its
selected artisan s. Then as th e nob ility took
a greate r interest in th eir hou ses and
furn ishings, they increasingly turned to
outside craftsme n. Commercial cabinet
ma kin g pro liferated , but its direction had
to filt er down fro m cou rt designs. The
revolutionar y idea of publishing designs putth e latest and most desirable styles into the
han ds of anyone who wan ted to bu y th em .The local art isans in outlying areas were
now as aware of th e latest t rends as th ose in
St. Martin's Lane. The styles no longer
spread by word of mouth, sketch or mem ory,so th ey were not subject to changes and
influences in their dissemination. From
th en on, pieces were built more as th eir
origina l designers envisioned th em .C hippenda le's book also served to move
th e aut ho rity in furniture design from th e
Crown to the cabinetmakers. Styles were
now presented by th e leading designers and
makers of th e day, and t he success of each
was determined by the market rat he r th an
S.TNE
FU RNITURE,
CASES, CHINA-SHELVES, and BOOK-SHELVES;CANDLE-STANDS, T ERMSfor BUSTS, STANDSfor CHINA J ARS, and P EDESTALS; C ISTERNSfor W ATER, LA NTHOR NS.and CHANDELIERS;FI RE-SCREENS, BRACKETS, and CLOCK-C ASES ; PI ER-GLASSES, and T ABLE-F RAMES; G IRANDOJ,ES, CHI MNEy-PI ECES, and P ICTUREF RAMES; STo v,, -GRATF.s.B,OARDJ<RS,FRETS,CHI NESE-R AILING, and BRASS-WORK, forFurniture,
o F
CHIPPENDALE,
M
AND 0 THE R
A
T O WH ICH I S PRE FIXED.
NR
By THOMAS
o
HOUSEHOLD
Calculated to improve and refine the prefent T A S T E, and fuited to the Fancy and CircumftancesofPerfons in all Degree. of Life.
W IT H
Proper D IRE CT ION S for executing the molt d ifficul t Pi eces, the Mouldings being exhibitedat large, and the Dimenfion s of each D E S I G N fpecified.
LON DON :Printed for the A UT H 0 R, and fold a t h is H oufe, in St. Martin's Lane;
Alfo by T. B E CK ET and P. A, D E HO NDT, in the Strand.
MDCCLXII.
CHAIRS, SOFAS, BEDS. and COUCHES; CIUNA- :T ABLES, DRE SSI NG-TABLES, SHAVING- 'T ABLES, BASON-STANDS. and T EAKETTLEST ANDS ; FRAMES for MARBLE-SLABS. BuREAU-DRE SSING- TABLES, and COMMODES;WRITING-TABL ES, and LIBRARY-TAB LES;LIBRARy-BOOK-CASES, ORGAN-CASES for iprivate Rooms, or Churche s. D ESKS, and IBooK-CASES; D RESSING and WRIT ING- ,TABL ES with BOOK-CASES, TOIL ETS, CABINETS, and C LOATHS-PRESSES; C HINA-
A Short EXPLANATION of the Five ORDERS of ARCHITECTURE;
The Whole comprehended in Two HUN DR E D Co r r E R-PLAT ES, neatly engraved,
T ITLE PAGE OF THE GENTLEMAN AND CABINET·MAKER 'S DIRECTOR. 3RD ED ,
(LONDON, 1762) .
The first edition of Chippendale's Directorcontained 160 plates illustratinga widevariety of furniture. A second edition was published the followingyear. A third editionconsistingof 200 plates, the title page of which is shown here, was issued between1759 and 1762 in weekly installments and finally as a complete volume.(COURTESY DOVER PUBLICATIONS)
62 C II A I' T E R F 0 U R
DESIGNS FOR TWO CHAIRS . DETAILS OF PLATES XX I AND
XI, CH IPPENDALE 'S DIRECTOR ( LONDON, 17 54) .
Chippendale's Rococo designs were based on French (left) and prevailing Georgian(right) forms with theaddition of Rococo ornament. TheGeorgian forms, with theirdistinctly anglicized version of the Rococo, found wide American acceptance.(COURTESY OOVER PUBLICA nONS)
C hippendale's designsChippen da le's Rococo des igns, which hecalled Frenc h or Modern, have th eir basis inform in French and English furnitu re (seeth e illustr ation s at left) . Those with smoot hflowin g lines are based on French Louis XVdesigns. Others with more rectilinearshapes are based on esta blished Englishdesigns of th e Early Georgian era. Duringth e later part of th e Early Georgian period,many of th e English designs had started toshow an increased delicacy and light ness.Chippendale cont inued th e Early Geo rgianforms, adopted th e French forms, andintegrated int o both a su ita ble amount ofRococo orna me nt to make th em stylish.The result was a distin ctly anglicizedRococo with varying degrees of adherenceto th e original French movem ent.
Chippendale's Chinese furn itu re
imposed geomet ric Chinese fretwo rk andmoti fs on rectil inear European pieces (see
th e illustration below). Th e designsincluded a number of obvious Chineseelements, such as pagoda-shaped roofs anddepictions of fanciful O rienta l scenes, but
by th e whims of the court. Being in more ofa free market, furniture designs becamesubject to refinement through comparisonand competition. Th e Directorwas alsoimportant for th e way it presented a
thorough overview of th e styles. Previousfurniture publications had been little morethan pamphlets and were limited in th eirscope. Th e new designs were shown appli edto a wide variety of furniture form s, and theDirectorgave th e entire line a better sense of
unity than some earlier styles.Often an effort to please everyone
satisfies no one, but such was not th e case
with th e Director. Chippendale includedsomething for everyone, and in a marketlooking for direction, his work was wellreceived and history has proven himsuccessful. Th e Directorwas the onlyauthoritative work on th e three new styles(Rococo, Chinese and Gothic), and itallowed cabinetmakers who were out of th e
mainstream of design to be immediately inth e vanguard . For want of a definitiveexplanation of the new styles, Chippendale'srenderin gs became th e standard.
DESIGN FOR A CH I N A
CASE . DETA IL OF
PLATE CXXXIl .
CHIPPENDAL E'S
DIRECTOR (LO NDON ,
17 5 4 ) ,
Chippendale's designfor a china case in theChinesestyle imposedOriental ornament onrectilinear forms.(COURTESY OOVER
PUBLICATIONS)
THE C H I P P E N D ALE S T Y L E 63
DES IGN FOR A
GOTHI C BOOKCASE ,
DETAI L OF PLATE C ,
CHIPP ENDALE 'S
DIREC TO R, 3RD ED .
(L ON DON , 17 62) .
The design for a Gothicbookcase includes thefull complement ofavailable Gothicornament.(COURTESY OOVER
PUBliCA TlONS)
bore no resemblance to actual Chinesefurn itu re. It was, however, new, differentand mildl y exotic, and fulfilled th e Englishappe tite for C hinese designs.
Th e Goth ic designs are mu ch th e same,but with th e Gothi c lexicon of pointedarches, tr efoils and cinquefoils standing infor all th e Chinese design elements (see th eillustration above). They too were fancifu l,complete ly nonacademic, and bore littlelikeness to actual medieval furniture, butlike th e C hinese furn itu re th ey evoked th efeeling of a distant time and place.Interest ingly, few of th e C hinese or Gothic
designs escaped having at least some FrenchRococo orna mentat ion added.
Th e nature of th e ornament had astrong bearin g on the form of C hippendalepieces. Chippendale's Chinese ornamentwas mostly geomet ric fretwork, and theGothic elements were all derived fromarchitecture. Both types of orna mentrequired st raight, rectilinear forms . Neithertype could be worked int o th e Englishcabrio le leg, so simpl e st raight legs were
64 C II A PT E R F 0 U R
adopted . For example, a C hippenda leChinese chair would have a st raight squareleg with a fretwork pattern cut into itslength, and th e same strai ght leg could havea Gothic fretwork moti f or be carved to astraight bundled column shape. In either
case, a strong geometric style of furnitureform had arisen as a response to the needfor using this type of ornament . Itsrectilin ear forms are in sharp cont rast to th ecurvaceous lines of the French designs.Rococo ornament was perfectly suited forthe French designs, and it was easilyadapted to th e English Georgian designsthat had carried over. Thus th e Chippendalestyle included two completely differen tkinds of forms, but that is just one of thepecu liar cont rasts that chara cterize the era.
Maho gany was th e wood of choice at th ist ime . It was a good medium for carving, andcould be finished to th e desired level ofrichness. Th e leading makers of th e day,Chippenda le's firm and others, went wellbeyond lust rously fini shed mahogany. Manyof th e Chippenda le designs, such asgirandoles, were int end ed to.be gilded. Side
tab les and sets of chairs for th e grandesthouses very often received th e sametreatment. Th e Rococo color scheme called
for pastel colors with gilt ornament, so itwas not un common to find pieces in paleblue or yellow. Chinese designs were oftenpainted in bolder colors; deeper blues andbright reds were in keeping wit h Chineselacquerwork.
C hippendale's firm was one of manythat was cater ing to th e new tastes, andmany of his competito rs were also in St.Martin's Lane. William Vile and his partner
John Cobb operated from 7Z St. Martin'sLane. Vile was a cabinetmaker to th e king,and his pieces are generally regarded asbeing of superior design and more skillfulexecut ion than most . William Halletwas situated next door to Vile, and hispieces were conside red to be th e mostfashionable at th e tim e. In addit ion, th erewere th e well-estab lished cabinetmakers,such as Benjamin Goodison, WilliamBradshaw and Giles Grend ey, amongothers, who had been masters of the EarlyGeorgian period, and who also worked inthe new styles. Chippenda le was one ofmany, bu t th e success of the Directorensured that his nam e wou ld forever beassociated with the style.
The Chippendale Stylein AmericaAmeri can design trends had always run adecade or more behind those of London ,but th e Director and the similar books thatit inspired enabled th e latest Englishdesigns to reach America with out th e usualdelay. While th e American s were st illexploring th e possibiliti es of the Queen
Anne style, most notably th ose thatincluded Georgian architectural elements,th e English had moved into the midGeorg ian phase of anglicized French formswith increasing amounts of Rococoornament . T his movement had started inEngland in th e I740s, a decade before th eDireetorwas published, but it did not havetime to establish itself in America beforeChippendale's book arrived. In England ,th e Directorwas a summat ion of th e tr ends
CHIPPENDALEAND THE LAW
French furni tu re wasconsidered prestigious, and
English cabinetmakers
frequently imported it. To avoidimport duties, they would oftendisassemble it in France and shipit in as "lumber." The alternat ive
was to undervalue th e itemsbeing imported. In 1768,Chippendale shipped a crate offivedozen chairs across th eChannel, and listed th eir valueat £ 18. The customs office rswere suspicious and impoundedthe chairs . In cases like these,the customs service purchasedthe impounded items for10%over their declared value,paid th e duties, and laterresold th e undervalued goodsat a handsome profit , whichthey kept .
Other cabine tmakers,including John Cobb of 72 St.Martin 's Lane, had brushes withthe law for moving things in andout of th e country in diplomaticbags. Cus toms officials madeoccasional raids on cabinetmakers' shops to find illegallyimported goods, and in th e1770s Chippendale was foundto have a large qua ntity of Indianchin tz. Its importation had beenmade illegal to protect Englishman ufacturers. The chintzactua lly belonged to a client, forwho m Chippendale was makin gan "Orienta l" bedroom, but sheblamed him for its seizure andtook th e oppor tunity to crit icizeeverything th e firm had done for
her over the previous six years.
of the day, presented in a clear and concisemanner, bu t in America, th e designs werequite new. Like previous tr ends, it wasaccepted in varying degrees th roughout th ecolonies.
Th e C hippendale style offered th eopulence th at th e upper echelon of th eAmerican market wanted. Their homeswere becoming increasingly palatial, andthey were accusto med to having th e mostfashionable clothing, rich European andOrienta l text iles, delicate C hinese porcelainand sparkling silver and glassware. Th emajest ic appearance of th e new furniture,intricately carved in rich mahogany andfinished to a glossy luster, fit perfectly inth eir world .
Th e Director sold well in Philadel phia,where th e growth rate was so fantastica llyhigh and th e inhabitants were eager to
adopt some defin itive English styles. NewYork was also a good market for th e book.Boston sales were disapp ointing, however.Th e city's growt h rate was flat , and
cabinetmakers th ere had traditionally optedto include new features into exist ingdesigns rather th an takin g up whole newones. Further more, th e orna mentationshown in th e Directorwas not in keepingwith th e restrai ned tastes of most NewEnglanders. Sales in Newpor t were low,since the lead ing cab inetmakers werepurs uing th eir own evolution of design, butth ey did incorporate mu ch of th eChippendale style in th eir work over th enext three decades.
As reflected in th e sales of th e Director,th e Chippendale period marked th egreatest point of divergence in stylebetwee n New England and Philadelph ia. Ingeneral, American tastes rejected most ofth e French designs, th ose of curv ilinearshape inspired by th e Loui s XV style.Americans were already famili ar with th eforms and const ruct ion of th e Georgiandesigns, and th ese became th e basis forAm erican Chippendale furniture.Philadelphia, with its growing wealth andinflux of English immigrants, eagerlyaccepted th e ornamenta l aspects of th eRococo. Philadelphi a pieces embodied th e
stre ngth and presence of th e period and arenoted for exceptio nally well-rende redcarvings, equaling th ose of Lond on in th eir
design and execu tio n. Philadelphiacabinetmaking shops, like those of ThomasTufft (c.1738- 1788), Thomas Affleck(1740-1795), William Savery ( 1720- 1787)
and Benjamin Rand olph (1721 -1791),supplied a wealthy clientele with furniturein th e full spirit of th e C hippendaledesigns. New York furniture followed th esame trend , th ough not to th e same level oforna ment as Philadel phia.
Th e leading Boston cabinetmakers,Benjamin Frothingham Sr. ( 1708- 1765),Benjamin Frothi ngham Jr. (1734-180 9)and George Bright (172 6-180 5), worked in
a more restrained style. Th eir work put anemphasis on st rong stature with lessreliance on Rococo carved orna ment .Philadelphi a-trained Eliphalet C hapin(1741-1 807), working in East Windsor,
Connecticut, combined Philadelphiaproport ion and techniqu e with th e NewEngland taste for restrained ornament inth e tr ad ition of ind epend ent Connecticutcabinetmakers. Newport cabinetmakersJohn Godd ard (1723-1785) and Joh nTownsend ( 1733-1809) cont inued a styleunique to Newport that paralleled th eperiod 's precepts of sta tely furn iture .
Th e C hinese aspects of th e Chippe nda lestyle were of great inte rest to th eAmericans . Not on ly was th ere an ongoingmerchant tr ade with th e Ori ent, but thesimple geomet ry of th e designs alsoappealed to th em for th e same reasons th atth e French designs did not. Th e designswere pure and elegant in th eir simplicityand conveyed just enough of an exoticnature to make th em int erestin g, but notforeign. The Gothic style, which had a smallfollowing in England , was of littl e interestto th e Americans.
As inte rpreted by th e Americans, theChip penda le designs retained most of th eforms of th e previou s era, but with a morestout and solid set of prop ortions. Th e lightand ethereal qualities of Am er ican QueenAnne evolved to have a more robust andmassive app earance, more like th e English
Georgian style. Rococo orna ment wasapplied, but rarely to th e extent that it wasin London . G raceful cu rves with smooth
surfaces and only occasional carving becamerich sur faces resplendent wit h orna te
T HE C H I I' I' END ALE ST Y L E 65
carving. Beauty of line was supplanted byth e intricacy of orna ment. The etherealbecame sta tely,and restraint was abandonedfor presence.
Th e mid-Georgian style of Am ericancase pieces meant that th eir cases weretaller and th eir legs were cor responding lyshorter and stoute r. Chair designs werepattern ed afte r th e Georgian Ch ippendal eforms but with a more restrained use ofornament. Th e simplicity of th e ChineseChippendale chair form was appreciated byth e Americans who adopt ed th e formwithout th e Chinese decorati on in manycases. Very often, only proportion and a fewdecorative details separate one era fromanother in American furniture. A slant-topdesk, for instan ce, built in 1770 may differonly in its more stately proportions fromone built 20 years previously. Similarly, adrop-leaf table built during th e AmericanChippendale era may differ from an earlierone on ly by th e substitut ion of ball andclaw feet and a simplified apron for pad feetand a scrolled apron.
BALL AN D C LAW FEE TIn England, ball and claw feet were used inth e Qu een Anne and Early Georgian styles,spanning th e period from about 1710 to th e1740s, peaking in popularity in th e 1720s.They faded from fashion in th e 1740s asinterest grew in the French Rococo stylewith its scroll or whorl feet. Balland clawfeet were gaining acceptance in America asth ey were falling out of favor in Englandand were first seen in Boston furniture inth e 1730s. Th eir use peaked simultaneouslywith th e Chippendale style and became anintegral part of th e American interpretation .Balland claw feet were not illustrated in th eDirector, yet they were perfectly in keepin gwith Chippenda le-era ideals of grand eur,powerful presence and richly carved detail.
Th e ball and claw motif was of Chineseorigin, exemplifying th e balance betweenth e opposing forces of good and evil asrepresented by a dragon's claw clutchin g apearl. Th e pearl, a perfect sphererepresenting purity, wisdom and truth, isguarded by th e dragon from th e forces of
Ball andclaw feet were first seen on Americanpiecesduringthe 1730s and remained in style through the1770s, their peak of usecoincidingwith the AmericanChippendale period. This example of anopen-talon balland claw foot is byJohn Goddard of Newport.(COURTESY RHODEISLAND HISTORICAL SOCIETY)
(LEFT) DES I GN FD R A CHINE SE CHAI R. DETAIL OF PLATE XXVI I . CHIPPENDA LE 'S
DI RE C TOR ( LON DON 1754).
(RIGHT) SIDE CHAIR . POR T SMO UT H. NEW HAMPSHIRE . 17 6 0-1 79 0 .
The simplicity and rectilinear lines of Chippendale's Chinese designs wereinspirational to thosewhorejected the French forms andthe ornate character ofRococodecoration.(LEFT: COURTESY DOVER PUBLICATIONS: RIGHT: COURTESY THE SOCIETY FOR THE PRESERVATION OF
NEWENGLAND ANTIQUITIES)
66 C H A PT E R FOU R
evil. Th e symbolism appealed to Westerninterest in order, balance and symmetrygrowing from Enlighten ment ideals andexemplified by th e William and Marydesigns. Th e ball and claw had been seen inChinese porcelain imported to Euro pe inth e 16th and 17th centu ries and is knownto have been adopted for use by Lond onsilversmith s as early as 1581.Th e claws th atappear on furniture in both England andAmerica closely resembl e th e raptorial feetof bird s of prey, such as eagles, hawks andfalcons. (The term "eagles foot" iscommo nly used to describe th ese feet inmid-eentury Boston invent ories.) Given th escarcity of dragons, th ere is no doubt th atth e claws were modeled after th ese familiarbirds. A related foot, th e hairy paw, derivesfrom similar mythology. Th ese feet areinspired by lions' paws and are sometimesdepicted in statuary with th e sphere as apowerful protector of integrity.
AmericanChippendale FormsMany of th e Am erican forms of th eChippe ndale era were revisions of earlierGeo rgian pieces, updated to th e lateststa ndards. Others were quite new in formand marked a departure rather th an anevolution from earlier styles. As th e societychanged, some pieces found increasedpopularity, while others fell out of favor.
CHESTSWith sta teliness being of prime importanceto th e ideals of th e era, case pieces andchests were good forms to embody th e newstyle. Th e decorative elem ents th at markedAmerican Chippendale case pieces tend edto be designed int o, rath er th an added on toexisting forms. Qu een Anne case pieces
were generally of plain case construction,with th e ethereal qualities of th e periodconcentrated in long legs, delicate feet andsoaring pedim ents. Th e swelled fronts ofChippendale's French designs inspiredAmerican makers to move away fromstraight fronts and experiment withserpentine, block-front and bombe cases,which will be examined in greater detaillater (see pp . 77-79 ).
Th e cur ved fronts of these piecespreclud ed th e use of overlapping dr awersand necessitated th e use of flu sh-fittingdrawers with surrounding cockbeading(see th e bottom photo at right) . Th ecockbeading, a half-round astragal beadabout I/ S in. wide and protruding about1/ 16 in., was eit her attached to th e edges ofth e inset drawer or cut from th e solid of thecase and drawer divid ers. Different regionsand makers had th eir own preferences.Either way, th e sur rounding cockbeadoutlined th e dr awer and disguised th e spacebetween th e drawer and th e case.
Case pieces in genera l assumed a moresolid appearance and were usually largerth an th eir earlier counte rparts. Stro ng balland claw feet or solid ogee feet testified toth e substant ial nature of th e pieces. Toachieve this look of substa nce, th e makersmade th e pieces look powerful rath er th anheavy. Less formal pieces saw th e change as
CHEST OF DRAWERS , BOSTON . 1750 -1780 .
Case pieces, like this block-front chest of drawers, tookon an air of stately presencein the Chippendale era. A rich and visually interestingsurface, a solid stanceandbold brasses all contribute to theeffect.(COURTESY DALLAS MUSEUM OF ART)
Whencurved casefrontsmade lipped drawersimpractical, smallastraga l moldings calledcockbeads were used tosurround the drawer. Thebead is either cut fromthe caseor attached tothe drawer.
T II E C II I l' l' EN D" L E ST Y L E 67
HIGH CHES T OF DRAWERS .
PHILADELPHIA ,17 5 5 - 17 90 .
Philadelphia cabinetmakers and their clients readilyembraced Rococo ornament and followedclosely theprescripts of Chippendale.(COURTESY YALE UNIVERSITY ART GALLERY)
well, as even simple bracke t feet changedfrom trying to belie mass to sup port ing itwith a more forthrig ht stance.
High chestsHigh chests continued mu ch in the earliertradition but were updated to th e new
style. Th ey evolved to be wider and mo remassive in appearance, wit h less spacebelow th e bottom of th e case. Their legsbecame shorter and more powerful.Pediment tops cont inued in either archedor st raight shapes, but more for grandeu rth an loftiness. High chests did not lendth emselves to shaped fronts, so theyremained flat-fronted, with overlapping
drawers, and relied on Rococo orna mentmore th an other pieces.
68 C I I A I' T E R FO U R
HIGH CHEST OF DRAWERS , NEWPORT, 1760-1785 .
New Englandcabi netmakers adhered to thefundamental importance of form and proportion toachievea statelyappearance, with well-integratedcarved detail remaining secondary in importance.(COURTESY THE NEWPORT HISTORICAL SOCIETY)
More th an any other region, Philadelphi afurniture embodied th e decorative aspectof th e Rococo. T hough st ill restrained byEuropean stan dards, th e flowing carveddetails on th e pediment , cartouche and baseare th e primary decorative elements of th e
massively proport ioned chest shown in thephoto at left above.
New por t cabin etmakers maintained areliance upon the fundamenta l importanceof form and the secondary importan ce oforna ment. Their designs showed littleinfl uen ce of th e Rococo, but th rough bolddesign and well-integrated carved detail sth ey satisfied bot h the ideals of statelypresence and th eir own market 's tastes
(cente r photo above),
HIGH CHEST OF DRAWERS . EAST WINDSOR .
CONNECTICUT,1760- 1790 .
Connecticut's Eliphalet Chapin combined the boldproportions of Philadelphia pieces with the restraineduse of ornament favored in New England.(COURTESY WAOSWORTHATHENEUM. HARTFORD)
Connecticut's Philadelphia-trainedEliphalet Chapin combined th e proport ions and const ruct ion techniques ofPhiladelph ia with th e New Englandpreference for restrained ornament (photoat right above). Th e result was his owndistinctive and original style of AmericanChippenda le design.
Chests-on-chestsChests-on-ehests were the most massive ofcase pieces, having the bases of chests andth e upper cases of high chests (see th ephoto at left on th e facing page), Th ey couldbe bui lt with some of th e cur ved-frontatt ributes that could not be app lied to high
chests with long legs. They were thorou ghlyuseful, being entirely drawers, bu t w~re not
CHEST-ON -CHEST. NEWPORT. 1 760 - 1785 .
Chests-on-chests, such as this one by John Townsend,were amongthe most massive pieces of the era.(COURTESY THE NEWPORT HISTORICAL SOCIETY)
limi ted to use in bedrooms. Pieces w it h t he
stature of chests-on-chests cou ld ju st as
easily have stood in a parlor or drawin g
room as a test am ent to the ow ne r's
refinem ent. Int erest ingly, chests-on-chestshad become a popu lar form in England in
the Early G eorgian per iod , but non e are
shown in C hippenda le's Director.The American ches t-o n-fra me
di sap peared from gene ral use. Its fu nc t ion
was given to eit he r hi gh ches ts o r ot he r case
pieces. Althou gh it had been both usefu l
and popular in the fi rst half of the century,
it was not an ideal form fo r C h ippe ndale
grande ur, and it fel l fro m favor among the
style conscious .
OESK AND BOOKCASE . NEWPORT. 1755- 1790 .
Goddard or Townsend desk and bookcases wentbeyond theirfunctional role to stand as milestones ofachievement indesign and cabinetmaking.(COURTESY YALE UNIVERSITYART GALLERY)
Desks
Desk s and desk-bookcases followed all the
changes that ches ts underwent in ente ri ng
the C h ippe ndale peri od . They too were
somet imes rendered in se rpe nt ine, block
front and bornbe forms and went th rough a
sim ilar in crease in stat ure. As the literal and
figurative cente rs of family busin esses and
fortunes, t hey were su bjec t to the greatest
amou nt of aggra nd ize ment . They also
p resented m an y op portu n it ies for using
co m plex d et ail s since they were so much
m o re in tricate than ot he r pieces. The m aker
of a d esk bo ok case had the chance to
in corporate t he features of bot h ches ts and
h igh ches ts in to the base and top, and t he
oppo rt u n ity to d evelop intricat ely d eta iled
DESK AND BOOKCASE . NEWPORT. 1760-1 785 .
Asevident inanother Newport example, the interior ofthe desk and bookcase is equally impressive. This piecefeatures a blocked set of small drawers in the desk andmovable, shaped vertical partitions in the bookcase.(COURTESYMUSEUM OF ART. RHOOE ISlA NO SCHOOL OF DESIGN)
interiors in both. It is lit tl e won der that
d esk bookcases of the hi gh C h ip pe nd ale
d esign ar e cons idered the apex of 18th
ce ntu ry Am erican furn iture maki ng.
TABLES
The t rend toward more varied for ms in
tables, which had sta rte d at the turn of the
ce nt ury, co nt in ue d unaba ted in to the
C h ippe nda le era. Even w it hi n groups of
tables in tended for specific purposes, suc h
as tea tab les, pop u lar region al sty les added
to t he diversity of design s bein g built.
Tabl es related to d in ing, suc h as side ta b les
T II E C I I I I' I' END ALE S T Y L E 69
DRESSING TA BLE .
EAST WINDSOR .
CONNECTICUT.
C.17 60-1790 .
Dressing tables. like thebases of highchests,developed taller casesand correspondinglyshorter legs in the era ofChippendaledesign.This Connecticutexample is by EliphaletChapin.(COURTESY CONNECTICUT
HISTORICAL SOCIETY,
HARTFORO!
TE A TABLE , NEWPORT, 1763 .
This tea table by John Goddard exemplifies Newport cabinetmakers' interest in usingshape asornament in itself.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR MUSEUM!
70 C H A I' T E R F 0 U R
and dr op-leaf tables of all sizes, proliferatedin th e Chippendale style as dini ng becamean increasingly social act ivity.
Dressing ta bles
Dressing tables and high chests were veryofte n built as mat ched sets, and th e form erfollowed th e evolut ion of th e high chesttoward a tall er case with shorter legs.Dressing tables continued to be flatfronted, with overlapping drawers, andwere ornamented just like th e base of highchests. Th e height of th e case had made th edr essing tabl e more of a case piece by th ispoint, having evolved away from th eoriginal form of a table with drawers sinceth e sta rt of th e century.
Tea ta blesTea drinking cont inued to be th e import antsocial activity th at it had been earlier, andth e evolution of th e tea table progressed .Th e rectangular tea table adopt ed moreRococo features in Philadelphia butcont inued with Baroqu e t rend s innorthern cit ies. Sometimes th e changewas so slight th at it involved subst itutingball and claw feet for slipper or pad feet(see th e ph oto at left) . Two importantsubsets of th e recta ngular tea table are th eChina tabl e and th e turret-top table. Th eirimportance lies in th eir designs more th anth eir popularity , since neith er was madein great number.
China tabl es are tea tables in th e
Chinese manner and were inspired by aplate from th e Director (see th e illustrationand photo on th e facing page). Th ey havest raight molded legs, a shallow apro n and aninset top. Th eir most notabl e features are apierced gallery around th e top, corne rfretwork brackets and decidedly Rocococross st retchers th at sweep upward tosupport a center finial. China tables areassociated with Portsmouth, NewHampshire, and seven examples surv ivefrom th ere. Th eir regional popularity isatt ributed to Robert Har rold , an immigrantEnglish cabinetma ker working inPortsmouth from 1765 to 1792 , whopattern ed th ese afte r English examples.
(LEFT) DESIGN FOR A CHINA TABLE , DETAIL OF PLATE lI , CHIPPENDALE 'S
DIRE CTOR , 3RD ED. (LONDON 176 2) .
( RI GHT) CHINA TA BLE, PORTSMOUTH, NEW HAMPS HIRE . 1765-177 5 .
Chinatables, with fretwork galleriesand reverse curve stretchers meeting in a centralfinial, are a subset of teatables that relate directly to a similar design inChippendale's Director.(LEFT: COURTESY DOVER PUBLICATIONS: RIGHT: COURTESY SMI THSONIAN INSTITUTION)
Th e turret-top tables, of which only sixare known to exist, trace th eir origin to th eBoston area. Whil e they have the spark ofthe American Chippendale style, theirpredomi nant ornament, th e repeated use ofturrets, is essentially Baroque in nature.Th is treatm ent is associated with the corne rturrets of th e early Boston card tables,which were from English examples. Someof th e turret tops have 14 turrets, whi leothers have only 12. Only two are similarenough to have clearly been mad e by thesame hand, and all have varying amounts ofmolding detail and carving. Being so un likeother designs yet so spirited and stately inth eir form , th ey are notable examples of
American design capabilities.
TEA TABLE , BOSTON . 175 0- 177 5 .
Th is example is the most refined of theturret-top teatables, with a small amount of Rococo carving over theknees and a topdished from a single pieceofmahogany.(COURTESY MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON)
T H E C H I P PEN DALE S T Y L E 71
TEA TABLE .
PHILADELPHIA .
1760-1790.
Carved ornament ismasterfully incorporatedin this round tea table inthe pillar and claw form.but the crowningglory isthe bold patter of the'piecrust' top. The topis a single piece ofmahogany, 32 in. indiameter. from which themolded edge has beencarved from the solid.(COURTESY MUSEUM OF ART.
RHODE ISLAND SCHOOL OF
DESIGN)
Pedestal tablesTip-top tables, with tripod pedestal bases,had been a universally popular form, butcame to th eir highest level of developmentin Philadelphia during th e Chippendaleyears. Their legs and pedestals werecarefully carved, and th e legs terminated inample ball and claw feet . One of th eir mostsought-after attr ibutes is a moldedscalloped edge to th e table top , often calleda "piecrust" edge. Like all dished tops of th eperiod, th e center surface of th e tabl e wascut away to leave th e edge molding. Betterexamples are equipped with a "bird-cage"mechanism, which allows th e top to rota teon th e center pedestal and tip up forsto rage. Since th ey were th e focal point ofPhiladelphia tea service, pedestal tabl eswere built and ornamented to th e higheststanda rds of th e day.Smaller pedestal tabl esfor occasional use and for candlestandscontinued in th eir roles.
72 C HA PTE R F O UR
Side tablesSide and pier tabl es progressed indevelopment as homes became larger andmore stylish. Side tables cont inued in th eiruse as secondary serving pieces for dinin grooms , wit h marble tops, or as hall pieces.
Chippenda le presented several plates ofdesigns for slab tables in th e Director.Am erican side tables followed all th e
prevailing convent ions, with an increase incarving and ball and claw feet . Th eir
SLAB TABLE .
PHILADELPHIA.
1750-1780.
Side tables functionedasservingpieces orornamental pier tables.This slab table (withmarble top) is one of apair that weremade tostand in eithera formaldining room or parlor.(COURTESY MUSEUM OF ART.
RHODE ISLAND SCHOOL OF
DESIGN)
greatest change was in adopt ing some of thecurved-front characteristics th at were seenin other pieces, and th ey were often made
-with curved or serpent ine fron ts and tops.
Pier tables are similar, but are intend edto be more ornamental. Of all the forms offurniture, pier tables bear th e closestrelationship to th e development ofarchitecture, as th ey were often situated infron t of th e piers between large windows(hence th e name) or as side pieces in grand
rooms. Wh en architects ventured intofurn iture design, as William Kent had done,
th ey considered the design of pier tableswell within th eir purview.
Ca rd tablesLike tea tabl es, card tables were important
social centerpieces, and th eir developmentfollowed similar lines. Many Philadelphi apieces cont inued th e English form of usingcorner turrets integrated int o cabriole legs(top photo at right) , but northern makerswere dropp ing th e turrets and includi ngmore complex shapes in th eir aprons.Boston and Newport makers employedrecessed shapes, reminiscent of blocking,and New York makers produ ced numerou stab les with serpent ine forms (bottom photo
at right) . On e or both legs were hinged atth e tab le fram e and swung out to supportth e folding top . This design became th enorm after some earlier experimentat ionwith accordion-like leg-exten sionmechanisms. New York tab les frequentl yhad a fifth leg to swing out and support th etop, which folded next to one of th e rearlegs when th e table was closed.
Drop-leaftabl esAmerican drop-leaf tables cont inued mu chas th ey had previously, but with th einclusion of ball and claw feet and stylisticimprovements to th e aprons. Whil e th eywere made with both oval and square tops,some of th e most stately examples of th estyle have square leaves, almost as wide asth e table is high and nearly reaching th efloor when th ey are down . Square tab lescould seat more people, and two could beput togeth er to seat larger part ies.
DINING TABLE . MASSA CHU SETTS . 17 50 · 1780 .
Drop-leaf dining tableswere updated to theChippendale erawith the addition of ball and claw feetand stylistic improvements to theapron.(COURTESY MUSEUM OF ART, RHODE ISLAND SCHOOL OF DESIGN)
CARD TABL E.
PHI LAD EL PHIA ARE A.
1760- 177 0 .
Philadelphia makerswere fond of turretedfrontcorners on theircard tables, an Englishdesign that had inspiredearlier Boston cardtables.(COURTESY YALE UNIVERSITY
ART GALLERY)
CARD TA BLE .
NEW YORK.
1770 -1780 .
New York card tables oftenfeatureserpentine frontsand a fifth fly leg tosupport the open top.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR
MUSEUM)
T il E C 111 1'1' EN D AL E STY L E 73
PEMBROKE TABLE.
NEWPORT. 1760-1780 .
Pembroke or breakfasttables are small dropleaf tables. This exampleby John Townsend is inthe Chinese style andmeasures 331j2in. long.(COURTESY WIN TERTHUR
MUSEUM)
Pem broke tablesThe term "Pembroke" refers to a small tablewit h dro p leaves about 3 ft . across whenopen; it is part icularly descriptive of afamily of small drop-leaf tables of th eChippenda le per iod th at developed at midcentu ry. Th ey were th e cont inuation ofwhat had been called th e breakfast tables ofthe Queen Anne period, but th ey generallyhad a square top, often with a drawer at oneend, cross st retchers between st raight legs,
and hinged supports on th e table frame tohold th e exte nded leaves. Chippendaleillustrated similar tables in both Chineseand French styles, which undoubtedlyinfluenced th e Am ericans. Th e earlier styleof breakfast table, different iated byswinging legs to support th e leaves,continued with th e inclusion of ball andclaw feet and updated details.
SEAT IN G FU RN ITU REChippendale seat ing furniture fell into twotypes: th at which was based on th e EarlyGeorgian use of cabriole legs, and th at ofEuro-Chin ese inspirati on wh ich usedstraight legs. Th ere were also differences inchair form and a fur ther refinement ofupholstered pieces during thi s period.
C ha irsChippendale chairs are fund ament allydifferent in form from th e previous Qu eenAnn e style (see th e drawin g below). Whenviewed from th e side, th eir back legs andstiles were no longer of a reverse curvedcyma shape, but were now one continuouscur ve, arcing from the crest rail, into theseat, and outward to form th e rear leg. Thesplat, which had also been cyma-shaped,was now flat or gently arched with intricatepierced designs. The crest rail, previouslyyoke-shaped to flow smoothly into th evert ical st iles, now merged with th e st iles inupward and outward facing "ears."Th esechanges were all part of th e mid-Georgiandesign changes that precededChippendale's influence but arrived inAmerica with th e Directorand other books.As evidenced in th e Director, mid-Georgianchairs with cabriole legs were built withoutst retchers, but st raight and simple
Queen Anne and Chippendale Chairs Compared
Pierced splat
CHIPPENDALE
Stretcherusuallyomittedwith ball and claw feet
Side stilesand crest railmerge into 'ears.'
Single curve back
Solid splat
Arched crest rail
Cyma-curve back
QUEEN ANNE
74 C H A P T E R FOU R
SI DE CHAIR . NEWPORT. 1765-1790.
Rectilinear chairs. showing the influenceofChippendale's Chinese designs and usually made withsimple stretchers, are an importantsubset of AmericanChippendale design. The formwas extended to includeeasy chairs and sofaswith straight legs and stretchers.(COURTESY THE SOCIETY FOR THE PRESERVA TlON OF NEW
ENGLAND ANTIQUITIES)
st retchers were specified on th ose ofChinese inspirat ion. Th at convent ion was
cont inued in American pieces (see th ephoto at left above).
Th e promin ent design element inChippendale chairs is th e chair back. Thecrest rail and splat design flow togeth er asan integral unit, and th eir designs can oftenbe traced directly to th e designs ofChippendale or Robert Manwaring, whopublished The Cabinet and Chair-Maker'sReal Friend and Companion in 1765. Th escrolled splat shapes are usually of a Rococodesign, but interlaced pointed arches areGothi c in nature , and are perhaps the onlysignificant influence th e Gothic style hadon American pieces (center photo above)Th e elaborate nature of th e carved detail onChippen dale chairs varies regionally, withPhiladelphi a pieces showing th e mostcarving and th e closest adherence to th eLond on designs (photo at right above).
SID E CHAIR . PHILA DEL PHI A. 1760 -178 0 .
The Gothic element of Chippendale's designsmadelittle impact in America, but its influencecan beseenin some chair backs that feature interlacedpointedarches, as in this example byThomas Tufft.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR MUSEUM)
EASY CH AIR . BOSTO N, 17 60 -1 79 0 .
Chippendale easychairschanged little from theirearlier Queen Anne counterparts. with theexception ofdecorative details like ballandclaw feet andcarvedknees. New Yorkand Phi ladelphia easychairs wereoften builtwithout stretchers.(COURTESY THE METROPOLi TAN MUSEUM OF ART)
SIDE CHAIR . PHILADELPHIA . 1755 -1780 .
Philadelphia chairs exhibit the closest adherencetoLondon designs in both form and ornament. Theproportions of this chairare close to those of Englishexamples of theperiod.(COURTESY MUSEUM OF ART. RHODE ISLAND SCHOOL OF DESIGN)
Easy cha irsAlth ough th ere are examples of easy chairsin th e cu rvaceous French style, mostAm erican makers appli ed th e new designelements to exist ing forms. Thi s usuallymeant giving the piece a more majest ic lookby including ball and claw feet andupdat ing th e shape to include a serpent ineback. Stylistically, easy chairs remained verysimilar to th e earlier style. Th e ample andrelaxed posture of the Queen Ann e chairsneeded on ly cosmet ic changes to fit th e
Chippendale ideals. Furthermore, th enature of the piece was influenced by th eup holst ery materia l as mu ch as by itsdesign, and upholstering an easy chair in arich damask accomplished as mu ch for itscharacte r as any redesign.
T HE C H I P P EN 0 A LE ST Y L E 75
SOFA , PHILA DELPHIA . 1765-1780 .
The shapes of the period 's sofasshow less restraint than earlier versions. This example has thestraight moldedlegsandstretchers deriving from theChinese aspect of theChippendale designs.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR MUSEUM)
SofasUpholstered sofas reached a stylistic peakduring th e Chippendale era, and th e mostspectacular came from Philadelphia. Th eywent quite beyond Chippendale'sinspiration to become sculptural works inth eir own right. American designers usedserpent ine fronts and backs and sweepingarm rolls to bui ld an elegant form on whi chto display vast st retches of th e finestimported fabrics. Som e have ball and clawfeet on cabriole legs, and others havest raight molded legs with or without squareblock feet called Marlborough legs. Sofaswere sti ll very expensive, but th ose whocou ld afford th em wanted to be sure th eywou ld be th e focal point of any room. Bythe Chippenda le era, couches, or day beds,had fallen out of fashion in favor of moreluxurious upholste red pieces.
76 C H A P T E R FOUR
TALL· POST BEDSTEAD . PROBAB LY
MASSACHUSE TTS . 1760-1790 .
Most of thedesigns for beds in the Director haveMarlborough legs, but Americans, still fond of ballandclaw feet half a century after they had peaked inEngland, used them into the fourthquarterof thecentury.(COURTESYCOLONIAL WILLIAMSBURG FOUNDATION)
B ED ST EAD SBedsteads became th e subject of renewedinterest dur ing th e Chippendale era. Ashomes became larger and th eir furnishingsmore extensive, bedrooms became moreth an just places to sleep. In th e more eleganthomes of the period, one would read, writ eor take tea or breakfast in one's room, andth e bedstead accordingly became morestylish and less utilitarian .
Chippendale illustrated a number ofbedposts in th e Director th at wereinspirational to American makers in th eirquest for suitable designs. Tall-post bedswith luxuri ous hangings were th e styleof th e day. Most of Chi ppen dale's designshad Marlborough legs, which saw wideaccepta nce through th e second half of thecentury. Ball and claw feet on stout cabrio lelegs were also made in America, but theydid not enjoy th e lasting popularity ofMarlborough legs.
carr ied from one style into th e next. Th erewere th e inevitable improvements injoin ery, such as finer and more delicatedovetails, and greater precision in joints toensure st rength in deli cate members. Th erehad also evolved improved methods ofattaching feet and tops, which, whil e notmajor st ructura l changes, better allowed forth e expansion and cont ract ion of woodwithout sacrificing strength. Th eseimprovem ents were simpl y the naturalprogress of refin em ent in the newlydeveloped meth ods of dovetail -basedconst ruct ion methods.
Decorative ElementsAside from th e decorative elem ents ofcarving, which accounted for th e majorityof the orname nt on Chippendale-era pieces,
more sublime eleme nts were designed int o
th e form of th ese pieces, Of particular noteare th e cur ved-front treatments arisingfrom th e French influence, some of wh ichwere illustrated in th e Director. Th esetreatments include th e serpent ine front,t he block front and th e bombe shape, allof which emphasize th e substa nce ofth e piece.
S ERP ENTIN E F RON TSSerpentine chests have a doub le-reversecu rve-front profil e, convex in th e cente rand concave at eit he r side (see th e photobelow), The style is th orou ghly French,
having come from commo de-bureaus asillustrated in th e Director. Th ere were lim itsto what could be done to stylize a chest ofdr awers, and making a ser pent ine fro nt wasa relatively simple way to give th e piece th eimpa ct that was associated with th e era .Higher-style examples included a carved
DESI GN FOR A DOME BED , DE TA IL OF PLATE XLII I,
CHIPP ENDA LE 'S DIRECTOR (LONDON , 1754) ,
Chippendale 's designs for beds were far too elaboratefor American tastes, but they show the importance ofthe bed and its hangings during the period .(COURTESY OOVER PUBLICATlONS!
Chippendale illustrated 15 elaboratelycanopied beds, ind icating th e importancethat th e bed and its han gings had at th etim e. His more flamboyant designs havecarved and gilded corn ices supported by th epillars, or posts, and for one plate he not esthat th e legs are not intended to be covered.He also notes that th e hangings may be tiedup like a drapery or drawn across on a rod,and one design mentions pu lleys to hoist upth e hangings. It was clear that according toth e tastes of Lond on, th e bed was to bethrone-like in its majesty and to be th ecabinetmaker and upholsterer' s joint tourdeforce.
Chippendale StructureAmerican Chippendale structure was acontinuation of that of th e Qu een Annedesigns. Apart from th eir proportions andorna mentat ion, th e forms were nearlyidentical and th e meth ods of const ruct ion
CHEST OF DRAWERS , MASSACHUSETTS , 1760-1790 .
Serpentinecase fronts added visual impact to pieces that were boxlike and otherwise difficult to ornament.(COURTESYCOLONIAL WILLIAMSBURG FOUNOATlON)
T HE C H I P P E N D A L E S T Y L E 77
BUREAU ·TABLE , NEWPORT, 17B5- 17 9 0 .
This piece by john Townsendexemplifiesthe Newport cabinetmakers' integration of theblock frontwith both form and ornament.
vert ical panel or pilaste r at the outer edgesof th e case, set at a 45 ° angle to the frontand sides . Thi s design, too, was from Frenchexamples, and it exte nded ornament to thesides of th e chest. The angled-eorne r shapewas carried through to th e top and downthrough th e base and feet as well. OtherAme rican pieces have a reverse serpent ineshape, where th e center is concave andeither side is convex. In both cases,American makers cut th e serpent ine drawerfronts fro m solid wood, and they cut acorresponding shape on th e inside to givedrawer fronts a uniform th ickness.
BLOCK FRONTSBlock-front designs differ from serpent inefronts in that their shaping is not acont inuo us flowin g cu rve. O n a typicalblock-front piece, the fron t is d ivided intothree vertical panels, with th e cente r areadepressed and th e oute r two panel s raised
78 C II APT E R F 0 U R
(COURTESY YALE UNIVERSITY ART GALLERY)
about 1/ 2 in. or % in. The earliest datedexample of Am erican block-front furnitureis th e Job Co it desk and bookcase, mad e inBoston and dated 173 8 (see th e photo atleft ). It is thought to have derived fromEnglish and perhaps earlier Dutch orGerman designs, since there are no clearpara llels in French pieces. Th e design has nobasis in th e Rococo and in fact has adistinctly Baroqu e flavor. Th is firstAm erican example predates th e Director by]6 years, making block fron ts, like ball and
DESK AND BOOKCASE , BOSTON , 1738 .
The j ob Coit deskand bookcase is the earliest datedpiece of block-front furniture.(COURTESY WIN TERTHUR MUSEUM)
claw feet, coincidental but importantaspects of th e Am erican style. In th e Coitpiece, th e blocking ends in half-roundshapes on the upper drawer, but extendsdown onto geomet ric bracket feet.
Block fronts were used on desks and
chests all along th e coast from Portsmouthto New York, but no one developed the styleas highly as did th e cabinetmakers ofNewport . Th e Goddards and Townsendsworked sophisticated curved-ray shells (seepp. 164-166) into the upper terminus ofth e blocking and carried it downwardth rough ogee feet to end in t iny scrolledvolutes. Th eir refinement of th e style gave ita permanent place of promi nence infurn iture history, and th eir style wasemulated in other cities. Newport cabinetmakers, however, had an unsurpassed
mastery of th e style, which th ey applied todesks, desk bookcases, chests and bureautables or kneehole desks. Like serpentinefront drawers, block-front drawers are cutfrom th e solid. Th e except ion is th e convexshells, which were usually carved separate lyand applied. Skilled makers would carveth em from th e next board in sequence soth e grain and pattern ing would match th e
drawer front exactly.
BOMBE CASESTh e third decorative shape is th e bombe
family of furniture. Bambi is French for"bulged" or "swelled" and refers to th echests, desks and desk bookcases th at haveth e pear-shaped bul ging lower sides andfronts. Th e most arrest ing examplescombine th e bombe shape with aserpentine front to yield fronts th at curvein all directions.
Th e earliest dated Am erican bornbepiece was bu ilt in 175 3 by BenjaminFrothingham Sr. of Boston, predating th eDirectorby one year. Th e style had come toLond on from France, and at least one piecefrom Lond on was known to have beenimported to Boston . Th e style remainedunique to th e Boston and North Shore areaand was st ill fashionable well int o th e1780s, some two decades after passing outof style in Lond on. Th e French shape asrecorded by Chippendale was more of aninverted pear shape, with th e greatest bul geat th e top of th e case, just th e inverse of th eshape that was popular in Boston . Th elower bulge was an English adapta tion,since no trace of it is to be found on th eEuropean mainland . Am erican makersshaped th e curved sides and drawer frontsfrom th e solid. In Europe, wh ere th ickcabinet-grade wood was scarce, the curveswere built up from pieces of secondarywood, shaped and veneered over.
All three of th ese front profil es seem tohave been ornate enough for th e Americantaste without undue carving or ext raornamentation. As a result, Am ericanexamples with th ese shapes are remarkablyrestrained in th eir orna ment . Where it doesoccur, it is worked into th e design of th e
piece, as are th e Newport cur ved-ray shells,rath er th an added as an afterthought . Th eAm ericans were aware th at excessiveorna men t on such powerful forms ran th erisk of appearing su perficial and coulddiminish th e desired stateliness of th e
Chippenda le style.
HARDWAREAn import ant decorative element for casepieces was th e use of large polished-brasspull plates and escutcheons. Th ey weregenera lly mu ch larger th an th eir Q ueenAnne counterparts and became animportant part of th e opulent look that wasin demand . Sometimes th e brasses werepierced for added effect, and very specialpieces had imp orted ormolu brasses of highRococo design. O n pieces of more ru ralorigin, where earlier styles lingered fordecades, or iginal brasses of a Chippen dalecharacter are sometimes th e key indetermining wh en th e piece was built.Given th e Am erican propensity for lettingone style evolve into th e next , it is oftenth e brasses that defin e a piece, ident ifyingit as having been made in one era whileits overall design is a con tinuat ion ofearlier ones.
CHEST OF DRAWERS .
BOSTON AREA .
1760-1785 .
The bambe form was invogue in Boston from1753 into the 1780s.The curved sides areshaped from the solid. Incombination with aserpentine front, thevisual effect is arresting.(COURTESYMUSEUM OF ART.
RHODE ISLAND SCHOOL OF
DESIGN)
CHEST·ON ·FRAME .
CONNECTICUT RIVER VALLEY. C.1786 .
Historic Deerfield's well-known Mary Hoyte chest-onframe, with its distinctive scalloped top, has many ofthe attributesof a Queen Anne piece. The boldbrasses, which are the full height of the top drawer,indicate a laterdate.(COURTESY HISTORIC DEERFIElD)
TH E C H I P P EN D A L E S TY L E 79
5D esigns for the New Republic
THE FEDERAL PERIOD
h e last third of th e 18th centurywitnessed yet another remarkable change inEuro pean and Am erican furniture design.As had happ ened so often before, a newstyle was emerging th at was th e ant ithesisof its predecessor. Th roughout th e centu ry,the prevailing tastes had swung fromclassicism to th e exotic, and orna ment hadchanged from th e restrained to theout rageous and back again several times.The latest trend was a rejection of th eRococo and a return to designs inspired byth e classic art and architecture of ancientGreece and Rome. In what was later tobe known as th e Federal period, th eNeoclassical influence of G reek andRoman design came to bear on fu rni turedesign as it had in the govern men t of the
new republic.
(1785-1810)
The Neoclassical StyleMost of th e renewed int erest in th e classicalstyle was in response to th e excavat ions ofHerculaneum and Pompeii, which hadstarted in 173 8. Du ring th e 175 0s and1760s, many illust rated books appeared onancient art and artifacts. Rome becam e a
mecca for archeologists and scho lars as wellas for designers and arch itects whoappreciated th e purity of classic design and
80
saw it as an ant idote to th e excesses of th eRococo. Th ere was also a certainromant icism att ached to th e classic designs.Th ey were a reflection of what wasimagined to be a perfect and well-orde redworld, where th e works of ar tisans andarchitects were exalted and exuded th erefin ed simplicity of a harmonious society.At th e same t ime, classic designs appealed
The spa rse orderliness of Neoclassical design pervadedfurniture of the Federal era and alsoextended to thearrangement of pieces within a room . This plate fromHepplewhite's Cabinet-Makerand Upholsterer's Guideof 1788 shows a suggested arrangement andillustratesthe integrationof furniturewith the roomarchitecture.(COURTESY OOVERPUBLICATIONS)
SI DE TAB LE . LONDON . 177 8 .
Thistablehas thedelicate proportions, tapered legs andornament in lowrelief of theAdam style. It was made bytheChippendale firm a year before Chippendale's death.(COURTESY CHRISTOPHERGILBERT ANO ARTLINES [UK) LTO.I
to the European fascinatio n with th eexotic, just as did th e Chinese, Goth ic andRococo styles.
The renewed interest in th e classics firstmanifested itself in th e collect ing of art andantiques. Th e English and Europeanaristocracy collected and disp layed ancientartifacts along with paintings and artwo rkin th eir grand houses. The Grand Tour ofth e cit ies of Europe, including Rom e, wasstill part of the cultural development of th eyoung elite.
ROB ER T A DAMThe one person who was most responsiblefor int rodu cing th e Neoclassical taste toEngland was th e architect Robert Adam( 1728- 1792). Like most inspired youngdesigners, he went to Italy in his midtwenties. Th ere he visited th e ruin s of th ePalace of Diocletian, and prod uceddrawings of the palace in its or iginal
condition. He took exception to th ePalladian trend s in interior design forhaving been adapted from exteriorarchitectural details of Roman temp les.Murals th at had been unearthed in th eexcavations revealed to Adam what heconsidered to be the true forms of classicaldomestic interior decoration, wh ich hedescribed as "all delicacy, gaiety, grace
and beauty."When Adam returned to Lond on in
1758, his firsthand knowledge of th e classicforms made him a rising sta r amongarchitects. At thi s tim e, inte rest in th eRococo was beginning to wane, andNeoclassical tr ends were emerging as th enewest fashion. In 177 3, Adam and hisbrother and partner James began to issue a
series of engravings depictin g some of theirmany designs for bui ldin gs and furnitu re.Thi s folio was ent itled Works illArchitecture,and it firmly established th e Adam broth ersas the author itative voice on Neoclassicaldesign and ornament . As Chippenda le'sbook had done, Works ill A rchitecture helpedspread th e popularity of th e new style.
The Adam style brought new forms offurn iture and new styles of ornament .Rococo, as practiced by the English, usedEarly Georgian and French-inspiredfurni tu re designs as a platform for carved
orna ment. Adam was insistent on usingornament to enhance designs, not tooverpower th em . He realized th at th ebeaut y of design was in its lines, and th atth e lines were not to be obscu red bydecorat ive add itions.
The Ada m styleTh e elements of th e Adam designs forfurniture were clean and simple. Cabriolelegs were generally replaced by slender,st raight tapered legs or st raight legs th atended in plinth feet , such as Marlboroughlegs. Th e swelled shapes of case pieces weresimplified to be semi-eircular or sem ielliptical, and sweeping Rococo aprons werestraightened to more linear shapes.Elaborate moldings were simplified andredu ced in size to give th em a more delicateappea rance. Th e lift and delicacy th at hadonce been associated with th e Queen Annestyle had returned in a very different form.
Th e Adam broth ers also int rodu cedsome new elements into the lexicon offurniture ornament that had been inspiredby ancien t ar tifacts. The most notable ofth ese was th e urn shape. Urns appeared onpedestals as freestanding decorat ive pieces,
as part of side-ta ble sets (as knife cases orwater containers), as fin ials and as appliedcomposit ion ornament . Ovals were also afavorite shape in th e Adam style. T hey wereused for mi rror fram es and chair backs andas inlaid or app lied panel s. Small oval orroun d rosettes, called paterae, were acommon applied decorative element . Th eclassic lyre shape also found its way intodesigns, usually in chair backs. Anoth erelement seen often is th e antliemi on, a st ringof honeysuckle buds arranged in a garland.From ancien t architecture came flu ted legsand friezes, and in keepi ng with th e spiritof the style swags and festoons were added.
While carving was an important part ofth e Rococo style, the clean geometric linesof th e Neoclassical style did not lendth emselves to its use. Carving was notaband oned altogether, but its decorat ive usewas greatly diminished . When it wasemployed, it was used sparingly assupplementa l or app lied orna ment.
Marquetry becam e th e predominantform of su rface decoration . Unlike carving,it allowed th e surface to be orna mentedwithou t interrup ting th e lines of th e piece.
T HE F E D ERA L P E R I 0 [) 81
In orde r to be effective, marquetry requiredth e use of cont rast ing woods, so light woodslike sati nwood, holly and harewood werefavori tes. Inlaid decoration included st ringinlays and cross-banded bord ers, and oval orrou nd cent ral panels with favorite
eoclassical moti fs of urns and flowers.Adam 's own designs for clients sometimescalled for decorative porcelain panels as acentra l orna ment, supplied by suchcraftsmen as Josiah Wedgwood . He alsoused painted panels dep ictin g Neoclassicalscenes, either in soft colors or ellgrisaille,shades of gray. Th ese painted panel s wereused in both his furn itu re and archi tecturaldetails. For th ese, Adam lu red decorativeartists from Swit zerland and Italy to workin Lond on .
Painted orna ment proved to be veryeffective, and its use was expanded toinclude ent irely painted pieces. Mutedsecondary colors were in favor, and pieceswere painted to harmoni ze with Adam'sinterior t reatments. He often called forpainted surfaces to simu late marbl e and
mad e use of scagliola, plasterwork made tosimulate stone, in both furn iture andinteriors.
The shift from carving to twodimensional decoration did not occu rovern ight; neither did th e change fromRococo to Neoclassical design. In his firstfew years in Lond on , Adam 's designs forfurni tu re were very mu ch like th e exist ingmid -Georgian designs of the 1760 s, but
with his own app lication of classicorna ment . As his own style developed andmatured and popular sent iment turnedaway from th e Rococo, th e Neoclassicalelements became more pron ounced. By th eend of th e decade th e transformation wascomplete, and by 177 5, buoyed by th eacclaim th at Works ill A rchitecture hadreceived, Ada m had perfected his style andachieved his desired delicacy of form andrestraint of orna ment.
Th e Adam brothers' designs wererema rkab le in th eir detail, for th ey believedthere was no part of th e interior th at wasbeyond th eir scope. Thi s credo extended todesigning such furni shings as lightingdevices, fireplace equipment , door and
82 C II A I' T E R F I V E
window hard ware, silver tea services andcandlesticks. Th e actual bui ldin g of th eirfurniture designs was cont racted out to th eleadi ng cabinetmakers of th e day,Th omasChippend ale's firm among th em. By th e
end of th e 1760s, th e firm whose nam e hascome to be synonymous wit h th e EnglishRococo, was doing some of its fin est work,bu t in th e Adam style.
Th e tr ansformation from Rococo toNeoclassical design was nearlysimulta neous in France. Th ere, th e Rococohad its detractors all along, but it wasn'tuntil th e 1760s th at th e style wassupplanted by th e Neoclassical. In nearlyevery previous style, English fashion hadfollowed th e French, but th e shift toNeoclassical in both count ries was th eresult of inspiration from Rome. Th at isnot to say th at th e development of th estyle in England and France was totallyind epend ent. England and France shared
many ideas, but neith er country copiedwholesale from th e other's lead . In France
CAR VED BEE CH WOOD
FAUTE UI L .
PAR IS . C.17 ao .
The Louis XVI styleembodiedthe FrenchNeoclassical movementandshared manysimilarities of formandornament with theAdam style.(COURTESY THE
METROPOLI TAN
MUSEUM OF ART)
th e style was known as th e Greek or antiquestyle, but later came to be known as th eLouis XVI style, th ough Louis did not taketh e throne until 1774.
Th e Adam style set th e stage for th e
balance of th e 18th century in Englishfurniture design. Adam had introdu ced th eNeoclassical taste that brou ght about th eend of the Rococo era. Th e famous designerswho followed based much of their work onth e foundation established by Adam, but, ashistory would have it, th eir names would bemore closely associated with th e style.
George HepplewhiteGeo rge Hepplewhite was one of th e manyLondon cabinetmakers who followed th eNeoclassical style as prescribed by Adam.His cabinetmaking shop was one of thosecommissioned by Adam to execute hisdesigns, which is a testament toHepplewhite's talent. Hepplewhite's namemight not have achieved a lastin g place in
DESIGN FOR A
SIDE TABLE , DETAIL
OF PLATE 31,
A. HEPPLEWHITE &
CO .. THE CABINET·
MAKER AND
UPHOLSTERER 'S
GUIDE. 3RD ED ,
(LONDON . 17 9 4) .
Hepplewhite's designsusedthesamegeometric lines asAdam's, but with agreaterpracticality andrestraint of ornament.(COURTESY DOVER
PUBLICAnONS)
fu rnitu re history had his widow notpublished TheCabinet-MakerandUpholsterer's Guide two years after his deathin 1788.
THE G U ID EThe Guide is a volume of over 200 des ignsfor household furn iture . The des igns arethought to be taken from drawings of piecestha t Hepplewhite's firm made over th eyears, and therefore did not present any newdesigns. What th e drawings do represent isan assemblage of popular Neoclassica lforms as they were made in London in the1780s.
As a cabinetmaker and not solely adesigner, Hepplewh ite and his firmpresented a practical version of th e Neoclassical in th e Guide. Adam 's fu rn itu redesigns were for th e great hous es of th enobility, and th eir app earan ce was primaryand th e cost and difficulty of th eirexecution secon dary. While th e Hepplewhite firm built to Adam 's specificatio ns,th ey and othe r cabinetmake rs built forcustomers of lesser means to whom stylewas important , but cost was a facto r. Th eGuide, by illust rat ing practical designs th atcould be built by almost any skilledcabinetmaker, became th e authorita tiveNeoclassical furni tu re-design book.
As had Chippendale's Director, th eGuide served to popularize and disseminatethe new style, but th e two books had manyoth er poin ts in com mo n as well. Neitherbook was a vehicle for int roducing new
designs. Each was a compendium of themost fashionable prevailing Londondesigns, and so both were published withth e hope of finding fashion-starvedcabinetmakers outs ide th e mainstream .Each publication esta blished th e author'sname as synonymo us with th e style, th ou ghin each case th e style predates th e book.Neithe r author was th e leading cabinetmaker of th e day. As with Chippendale,th ere are no pieces know n to be th eperso nal work of George Hepplewh ite,and, st ranger st ill, th ere are no vest iges ofHep plewhitc's bu siness othe r th an th ename on th e G uide and six plates includedin The Cabinet-Maker'sLondon Boole ofPrices, published in 1788.
TH E H EPPL EWHIT E ST YL EHepplewhite's designs are notable for th eirelegant simplicity and clean geometricforms (see th e illustration at left) . Addi nga restrained pract icality to Adam 'sinspirational designs, th ey conti nued theAdam preference for st raight tapered legs,usually squa re in cross sect ion, butsomet imes round . Ofte n th e legs end inspad e feet . Adam 's aim s of lightness and liftwere cont inued by keeping case height sshort and legs long and slende r. Reflectingth e mature Adam style, carved appliedornament was used sparingly and in lowrelief. Th e cur ved fronts of sofas, chairs andsome case pieces were gentle serpent ines,and othe r case pieces continued Adam'spreference for simpl e plan shapes like semicircles and semi-ellipses.
The Guide is surprisingly complete inconveying design and detailing in its plates.Its illustration s are far more lifelike th anth ose of th e Director, and they have th eappearance of having been drawn fromactual examples rather th an from th eimagination . The details of orna ment areprecise and realistic. The chairs and sofasshow a variety of fabric patterns and give asense of th e appropriate plumpness of th eperiod upholstery. The designs th at call fordecorative veneer clearly illust rate th e
marqu etry design, so th e grain d irection ,
DESIGN FOR A
COMMODE . PLATE 7B ,
HEPPLEWHITE 'S
GUIDE.
The Guidewasremarkably complete inshowingdetails ofornament, includingfigured veneer patterns.(COURTESY DOVER
PUBLICATIONS)
T HE FEDERA L P ER I OD 83
DESIGN FOR A SHIELD·BACK CHAIR .
DETAIL OF PLATE 5 . HEPPLEWHITE 'S GUI DE.
The Adam preference for ova l-back chairs hadgivenway to shield-back chairs bythe time the Guide wasfirst published in 1788.(COURTESY OOVERPUBLICATIONS)
string inlays and figure of crotch and swirlveneers are evident. The Guide shows adetailed variety of corn ice and basemoldings, and even includes a room plan
with wall elevat ions to illust rate th e properplacemen t of furniture (see th e illustrat ionon p. 80).
Hepplewh ite's Guide illust rated in partthe evolution of th e Neoclassica l style sinceAdam's introduct ion of it in th e 1760s.Some 20 years had passed between thedisp lacement of the Rococo and th epubl ication of th e Guide. Ada m'spreference for oval chair backs had evolvedinto shield backs, a form ind icative of th eHepp lewhite style. Th e Guide alsoillust rated many squa re-back chairs, with apredominance of horizont al and verticalelemen ts, which were descended fromsome of Adam's "Etr uscan" chai rs. Onefavorite base for chests and desks used agently scrolled apron and ou tward-eurved,tapered French feet . The apron and feet arecon tinuous with the case, often without a
84 C H A PT E R FIVE
molding between. The shape of th e apro nand th e outward bend of th e feet were oneof the last holdovers from th e Louis XV
style, but th e French feet finished off th ebases of case pieces in keeping with th eHeppl ewhite look. Th e Guide includes oneof th e first illustrations of a bow-front chest
of drawers with a simple convex front,showing th e Neoclassical preference forsimple plan shapes applied to a form th athad previously been serpen tine or bornbe,Also shown are some of th e first sideboa rdswith drawers (see the illustration below).Previously, th ey had simply been sideboard
tabl es, but with th e addition of drawersth ey were becoming more like case pieces,
and are shown with shap ed fronts.
Pr act ical conside ra t ionsThe practical Heppl ewhite approach tofu rn iture design sheds light on th e everydayuses of late 18th-eentu ry pieces and showshow th e designs of architects were adap ted
to th e needs of everyday life. According toAdam, no grand house of th e day wouldhave been complete with out a pair ofpedestals and urns on either side of asideboard table. The Guide illustrates andexplains th at one pedestal is designed as aplate-warming cabinet , lined with tin andequ ipped with racks and a heater (see th eillust rat ion at right). Th e other pedesta l
serves as a pot cup board, bu t one hopes it isnot th e same cheerful term used inreference to chamber-pot cupboards. Theurns are describ ed as being knife cases orice-water dispensers.
DESI GN FOR A N URN AND PED ES TA L,
DETAIL OF PLATE 3 6 , HEPPLE WH ITE ' S GUIDE.
Hepplewhite's cabinetmakingexperienceadded apractical dimension to Adam's designs. The Guideillustrated how an ornamental Adarnesque urnandpedestal could double asan ice-water dispenser andplate-warmingcabinet.(COURTESY OOVER PUBLICATIONS)
DESIGN FOR A
SIDEBOAR D, PL ATE 29 .
HEPPLEWH ITE ' S
GUIDE.
The Guide was one ofthe first publications toillustrate thesideboard,a newformfor theperiod. The illustration,including details of bottlecompartments, set thepattern of design forAmerican sideboards.(COURTESY OOVER
PUBLICATlONS)
Sideboards are shown with built-infeatures such as drawer dividers to holdbottles, lined drawers for silverware and adrawer lined with lead and equipped with adrain valveto hold water for washin gglasses. It is noted th at th ey are often madeto fit in a recess. Th e Guidealso pictures alarge num ber of pract ical pieces: dressingtables, shaving stands, night tables and potcabinets, basin stands, bidets andwardrobes, indicatin g th at th e stylishcabinetmaker's work was not rest ricted toflamboyant show pieces. They were, afterall, th e manu facturers of th eir day.
Thomas SheratonThomas Sheraton (1751-1806) is one ofth e more curious characte rs in furniturehistory. He had many interests and ta lentsbut was so unfocused th at he was never verysuccessful at any of th em. At various tim esin his life he was a cabinetmaker, art ist,inventor, author, publisher, teacher, mysticand Baptist preacher, or more often asimultaneous combinat ion of th em all.Trained as a cabinetmaker, Sheraton likelyworked in th e employ of others at first butlooked to cont inue on his own path. It isnot known to what extent he pursuedcabinetmaking, but if it was anything likehis other interests, it was sporadic at best.Th roughout his life he tri ed to make hismark in th e world, but his story is one ofunfulfill ed dreams and unachieved success.
as a means of adverti sing and promoting hiscabinetmaking business, but Heppl ewhitedid not. A firsth and account of Sheraton'ssituat ion is included in th e 1885 MemoirsofAdam Black, who in 1804 came to Londonfrom Scotland lookin g for work. Sheratonpaid him half a guinea to spend a weekcleaning and organizing his disast rouslyuntidy shop. Black describes him as being:
...in an obscu re st reet , his house, halfshop half dwelling house, and lookedhim self like a worn -out Meth odistminis ter, with threadbare black coat .I took tea with th em one afte rnoon.There was a cup and saucer for thehost, another for his wife, and a littleporringer for th eir dau ghter. Th ewife's cup and sauce r were given tome, and she had to put up with alittl e porringer. Miserable as th e paywas, I was half ashamed to take itfrom th e poor man .
Adam Black went on to becom e th epubli sher of th e Encyclopedia Britannica.
Th e Drawing Book sought to enhance th erole of drawing and th e rules of perspectivein guide books, and th e first half does sosplendidly. Th e second half illustratesfu rnitu re designs, showing Sheraton's skillas both a designer and draftsman . Th e
preface is a harangue against th e books th atpreceded it. Sheraton derides th e quality ofdrawings and design in Chippendale andHeppl ewhite's books, among others'. Hiscritical comments cast a pall over th eDrawing Book and suggest th at his owncaust ic and eccent ric personality may havebeen responsible for his failings.
Although Adam is not mentioned, hisNeoclassical designs are th e basis forSheraton's Drawing Book pieces. IfHeppl ewhite represented th e first practicalphase of th e early Neoclassical, Sheratonrepresents th e next phase. Building uponthe Adam esque foundation, Sheraton tookthe new taste to the next level ofrefinement. The similarities between hisdesigns and Hepp lewhite's are many, butSheraton's drawings show more del icacyand a more refined use of orna ment.Sheraton showed more interest in taperedturned legs of slender proportions, whereasHeppl ewhite often used square taperedlegs. Sheraton d ropped most of th e curvedcase fronts and replaced th em withst raighter facades. Wh en he did use curvedsurfaces, th ey were very simple in form, likecylindrical desk lids or library tables withcylindrical ends. Against a backd rop ofmore geomet ric form s, he intermingledsimple but elegantly curved elements inchair backs and bookcase door mulli ons.
TH E D RAWING BOOKBetween 1791 and 1794 Sheratonpublished TheCabinet-MakerandUpholsterer's Drawing Book in four partscontaining a total of 113plates. Anexpanded edition of 122 plates waspublished in 1802, followed by TheCabinetDictionary in 1803. In 1805 he started topublish TheCabinet-Maker, UpholstererandGeneral Artist's Encyclopedia,which was tobe issued in 125 part s. Sheraton died in1806 having completed only 30.
Sheraton is best remembered for th eDrawingBook, but although it wasreprinted in three edit ions, it did not brin ghim financial success. He him self said th atth e expense of publi shing it left him verylittle profit . Chippendale had used his book
DESIGN FOR A PIER
TABL E. DETAIL OF
PLATE 4 . APPENDIX.
THOMA S SHERATON ,
THE CABINET-MA KER
AND UPHOLSTER ER 'S
DRAWIN G BOOK
( LON DON . 17 91-1794) .
This pier table withturned legs showsSheraton 's refined useofornament, includingturnings, and anappreciation for verydelicate proportion.(COURTESY OOVER
PUBLICATlONS)
T II E FE D E RA L I' E R I O D 85
DESIGN FOR A FRONT
L EG OF A DRAWING
ROOM CHA I R.
DETAIL OF PLATE 10 ,
A CCOMPANIMENT,
SHERATON 'S DRAWIN G
BOO K .
Sheraton'scarvingdesigns were delicateenough to embell ish apiecewithout interferingwith the shape of itsform.(COURrESY OOVER
PUBliCA rIONS)
The fine det ail of ornament was integralto th e design of Sheraton pieces. Turningsinherentl y have more visual interest thanflat square legs, and th ey were fu rtherenhanced with straight or spiral reeding orcarved foliage (see th e engraving above). Th eSheraton designs show a renewed int erest inintricate carved and turned detail, most ofwhich had been st ripped away duringHepplewhi te's reign. Sheraton illust ratedth e orna ment in min ut e detail, with th e
idea th at it was to enhance th e form but notoverpower it. Adam had applied ornamentto Neoclassical form s, Hepp lewhite had
86 C I-I APT E R F I V E
replaced it with inlay, and Sheratonsuccessfu lly integrated both carved, inlaidand turn ed decorat ion into th e form.Turnings had not been an imp ortantdecora tive element since th e William and
Mary period.Sheraton's inventiveness is evident in a
number of his designs. One of his ideas forseat ing furniture held heating rods. ASheraton library table converts into librarysteps . His Harlequ in Pembroke Tablefeatured a case of drawers and pigeonholesthat arose from the table top to convert itinto a desk. One design for a circular diningtable had a three-leveled turntable builtinto the center. A chair unfolded to becom ea bed, a precursor of modern convertiblefurniture. His Lady's Wri tin g Table heldcandle holders and doubled as a vanity.With th e release of a catch, a mirror rosefrom th e back of the case, lifted bycounterweights .
Sheraton's designs are classified as eitherearlyor late. The early designs, as exemplifiedin the first editions of the DrawingBook,were Neoclassical in the tradition of RobertAdam . After the turn of the century andwith the publ ication of TheCabinetDictionary, Sheraton was increasinglyinfluenced by th e French Directoire andemerging French Empire styles, and his work
took on a decidedly different, somet imesbizarre flavor. Th e French styles were anoverblown version of the Neoclassical th at
spoke mo re of imperial grandeur th an th eharmonio us ancient societ ies that hadinspired Adam . They includ ed th e use ofcarved lions, sphinxes and griffins, andadop ted Greek and Roman furn iture formssuch as Grecian couches, klismos or saber-legchairs and curuleor cross-base chairs (seeChapter 6). The style foreshadowed theEnglish Regency period th at followed. Thi slast phase is sometimes referred to asSheraton 's decadent period and bears littleresemblance to his early designs.
Upheaval in AmericaTh e American int erpret ation of the Neoclassical style followed the lead of Englandwith some modificat ions and delays. Thelast two decades before the war wereprosperous for Americans, and th eir desire
for th e rich Chippendale designs cont inuedun abated. Whi le English cabinetmakerswere taking up the style of Adam in the1760s, th e Am ericans had just sta rted toexplore th e possibilit ies of th e Chippendaledesigns and were adap ting th em to th eirown markets' preferences. Increasingly badrelations with England and th e popu lardislike for Crown officials and th eir loyalistsupporters cont ributed to a generalAmerican disregard for th e new style.
With th e outbreak of host ilities in ]775,and th e full-fledged war of th e following
years, advancement of furniture stylesstopped. Th e end of the war came in ]78],but it was not until 1784 that th e Definitive
Treaty was signed, recognizing th eindepend ence of th e United States. Afterth e war th e country and its economy werein a precarious state, and in 1784 th ecountry began a slide int o depression.
Needless to say,during the war and th edepression that followed, the decorative artsand furn iture making were in a dorman t
period. Wh at cabinetmaking existedfollowed th e prewar styles, and it likelyinvolved a lot of repair and replacement .Pract ical consideratio ns had taken priorityover fashion, and most t radesman didwhatever th ey could to survive th e hardtim es. Some of th e new Neoclassicalfurni ture had been bu ilt in America beforeth e war, but it was not enough to beconsidered a mainstream style. With newtastes well established in Europe, a newand prom ising govern men t in place inthe United States and an improvingeconomy, th e]79 0s were to be a decadeof profound change.
The Federal EraAs th e United States recovered from thewar and ente red an era of increasedprosperity in th e late ]780 s, it was ready toado pt th e newest fashions in th e decorativearts. Am erican furn iture design hadchanged little since th e late ]750s and sawvirtually no advances th rough th e war years.Th e American gratit ude to th e French didnot extend to a widesp read appreciation forth eir fu rn iture . Alth ough th e United Stateshad fought and won its polit ical indepen
dence from England, it was st ill stylist ically
CH ES T OF DRA WERS . MASSACHUS ETTS OR NE W HAM PSHIRE . 17 9 0-1810 .
Following the Hepplewhite style of design, this chest hasa bowed front, bold marquetry ornament and delicateFrench feet. The smooth surface, light stance and unfettered lines are in marked contrast to theaesthetics ofChippendale-era case pieces, yetthevisual interest of thesurface makes it no less impressive.
linked. Wh at was fashionable in Lond onwas th e Neoclassical, and so it was to bein America.
Because of th e war and th e absence of anauthoritat ive guide book, th e Adam stylewas not taken up in Am erica.There hadbeen some interest in th e Neoclassical tr endbefore th e war, du e to th e influence ofEnglish immi grant craftsmen and th ealliance with France, but it had not gained asignificant footh old. Th e publicat ion ofHepplewhite's Guideand th e London Bookof Prices in 1788 served as effect ive veh iclesfor th e fur ther dissemination of th eNeoclassical style in Am erica. It was just atth at tim e th at th e economy was takin g aturn for th e better and style-starvedcustomers were willing and able to considernew furn iture .
Th e Neoclassical designs fit well withth e new United States. Th ey were a rejectionof th e pond erous English govern ment asmuch as th ey were a rejection of th eponderous Chippendale style. Th e newgovern men t, a democrat ically electedrepresentative republic, owed mu ch of itsinspiration to ancient Greek and Romanexamples. Studies of ancient history andclassic literature were an important part ofa complete education, and furnishin gs th atreflected classic ant iquity were a sign of
refined taste. As when Robert Adamint rodu ced th em to Lond on, Neoclassicaldesigns evoked th e sense of a wellstructured society. Th e parallels betweenth e new republic and th e early Neoclassicaldesigns are responsible for th e name of thi sera in American furnitu re: th e Federal style.
THE FEDE RAL STY LE
Th e Federal style initially followed th edesigns of Hepplewhi te's Guide of 1788.Earlier examples, built from th e experienceof immi grant cabinetmakers, were in asimilar vein. Hepplewhite's designs werebuildable, and th eir clean lines andsimplified orna mentat ion appealed toAmerican tastes. American cabinetmakers
and th eir clients took up th e style wh oleheartedl y, rend ering Chippendale designsobsolete. Th e use of decorative veneers wasa new fashion for Am erican makers whohad been carving ornament for th e previou shalf century. Noneth eless, th ey mastered
(COURTESY WINTERTHUR MUSEUM)
th e art of marquetry and producedstunning examples of Heppl ewhite designs.
The important centers of furnitureproduction changed in th e afte rmath of th eRevolution . Prosperity followed maritimeact ivity after th e war, and wh at hadpreviously been secondary cit ies now rose toprominence. In most cases th e war hadtaken a heavy toll on th e established urbancente rs. Providence surpassed Newp ort inbusiness act ivity, Salem grew as a second aryport to Boston, and Baltimore flourished inth e shadow of Philad elphia. All three ofth ese cities became imp ortant centers ofFederal furn iture making. Baltimore wasparticularly notable for achieving a highlevel of development in th e Heppl ewhitedesigns.
As th ey had done with other styles,th e Americans infused a vita lity into th edesigns and executed th em with adistinctive delicacy and grace. The pareddown Heppl ewhite style quickly became
th e look of th e new country. Th e pieceswere light , clean and sparingly ornamented.Their inlaid designs often featured patri ot icsymbolism or military heraldr y in addit ionto th e classical motifs. Th eir Heppl ewh itelegs were square in sect ion and tapered overth eir length with a thin, delicate
app earance. Cur ved apro ns and frontsfeatured cent ral inlaid ornament or a panelof figured veneer. Str ing inlays varied inpattern, but each was a fine detail used toout line important elemen ts of th e form.Th e Am erican Heppl ewhite style had a
T HE FED ERA L PER I 0 0 87
CHEST OF DR AWE RS .
MASSACHUSETTS OR
NEW HAM PSHI RE .
1810-1820 .
Made in accordancewith Sheraton precepts,this chest has turnedlegs that continue to thetop as reeded cornercolumnsand a semielliptical shape to thefront.(COURTESYWINTERTHUR
MUSEUM)
refined simplicity th at relied on basicshapes of sophist icated proportion. Thedesigns were a pure assem blage of curves,rectangles and st raight tapers, orna me ntedin a way that enhanced th e design withoutinte rfering with th e lines.
Th e des igns of Th om as She ratoninsp ired th e secon d half of th e Fede ralperiod in American furni ture. His earlydesigns, as illustra ted in th e DrawingBook,began to supersede Hepplewhite's as earlyas 1795. The early Shera to n designs weresimi lar in pro port ion to Heppl ewhite's butth ey differed in det ail. Th ere was a logicalevolut ion from one style to th e next . Themost nota ble feature of Am erican Sherato npieces is th e inclusion of turned andtapered legs, ofte n reeded, instead of th etapered squa re legs. Th e Sheraton designsshow a shift away fro m sweeping cu rvedfronts toward more rect ilinear forms. Piecescontinued to be orna mented with figuredveneers and inlays but included finelydeta iled carvings in low relief in th e mannerof Ada m. Th e Sherato n designs rema inedin vogue in America unt il about 1810,and some vestiges of th e style lingered int o
th e 1820s.
88 C H A P T E R FrV E
Federal Furniture FormsAm erican Federal furniture closelyfollowed th e designs of Hepplewhite andSheraton. Unlike previous eras, wh en newdesigns evolved from old, th e Federaldesigns were taken up without delay. Somenotable features of th e new forms ared iscussed below.
CHESTSFederal-era chests of dr awers, or bureaus asth ey were now known, cont inued many ofth e earlier trends for front treatments, butwere updated to Neoclassical sta ndards.C hests with serpentine or bowed front swere in keeping with th e Hepplewhite style.They were fit ted with simplified bracketor French feet (see th e photo on p. 87).Examples in th e Shera ton style featureturned reeded legs, which often extend thefull height of th e case as corner columns .Th e Sheraton designs included semielliptical swelled fronts (see th e photo at
left). In eit her case, th e drawers cont inuedto be flu sh fitting with a surroun dingcockbead. Better chests were embellishedwith a full compleme nt of decorativeveneer. Figured-birch or maple panels inmitered frames of mahogany veneer, andmahogany crotch veneer were favoritechoices, and crossbandings and stri ng inlayswere used on most designs.
Th e functio n of dressing tables, which
had become case pieces, was largelytransferred to bureaus or chests of drawers.Som e chests featured top drawers th at werepartitioned into compar tments, and othersheld mi rrors. A derivative form was th echamber table, a piece with dim ensionssimilar to a bureau, but consisting of two
full-width dr awers in a case sup ported bylong thin legs (photo below). Th e chamber
C HA M B ER TABLE .
P RO B A B LY SALEM .
1805-1815 .
Federal chamber tablesfeaturedtwo full-widthdrawers in a case withlong legs. This piece hasthe heightandwidth of asmall chest, andwas theNeoclassical equivalentof earlier dressingtables.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR
MUSEUM)
SECRETARY AND BOOKCASE , SALE M . 1795-1 804 .
This piece has a secretary drawer, the front of which folds down andpullsout tobecome a writingsurface with a desk interior.When closed, it looks likeanyotherdrawer front.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR MUSEUM)
TAMBOUR DESK . BOSTON . 1795-1810 .
This deskwith tambour doors and fold-out writing surface is attributed to JohnSeymour (c.l738-1818), an English cabinetmaker working in Boston after 1794.(COURTESY MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON)
table had a useful top sur face and twoshallow drawers, but om itted largerclothing storage drawers. Th e form was notun like th e much earlier Jacobean form (see
p. 10). Pieces with specific pur poses, likebasin stands and shaving stands, hadbecome practical necessities decades before,and tables for occasional use abounded. Asa result , d ressing tables, or lowboys, werenot continued into th e Federal era.
High chests suffered th e same fate.Their funct ion was also transferred tochests of drawers or bureaus or, to a lesserextent, chests-on-chests. The form, whichhad been born of Baroque ideals andupdated with Rococo ornament, had beenin use for nearlya century and was notreadily adap table to th e Neoclassical style.
In rooms where a large piece was neededfor visual effect, desk bookcases were th elargest and most highly ornamented piecesin general use, but visually imposing pieceswere not an aim of the period.
DESKSThe Federal era saw important designchanges in desks. Previously, th e sta ndardform for a desk, with or without a bookcase,was th e slant fron t. O ne Federal-era revisionwas th e introduction of a secretary drawer,a false drawer front th at folded down tobecome a horizontal writ ing su rface andexposed an int erior ban k of small d rawersand pigeonholes (see th e photo at leftabove). The secreta ry drawer was th e topdrawer in a case th at was often topped by a
bookcase with glass doors, th emselves aFederal innovation . A gentleman's secretarywas wide r, with cabinet doors flanking th ecen t ral drawers and a correspondingly
wide r bookcase top.A tambour desk, somet imes called a
lady's writing desk, stands on long legs andusually has two fu ll-width drawers (p hotoat right above). T he top folds open ontoslid ing supports (or "lepers") to become th ewrit ing su rface. In th e usual form of th edesk, a low case along th e back conta ins thesmall d rawers and pigeonh oles behindflexib le tambour doors th at slide openhorizontally. A lady's wri tin g table andbookcase subst it utes a taller glass-dooredbookcase for th e tambou r-fronted case.
TH E F E D ER AL P E RI O D 89
CYLINDER DESK AND BOOKCASE . PROBABLY MARYlAND . 1790- 1800
The desk with a rotating cylindrical lid was oneof the novel designs to come fromEnglish designers in the late 18th century. Sheraton was fond of such intriguingmechanisms and presented several in his Drawing Book.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR MUSEUM)
90 C II A I' T E R F I V E
Th e last of th e desk innovations was th ecylinde r desk, a desk of either conventionalcase form or on tall legs, with a cylindricallid that rolled up, over and behind the deskinterior to expose th e writin g surface andcompartm ents (see the photo at left) . Itshould be noted th at these cylindrical lidswere not flexible tambours, but solidcur ved panels. T hey were equipped withpivot mechanisms so th ey rotated smoothlyabout their cent ral axes.
All three of these desk designs wereillustrated in either Hepplewhite's Guide orSheraton's Drawing Book.Some of th eir
designs are qui te fanciful, with spectacu larcomb inations of cabinets, cylinders and
cases. Nonetheless, th ey represented someof th e innovative changes th at furni ture hadundergone in England since before th eRevolut ion.
TABLESTh e Neoclassical t rend toward light andelegant designs was exemplified well by th etable designs of th e period. Tea tables losttheir prominence as a vehicle for th eexpression of good taste, bu t side tables,sideboards and new form s of card tablesrose in importance in displaying th e designphilosophy of th e day.
PEMBROKE TA BL E.
NEW YORK CIT Y. 17 85 -1 80 0 .
This Pembroke table in the Hepplewhite style has anoval top, curved aprons anddrawer front, tapered legsandthe full complement of regional decorative inlay.(COURTESY YALE UNIVERSITY ART GALLERY)
Tea tablesTea tab les perse were conspicuously absentfrom th e Federal fu rni ture forms. Thesocial custom of takin g tea did not hold th esame social importance or requirespecialized furniture as it had before th ewar. [f tea was served in other than th edining room, it would have most likely beenon a Pemb roke table.
Pembroke tables of Hepplewh ite designare oval drop-leaf tables, measu ring about30 in. by 40 in. when open. Th eir standa rdform includes bowed aprons, to follow th e
shape of th e top, a drawer on one end andst raight tapered legs. The leaves are held upby supports th at are hinged to swing outfrom th e fram e. Pembroke tables are usuallytreated to th e full complement of inlay,including inlaid flutes or rosett es on th e topof th e leg and pend ant flowers and st ringinlay down its length. Simpler versions hadsquare tops and frames with tapered legs.Later Sheraton examples were typicallyst raight fronted with turned and reededlegs and had leaves of semi-elliptical shapeor ovolo corners.
Pedestal tablesTripod pedestal tables continued mostly inthe form of small candlestands. Federal
CANDLESTAND , BDSTON OR SALEM . 179 5 - 1810 .
The central turning of this candlestand features theNeoclassical urn motif and all thedelicacy of theFederal era. The oval top has rays of satinwood andmahogany veneer.(COURTESYMUSEUM OF FINE ARTS. BOSTON!
candlestands are noted for th eir delicatecenter turning, which usually includes theclassical urn shape. Early pieces continued
to use the cyma-shaped leg with snake feet ,but more stylish examples reversed th ecur ve and gave it a thin tap ered shape th atmet th e ground at a right angle with spadefeet (photo at left ). Tops were frequentlyoval with a cent ral inlay, but other shapeswere also commo n.
The form of th e pedestal table lent itselfto stylizat ion in th e Federal mode, and awid e variety of int erpretations exist. Largerpedestal tabl es, whi ch had been used as teatables or as occasional pieces, were not inth e vanguard of th e new style, and th eirfun ction was given to Pembroke tabl esamon g th e most style conscious. But th eform had enjoyed wid espread usepreviously,and large pedestal tables,upd ated with urn turnings, were made intoth e Federal era.
Side tablesPier tables, side tabl es and sideboards areclosely related and all saw developm ent inth e Federal era. All developed from earlierside or slab tables, but each becam e distin ctin its form and purpose.
SIDEBOARD .
BOSTON AREA ,
1790-18 10 .
Sideboardswere a newand important form forthe Federal period. Sincethey were focal points informal dining rooms,they were elegantlydecorated with figuredveneers and inlay.(COURTESYDALLAS MUSEUM
OF ART. THE FAITH P. AND
CHARLES 1. BYBEE
COLLECTION, GIFT OF THE
EFFIE AND WOFFORD CAIN
FOUNDATION)
THE FED ERA L I' E R I O D 91
Federal Card-Table Shapes
Semi-circular
Square with ovalo corners
Square with semi-elliptical front
Square with canted corners
92 C II APT E R F I V E
Semi-elliptical
Half-serpentine endswithsemi-elliptical front
Half-serpentine ends with serpentinefront and ovalo corners
Treble elliptical
Pier tables were made to sta nd againstth e narrow pier walls between tallwindows. Th ey were designed to fill the
space, and as such were more orna mentalth an funct ional. Pier tables were made inthe Federal period, but th eir role was
greatly diminished as side boards becameincreasingly important as din ing-roompieces; and card tables, often made in pairs,could serve as ornamental side tab les wh ennot in use.
Side tables are differentiated by beingmore func tional and usually inclu d ingdr awers. As side pieces, th ey often stood as
hall tabl es or secondary dining-room pieces.By thi s time, th e primary side piece in th edining room had becom e th e sideboard.
Sideboards were one of th e mostimporta nt developments of th e Fede ral era.As d ining-room pieces, th ey were secondonly to th e table and chairs. Th ey were usedfor serving and sto rage of silver, linens andliquor, and t rad it ionally have partitions forbottl es in th e lower right drawer followingth e practi ce esta blished by Heppl ewh ite'sdesign in th e Guide (see th e bottomillust ration on p. 84) .
American makers fully embraced th eform and produced masterful examples.As important pieces that were th e focus ofattention , th ey were built with all theorna me nta l inlay of th e day, and withswelled or serpe nt ine fronts. Most sideboards averaged about 5 ft . in length , but
some larger examples are known to haveapproached 8 ft .
Ca rd tabl esCa rd tables reached a peak of refinementdu ring th e Federal period , testi fying to theconti nued popularity of card playing as th e19th century approached . Federal cardtables are noted for their delicateproportions and th eir high level oforna me nta tion. Th ey were designed alsoto serve as at t ractive side pieces whennot in use.
Both Heppl ewhite and Sherato n designsfeature short apro ns on long slende r legs,giving th e tables a distin ctive lift andexceptionally light footprint. Th e apro nshave th e most sophist icated of decorat ive
veneer and inlay, including oval andrectangular panels of figured wood. Popul artop shapes included semi-circular, semi
elliptical, square with ovolo corne rs, andhalf-serpentine ends with a semi-ellipticalfront (see th e drawing on the facing page).As in earlier tab les, th e tops folded in halfonto themselves or opened to be supportedby one or two hinged fly legs.
Sheraton examples differ littl e from th eHepplewhite designs, with th e exception ofth e use of tu rned and reeded legs. Some ofth e better examples of th e Sheraton styleextended th e leg turning all th e way to th eund erside of th e top by using th e legs ashalf columns over th e apron. Th e legs wereintegrated into the aprons th at were halfserpent ine on th e ends, and serpent ine onth e front . Th e top followed th e same shapeand echoed th e profile of th e leg turningwith small ovolo corne rs.
Dining tablesA new form of din ing table developed with
th e Federal period th at solved th e age-oldproblem of providing a solid tab le th atcould be lengthened or shortened as
CARD TABLE . NEW YORK CIT Y. C.180 0 .
This round card table, in the Hepplewhite style withinlaid ova ls andbellflowers, features square taperedlegs extending from a half-round apron . Thefifth flylegis typical of New York card tables.(COURTESYWINTERTHUR MUSEUM)
CARD TABLE .
PROV IDENCE .
18 0 0 - 18 10 .
One of a pair. this cardtablein theSheratonstyle bears the label ofJoseph Rawson andSons. Theturned legsare reeded and continueover the apron as halfcolumns. The front isserpentine and thesidesare half-serpentine. Oneback legswings out tosupport the folding top.(COURTESYRHODE ISLAND
HISTORICAL SOCIUY)
TH E FED ERA L PER I 0 D 93
DIN ING TABLE .
NEWPORT. 17 90 -18 10 .
This Hepplewhite-stylediningtable is in threesections: twohalf-roundends. anda center tablein the familiar drop-leafconfiguration. Thedesignwas flexible insize but solid in use. Theinlaid urns. stringingandpendent bellflowers arerelated to pieces byThomas and SamuelGoddard. sonsof JohnGoddard .(COURTESY RHOOE ISLANO
HISTORICAL SOCIETYI
94 C H A I' T E R F I V E
WORK TABLE.
BOSTON . 1800-1810.
This work table withserpentine sidesandovolo corners is thoughtto have been made inthe Seymour shop. Areading and writingboard ratchets up at anangle from the openedtopdrawer. andtheframe holding thesuspended work bagslides from the rightside.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR
MUSEUM)
needed. Th e new design actually consistedof three separate tables: a tr aditional square
drop- leaf table, and two half-round tab les,each with a single drop-leaf along itsst raight side. On each piece, fly legs swingout to support the leaves. Th e table couldbe assembl ed with any combinat ion ofcomponents and extended leaves. A tabl e of
average leaf width could reach 14 ft. inlengt h. By removing th e center table andusing the two half-round ends with th eir
leaves extended, the length could beshorten ed to 8 ft. Similarly, th e squaredrop-leaf sect ion could be used alone andth e ends could be used as side tables.
Th e best feature of th ese tables is th eirsolid ity. Th e legs are placed along theoutside edge of th e tab le where th e suppor tis needed most . Even a slight amountof "sponginess" can be annoying in adining table, whi ch is a prob lem inherentin later pedestal-base dining tables, but thisFede ral design offered an elegant andflexible solution .
Work tablesThe term "work table" is applied to anumber of small four-legged tables, usuallywith at least one drawer, used for a varietyof purposes during the Federal period.
These tables have a fabric bag suspended
DE SIGN FOR A CHA IR BACK . DETAIL OF PLATE 36 .
PART III . SHERATON 'S DRAWING BOOK.
(COURTESYDOVER PUBLICATlONS)
ARMCHAIR . NORFO LK , VIRGIN IA , 18 0 3 .
While both Hepplewhite and Sheraton showed designsfor square-back chairs, most American makers followedthe more up-ta-date Sheraton designs when thestylecame into vogue. The design of this chair back, like avarietyof American examples, is taken from a plateinSheraton's Drawing Book (at top).(COURTESYDALLAS MUSEUM OF ART. THE FAITH P. AND CHARLES
L. BYBEE COLLECTION, GIFT OF CECIL ANO lOA GREEN)
I IJn cJu.J'
1 I ! 1 II I I I
easy chairs, sofas and a new form called a"lolling" chair, were made to uphold similarFederal-era ideals.
ARMCHAIR , SALEM , 1800 ,
The shield-back chair was illustrated in bothHepplewhite's and Sheraton's books and becamea favoritechair form in the Federal era.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR MUSEUM)
ChairsAmerican chairs of th e Federal periodclosely followed those prescrib ed byHepplewh ite and Sheraton. The fami liarshield back, illustrated in bot h their books ,became a popu lar American form closelyassociated with th e Hepplewhit e era.Square-back chairs, more profusely
illustrated in Sheraton's Drawing Bool;saw increased use aroun d th e tu rn of thecentu ry.
Both types of chairs established a newlevel of delicacy and refinement inornament . Th e backs of both styles were
below the apron in which needlework andsewing projects could be sto red (see th ebottom photo on th e facing page). Th e bagwas attached to the inside of a th in framethat slid out of the table like a shallowdrawer.Tables either with or with out thisfeature served as occasional pieces nearsofas, chairs or beds. Th e form is mosthighly developed in th e Sheraton style, withturned, reeded legs and highly figureddrawer fronts and aprons.
SEATIN G FURNIT UR EChairs of the Federal period required a highlevel of skill on th e part of the cabinetmaker, since delicacy and st rengt h, usuallyexclusive of one another, had to coexist ineach design. Upholste red pieces, such as
TH E F E D ERA L I' E R i o o 95
UPHOLSTERED ARMCHAIR ,
MASSACHUSETTS , 1795-18 10 ,
The upholstered open armchair, called a 'lolling' or'Martha Washington' chair, hasdesign roots in QueenAnne andChippendale examples, but found newimportance in the light anddelicate aesthetic of theFederal period ,(COURTESY MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON)
chairs with upholstered seats and backs,whi ch were somet imes mad e as bedroom ordining chairs, and th e few Chippendaleopen armchairs were th e forebears of th eFederal lolling chairs. Th eir freestandingwooden arms connect with th e front legs byway of a sweeping upright support . Th eyare notable for th eir vertical proportionsand clean lines. Early versions usedst retchers, wh ich were largely dropped afte rth e turn of th e century. Because th ey wereopen and less enveloping th an easy chairs,lolling chairs were favor ite parlor pieces.Their light app earan ce was very mu ch inkeeping with Federal design ideals.
Easy chairs underwent some minorrevisions to bring them up to the samestandards of th e day. In general, th eybecame lighter in app earan ce and morerefin ed as Federal elegance replacedC hippenda le opulence (see the photobelow). In keep ing with th e changing styles,tapered square legs with st raight st retchersreplaced cabr iole legs, as prescrib ed by
Hepplewhite, and later Sheraton versionsused turned and reeded front legs with outst retchers.
Th e first Federal sofas were much liketh e earlier versions, but with th e inclusionof tapered legs. In general, th e moreflamboyant sofa shapes of th e Rococo weretoned down for th e Federal period .Hepplewhite's designs predominated insofas of thi s period. Besides inspirin g th eupd ated version of earlier designs,Heppl ewhite presented what was called inth e trade a cabriole sofa, wherein th e seatwas semi-ellipt ical in plan and th e back wasa gentle arch instead of the familiarserpentine "camel" back. In thi s design th eback cu rves around to become th e side, andth e arm s are light and int egral (see the topphoto on th e facing page). Th e hu ge armrolls of previous styles were at rophi ed orelimina ted.The name of th ese sofas hasnothing to do with th e cabriole leg, but it isa reference to th e French styles from whichth ey derived. In th is general sense, th e termcabriole simply means "cur ved."
composed of exceptiona lly slende rmembe rs, and th eir shallow carved detailwas integral to th eir shapes. O ne has only tolook at an example of a back ornamentedwith swags or plumes to see th at th eelement and its carving are th e same.Tapered square-front legs with inlay ormoldin g were th e norm, and chairs werebuilt with and without st retchers.
Slip seats had passed out of favor, andth e new chairs were designed to beupholste red over th e rail. Round-head brasstacks were frequently arranged along th eseat rails as part of th e design, either in a
st raight line or in a wave pattern followin gth e prevailing swag moti f.
Up ho lste red pieces"Lolling" chairs are dist inctly Ameri canpieces with no clear precedent in either ofthe dominant design books. They have beengiven th e name Martha Washin gton chairsin th e vernacular, but th e origin of th e termis unclear. Th ey are high-back chai rs, withup holste red seats and back, but without th ewings of easy chairs (photo above). Earlier
96 C I I A I'T E R F I V E
EAS Y CHAIR .
NEW ENG LAND .
1790-1 810 .
Easy chairs progressedinto the Federal era withcosmetic changes tokeep them current. Legsbecamestraight or wereturned in Sheratonexamples. This chair hascurved wings or 'cheeks'asshown in the Guide.(COURTESY OALLASMUSEUM
OF ART, THE FAiTH P. AND
CHARLES L. BYBEE
COLLECTION. GIFT OF MRS.
JANE SANFORD BEASLEY)
CABRIOLE SOFA .
BALTIMORE ,
1790- 1800 .
The cabriole sofadiffered from previousstyles inits semiell ipticalseat plan andcontinuous flow of thebackinto thearms.This Baltimore examplein the Hepplewhite stylederives from a design inthe Guide.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR
MUSEUM)
Hcpplcwhite also presented designs for
squa re sofas, with both open and closed
arms (photo below) . Square sofas are highlyrect ilinear in form, with eit her st raight or
slightly cur ved backs and fro nt rails, vert ical
arms and a rectangular seat form . Squaresofas becam e associated with later Sheraton
inspired Federal designs, because th ey
usually have turned and reeded legs th at
extend upward to becom e arm suppor ts.
Another piece of seating furniture
popularized by the Guide was th e window
stoo l, of wh ich Heppl ewhite offered six
designs. Each features a wid e horizontalseat on four slende r legs with scrolled arms
on eithe r end , as shown in the photo at
right below. The seat and arms are
upholstered . The design was directly
inspired by classical forms and fit perfectly
into window recesses. The window seat is
another example of th e Adamesqu e
penchant for designing furniture to
coo rdinate with architectu re.
B EDSTEADSHeppl ewhite and Sheraton illustrated many
beds, and in the European tradition th ey
are largely show pieces for upholsterers.
They do show in detail th e designs for bed
posts, which were som e of the few visible
(I
SQUAR E SOFA. MA SSACH USETT S. 1800- 18 10 .
Square sofas, which are associated with the Sheraton style, frequently featu readecorativelyveneered orcarved panel in the centerof the back rail. The carvi ng onthis exampleis attributed to Samuel Mcintire.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR MUSEUM)
WINDOW SEAT . SALEM . 1795-1800 .
The window seat was a new formof Neoclassical design and was illustrated inHepplewhite's Guide.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR MUSEUM)
T H E F ED ER A L I' E R IO 0 97
TAL L·POS T BED .
PHIL ADEL PH IA, 17 9 0 -1 BOO.
Tall-post beds of this caliber,with high posts and delicatecarving, were the more formalbeds of the Federal period .They usually have straighttesters and sometimes havemolded or carved cornices.(COURTESY WIN TERTHUR MUSEUM)
FI EL D BED .
NEW ENGLAND . 17 9 0-180 0 .
Field beds are based onsmall, portable military fieldbeds and were well liked bySheraton. Their shorterpost height is compensatedfor by either an arched orserpentine tester.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR MUSEUM)
98 C HAP T E R F I V E
part s of th e bed st ructure . Both designersfeatured turned and reeded posts, butHepplewhite tend ed toward square taperedlegs or Marlborough legs below th e rail,whi le Sheraton offered tu rned profiles.
Am erican tall-post beds followed th elead of both designers, and th e sectio nalshape of the foot is often th e only clue as towh ich style was adopted. Federal tall-postbeds fall int o one of two categories: bedswith tall posts (in excess of 6 [t.) withstra ight testers (canopy frames), and fieldbeds with shor ter posts th at necessitatedarched or serpent ine testers. Th e tallerbeds were th e more form al of th e two, andwould have been used in th e mainbedrooms and equip ped with th e best ofbed hangings (top photo at left ). Field beds,inspired by th ose used by milit ary officersin th e field, are shown by both Hepplewh iteand Sheraton (bottom photo at left) ,Sheraton sta tes th at th ey "may beconsidered for domest ic use, and suit forlow rooms, either for servants or children to
sleep upon; and th ey receive th is name anaccou nt of their being similar in size andshape to th ose really used in camps....n Lowpost beds of a less stylish nature continuedto be made as well for the pu rely functionalpurpose of holding a mattress.
Federal Decorat ionand Ornament
Th e primary decorat ive elemen t of Federa lfurniture is marquetr y in th e form ofpanels of fancy veneer or inlaid shells,rosettes, banding or strings, Makingint ricate inlay fro m scratch was not th ekind of work a busy commercia l shopwould have done in th e course of making
furniture, and most urban cabinet makerspurchased their inlay already made. Fromnewspaper adverti sements of th e t ime,some inlay is known to have been importedfrom England, but most cit ies had aresident inlay maker, or "ebeniste," whosupplied th e local cabinet shops. Baltimorehad become one of th e leadin g centers ofFederal furni ture making, and Th omasBarrett was an inlay supplier th ere. His shopinventory of 1800 lists 1,316 "shells forinlaying in fu rniture," priced from 7 to 25
cents each, and 76 yd. of banding, valued at5 to 121/ 2 cents. Th e value of each is evide ntwhen compared to th e prevailing wage of
$1 a day for journeymen cabinetmakers.Barrett 's account books list at least 145cabinetmakers as his custo mers, whichalong with his invent ory, establishes him asa major source for inlay in Baltimore.
Other cit ies had th eir own inlay makerswho supplied the cabinetma king shops. Asa result, each city came to have pattern s anddesigns that were distin ct. In th e absence ofa signature or label, th e patt ern of bandingor inlaid ornament is often th e only featurethat can identify th e origin of a piece. Byth e Federal era, interst ate com merce andth e increased use of guide books had mad efurniture designs more uniform from cityto city. In addit ion, most journeymencabinetmakers were in th e employ oflarger shops, rath er th an working intraditional family bu sinesses. Th ey weremobile and spread styles and meth ods fromplace to place. With imported materials,
uniform designs and a mobile workforce,locally procu red inlay was ofte n th e on lyindigenous aspect of a piece. A comprehensive view of regional variat ions in inlayis presented by Charles F. Montgom ery in
CARD TA BL E.
BO ST ON ARE A.
17 9 0 -1 810 .
This Hepplewhite-stylecard able shows boththe Neoclassical andpatriotic aspects ofFederal inlaid ornarn nt.The detail at far left isfrom the apron ; hedetail at left from thepilaster.( OUR·£ ~ l'ALE t, rv dR n4PT u4 L[HYI
T i l" F F. i) E R ,\ I. I' E R I o Il 99
The use of reeding is associated with the Sheratonstyle in America . The Neoclassical motif derives fromthe Roman fasces, a bundle of rods or arrow shaftssymbolizing power and authority. This detail of aSheratoncard table also includes a flutedsection atthe top of the leg.(PRIVATE COLLECTIONI
A lllerim ll Furniture: The Federal Period(Viking, 1966).
The second impor tant deco rat iveelement in th e federal per iod is th e use ofreeding, a detai l closely associated withShera to n designs. Reeding is a shallowsurfa ce carving th at gives th e appearance ofbundled rods , each convex, as opposed toflu tin g, which is carved concave channels.Reedin g is most often seen on turnedSheraton legs. and it was also used oncurved saber legs in later styles. Reedi ng ispurely Neoclassical in style, and is takenfrom the Roman fasces,a bundle of rods (orarrow shafts) conta ining an ax and bound
100 C H A PT E R F I V E
with a spiraling ribb on . Th e fasces was aceremonial object carried before Romanofficia ls as a symbol of th eir power andauthority. By cont rast, fluting derived fromth e fluted columns of classical architecture,
and had been used in furniture in th eQueen Anne and Chippe nda le periods.Fluting was largely conside red dat ed by th eFederal era.
Federal StructureT he essent ial st ructure of 18th-eentury
furniture had changed little since th eWilliam and Mary period, and it cont inuedwith refinements th rough the Federal era.Over the course of th e centur y, the t rendhad been toward increased de licacy and th eadvancement of form over the limitationsof st ructure. Cabinetmakers continued topush th e mat erial to its limit and tominimize th e number of st ructuralelements necessary for a piece. Co mpare,for example, th e many legs and st retchers ofa William and Mary gate leg table with th e
spartan delicacy of a Sheraton card table.The Federal period was th e peak of thi str end, and th e appearance of pieces seemsunfettered by st ructura l concerns . Thi seffect made th e int egrit y and precision ofth e remaining st ructu re and joinery th at
mu ch more imp ortant.With th e increased use of decorative
veneer and th e importance of th e surface inFederal designs, some minor changesoccu rred in joinery. Exposed joinery orvisible pegs were not to be seen on bett erpieces, so they were either covered oromitted. Case pieces frequently hadveneered fronts, including th e case frontsand drawer divid ers, so th e slid ing dovetailjoinery was covered. Th is tr end had sta rted
in Am erican C hippendale pieces (followin gth e English), where th e front edges of th e
case sides were covered with a thin appliedst rip fro m whi ch th e vertica l cockbead wascut . In mortise-and-tenon joints, where pegscould not be used or hidden , large glued-incorne r blocks were used to help hold th ejoint together. Th e delicate nature ofFederal chairs and card tables mad e glueblocks an important part of th eir originalst ructu re th at should not be overlooked.
The extensive use of veneer prod uced achange in how many individual elementswere made. Rath er th an being made of one
piece of shaped wood, furni ture of theFederal era was more likely to includepanels bu ilt up of pieces and veneered over.Thi s meth od of work had been com mon inEuro pe for years, where cabine t-gradelumber was more scarce and veneering wasextensively pract iced. In th e Federa l era, itwas not uncommon for th e shaped front ofa card table to be glued up from thi n layersof a secondary wood, such as pine, whichwas th en cut to shape and veneered. Bythi s tim e, native wood was no longer inlimitl ess abundance, and more important ,commercial shop s would have found a wayto use what was already in th eir inventories.Laminat ing eliminated th e need to stocklarge-climension secondary wood.Veneer ing panels, such as door panels onsideboards, resolved st ructura l concerns aswell. Doors cut from th e solid are free toexpand, con t ract and warp, so it is com monto find flat and curved doors bu ilt up from
secondary wood as a framed pane l or apanel with "breadboard" ends, which wasth en veneered over. The veneerin g ofsurfaces allowed for an inventive variety ofsubsurfaces, some of which offeredst ructura l improvements while others were
merely for cost-eutti ng reasons.
The Changing Natureof the BusinessOver th e course of th e 18th century,cabinetmaking progressed from a trade to abusiness venture, and th e trend acceleratedafter th e Revolution . Wh ile many shopscont inued to be family owned and may have
employed a few jou rneymen, th e trade tookon a decidedly business-oriented approachin the 1790s. T he war and depression tha tfollowed caused a pent-up demand forfurniture, and the eme rgence of new stylesincreased that demand.
Th e cabine tmaker's shop was not theon ly place to purc hase furniture . Merchan tshad been selling th e ready-made work ofcabinetmakers for most of th e 18th cent ury.
THE TIME REQUIREDTO BUILD PERIOD PIECES
Boston chairs had been sold by merchantsin New York and Philadelph ia in th e firstquarter of th e century, and Newportmakers made pieces for shipm ent tosouthern coasta l cit ies at mid-century,Many cabinetmakers sold th e work ofothers in addit ion to pieces of th eir ownmaking. An example would be a maker ofcase furniture who supplemented hisofferings with looking-glasses or chairs from
other artisans. O fte n th is led th e shopowner to give the cabinetmaking work overto hired journ eymen, while he pursued the
business of buying and selling furni ture.City di rectories show many examples ofcabinetmakers who were later listed asmerchants. Shops that employedjourn eymen cabinetmakers makingfurniture in greater quan t ity and onspeculation came to be known asmanu factories. The term is now obsolete,bu t its roots, meaning "to make by hand,"
are insightful. Wh ere major pieces wereonce mostly buil t to orde r, th ey were nowcommonly available for purchase right offth e floor.
By knowin g the prevailingwages and th e piecework , or
labor price, for furniture, thelength of time required to bu ilda piece can be determined.Around th e turn of th e centu ry,th e wage of a journey mancabinetmaker was about onedollar for an eleven-hour day.Nearly every city had a Book ofPrices to establish agreeable payrates and retail pr ices. Th eent ries in th e next column arefrom th e Philadelphi a and NewYork price books of 1796.
Th is shop st ructure led to a new kind ofrelationship between th e employer and th eemployees. Th e shop owner no longerfunct ioned as th e shop master, and he didnot even need to be a skilled cabinetmaker.Th e journeymen no longer had to befamiliar with every aspect of th e trade, sinceth ey were part of a larger group of morespecialized craftspeople. T he need forincreased quant ity and specialized
cabinetmakers led to shorterapprenticeships, and it was th erefore easierto becom e a journeym an . Th e newrelat ionship put an emphasis on wages,hours, productivity and division ofla bor.Th e cabinetmaking shops in most citiescame to mutual agreem ents concern ingreta il pr ices for goods and set th ejourneyman's wages for th ese pieces. Th efirst such Am erican pr ice book, as th ey
were known , was published in Hart ford in1792 , and othe r cit ies soon followed.Journeymen were paid by th e piece at arate based on the length of time a givenpiece should require to build (see th esidebar below) . It was not unusua l for
Chest,[our drawers,veneereddrawer[routs, cockbeadsurrounds:8 days
Desk, four drawers, veneered[ronts, cockbeaded, ] 112f t. long,fancy interiur: 16days
Dining table, mallOgany:8 days
Pembroke table: ]1/2days
Squarecard table: ] 112days
Circular bureau:91f2days
Cluckcase:8 days
The retail pri ces were set atrou ghly three and a half timesth e labor price, and includedmaterial, overh ead and profit.
cabinetma king sho ps to set pr ices amo ngthem selves to prevent one from undercutt ing th e othe rs. As early as 1756, sixProvidence cabinetma kers had encroac hedon the workings of the free market byfixing their pri ces.
Journeymen someti mes foun dth emselves in adversar ial positions withth eir employers, and as a result t hey band edtogether in "societies" that were in essencelabor unions. In Philadelphia, in 1795, th eFederal Society of Journeymen Ca binet andChair Makers refu sed to work for certai n
employers who did not recognize th eSociety and its rules. T hey also refu sed towork with other journeymen who did notadhere to th e Society 's rules. In Balt imore,th e Society requ ired all cabinetmakers tobecome mem bers within six weeks ofwork ing in that city or pay a fine of twiceth e mem bership du es. In 1796, th ePhiladelph ia Society published a set of newhigher rates th at was rejected by employers.They opened th eir own "ware-room" tod isplay and sell th eir work. Th ey also madean effort to band together with othersocieties of craftspeo ple such as paint ers,pr inters, coopers, carpe nters, tailors, hattersand shoe make rs to present a larger un itedfront. Eventu ally the employers agreed to acost of living allowance tied to living
expenses in addition to a 50% raise for alljourneymen whose work th ey foundaccepta ble. T he strike had been effect ive forth e jou rneym en, who were now guaranteedone dollar a day for working eleven hou rs aday, six days a week, with th e addi tionalst ipulat ion th at th e employers were tosupply th e candles. Sim ilar st rikes occur redin New York in 180 2 and 1803 . T he familycabinetmaking bu siness was not what it had
once been .
(ADAPTED FROM CHARL ES F. MONTGOMERY, AMERICAN FURNITURE: THE FEDERAL PERIOD; NEW YORK, 1966)
T ilE FEDERAL PER I OD 101
6Revisiting Ancient Splendor
AM E RI CAN EMPIRE
h e second phase of the Neoc lassicalmovement shifted away from th e classicallyinspired designs, like those of Adam andthe Louis XVI style, toward a more realist icclassical revival. This phase was a literaladopti on of Greek and Roman design ,wh ere lorm and ornament were copiedwith precision from an tiqu ity. Som e
102
(1810-1830)
historians have described thi s revival ashaving been executed with an archeo logical
zeal, wh ich is a very fitt ing descriptio n ofthe passion with whi ch th e designersapproached th eir work and th e respect th ey!dt for th e designs of th e ancientcivilizat ions. Thi s style of design followedsepara te but closely related path s of
development in England and France, withFrance provid ing most of the initiat ive.
The Greco-Roman RevivalWhile Neoclassicism is sometimesd iscussed in its entire ty, th e d ifferencesbetwee n its early and late phases aresignificant enough to be add ressedseparately. Th e early America n Neoclassical,or Federal period designs, descend ed fromth e work of Robert Adam and th esuccessive English designers who built onhis work (see Chapte r 5). Th e laterNeoclassical, th e Greco-Rom an or Empireperiod in Am erican furn iture, takes itsinspiration from th e Directoire and Empiredes igns of th e French. Both periods haveroots in antiqui ty, but each followed a
different path to become established inAmer ica, and each had dist inct phases ofevolution during its per iod of popularity.
The more literal adoption of Greek and Roman designsandtheir use in theAmerican interior is documented inThe Tea Party, c.l821-1825, byBoston painter HenrySargent (1770-1845).(COURTESY MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS. BOSTON)
FRENCH DI RECTDIR E-
STYLE CHAISE .
PARIS . 1803 .
The French Directoirestyle was the transitionfrom early to lateNeoclassical. This chaisehas early Neoclassicaltapered andflutedlegsand the Empire motifofcarved swans.(COURTESY THE
METROPOLITAN MUSEUM
OF ART)
D IRECTO IREIn France, th e t ransition period from th eLou is XVI designs to th e second phase ofth e Neoclassical was called th e Directoirestyle. After th e French Revolution, th ecount ry's governing body until 1795 wasthe National Convention, followed by th eDirectorate from 1795 to 1799. It is fromthe latt er th at th e name "Directoire" istaken. Th e style was marked by an increasein the archeological authent icity ofNeoclassical pieces. Th e Louis XVI stylebecame more severe and angular andincreasinglysimilar to actual Greek designs.This more spartan and rectilin ear form wasmixed with ornament th at had significanceto the French Revolution , such as th e cap ofLiberty, the Roman fascesand th e t ricolorof the Republic. T he Directoire was in stylein a contin uously evolving form from 1793until about 1804 . At th at tim e, Napoleondropped all pretenses of running a republi cand had himself made th e emperor, makingth e Empire style more or less official.
F RENC H EM P I RETh e French Empire style was largely createdfor th e aggrandizement of Napoleon by histwo official architectural designers, PierreFrancois Leonard Fontaine (1762-1853)and Charles Percier 0 764-1838). Both hadstudied antiquity in Rom e and , afterreturning to Paris, were commissioned toredecorate one of Napo leon's palaces. Theyadhered closely to th e original Greek andRoman forms, and created th e look ofimperial grandeur th at was th e hallmark ofth e Napoleon ic years.
Th e French Empire style was taken fromwhat was th en known of Greek and Romanfurn itu re. Ancient furn iture often had castbronze or iron compo nents, such as tablelegs, pedestal bases, and chai r and stoo lframes. Th ese parts surv ived, as didanything made of marble, such as th ronesor temple pieces. For th e most part , woodenfurn iture and component part s had longsince been lost to th e moist Mediterraneanclimate. Th e missing links th at providedgreat inspiration to th e Empire designerscame from th e Greek and Roman
depictions of furniture in th eir mu rals,ceramics and bas-relief sculptu re. Th eancient scenes showed a limited numberof furniture forms, but Percier andFontaine used th e style to create all th eforms necessary for modern standards ofliving. Percier and Fontaine's designs werepublished in serial form beginning in180! under th e titl e Recueil de Decorationslnterieures, which was issued as a bookin 1812.
Th ere was nothing comfortable orinvit ing about th e French Empire style. Itsgeomet ry was sharp and severe, and itsdecoration was st iff and imperial. Th eEmpire designs were nearly complete lyrecti linear; its form was composed of flatslabs of wood and thick square columns.The pieces could just as well have been cutfrom marble. Th ere was no significant useof marquetry, very few moldin gs, andcarving was seen only on some seat ingfurniture. Chairs, whi ch offered some relieffrom th e severity of other pieces, were inth e Greek klismosor saber-leg design, or th ecu rule or cross-base form . Th e style is notedfor its very st rict symmet ry in both formand orna me nt. Th e preferred material was adark wood like mahogany or knot elm,sta ined to a deep color and finished to ahigh luster.
Th e classically inspired ornamentaldetails of Loui s XV I furnitu re weredropped for anoth er set of classicalorna ments. Wh ere the earlier phase of th eNeoclassical used architectura l details andwell-integrated applied ornament, theEmpire style called for cont rasting appliedornament. Th e primary form of Empiredecoration was th e appli cation of gildedbron ze (ormolu) mounts. The mounts wereshallow reliefs of classical motifs andstylized emblems, including myth ologicalfigures, medallions, foliage and , a favorit e ofth e period, wreath s. Th ese mounts werefinely detailed and quite stunning in th eirgilded finish, to cont rast with th e darksmooth sur face to which they were applied.
Th e French Empire was also noted forthe fanciful creatures that were worked intofurn itu re designs. Gild ed sphinxes, griffins,eagles, swans, dolphins and human busts
A ME R I C A N E M P I R E 103
were integrated into forms as colu mns,
bases and supports. Heads, wings, paws,claws and feet were used in strange
combinat ions with each othe r and as
fu rn itu re compone nts. One example of this
interplay of furniture and body parts is a
colum n motif used in many Empire
designs: A square, tapered wood en colum n
is capped with the gilt bu st of a woman, andthe column base is a pair of gilded human
feet (see the ph oto on p. 107). This them eof fu rn iture transforming in and out of
human and animal shapes throughout its
st ruct u re is essent ial to the Empire style.
Althou gh it is quite st range, it is also very
imag inat ive and alm ost whimsical at times.
The Empire designs were executed in a way
that was very refined . They had the
potential to be grotesque and cou ld haveeasily crossed the line of good taste, but
their makers were so skilled they made the
designs work well.
Empire, like most of the Fren ch styles
th at had preceded it, was a cou rt style that
saw little acceptan ce outside the upper
levels of society. Its imperial nature
prevented it from bein g taken up by the
gene ral public, th ou gh some aspe ct s of itsappearance did ente r the vernacul ar of
fu rn itu re design. The sty le outla stedNapoleon and cont inued under Louis
XVIII , who rul ed from 1814 to 1824 , and
under C harles X, wh ose reign cont inued
until 183 0 . This later pa rt of the Empire
sty le, ofte n call the Restauration, for the
restorati on of th e mon archy, was a moremature version than the earlier style. The
later pieces had lost their initial spirit , and,
as is th e case in the late stages of manysty les, settled into a comforta ble repet it ion .
The designs becam e heavy and more
orname nta l as successive designers added
th eir own tou ches and moved the style away
from its origina l precepts.
Afte r 1830, France was witness to
revivals of Gothic, Renaissance and Loui s
XIV styles, but they were poor imitat ion s atbest . Sequels are rarely as good as the
origina ls, and th ese revivals were
104 C H A P T E R SIX
thoroughly uninspi red and unori ginal. For
all intents and purposes, the end of th eNapoleon ic era marked the end of French
innovati on in furniture design for th e
remainder of the 19th centu ry.
English RegencyThe seco nd phase of the Neoclassicalmovem ent in England is known as the
English Regen cy period . The style came tothe fore in the lat e 1790s and rem ain ed in
vogue until the 1820s. The nam e refers to
the sho rt period from 1811 to 1820 wh en
George, the Prince of Wales, served as
Regent for his fathe r George III. George 1II
had reigned since 1760, but was declared
insane in 1811. Upo n his death in 1820, th e
Prince assu med the thron e as George IV.C red it for the early introduction of the
sty le is given to English architec t HenryHolland (1746-1 806), who brou ght det ails
of the Fren ch Directoire to th e interior
design of hom es of the aristoc racy. Thom as
Sheraton 's publicati ons afte r th e turn of th e
centu ry showed th e sam e cree pinginfluen ce of the French Directoire and
Empire designs on English tastes.
THOMAS HOPE
The Regency sty le was fu rther advanced
an d ultimately defined by Thom as Hope(1769-183]). Hope was from a wealt hy
Dutch family and had traveled extensively
in Europe and the Middle East , collect ingart and antiqui t ies and developing a
passionate interest in the styles an d cus to ms
of the places he visited . Amon g h is fri endswas C harles Percier, designer of th e Empire
sty le. Hope settle d in London in 1799,
bu yin g a hou se built by Adam in the 1760s,
and set abo ut rem od eling the place to hou se
his collect ion and to serve as a showplace for
the new furniture he had been inspired to
design and have built. H is designs were an
eclectic blend of the many sty les he had
seen during his extended Grand Tour. Theyembodie d Greek, Rom an, Turkish and
Egyptian forms and orna me nt combined
into one synt hes ized style.Hope's designs proved to be influential,
and soonpoor copies of his pieces were
being made. For th e sake of his own
reputati on he wanted these cop ies to bet ru e to his origina l int ent , so in 1807 he
published measured drawings of th e pieces
in Household Furniture and InteriorDecoration. His book became the standard
for the new style t hat wou ld later be called
the English Regency.
HousehoLd FurnitureThe designs presented in HouseholdFurn itureare not u nlike those of th e French
Empi re sty le. They are of classical Greek
and Rom an form, and are severe and
rectilinear. This effec t is increased by t he
way they are depicted in the plates of the
book . Each piece is show n in line drawings
in fro nt and side elevat ions, wit hout
perspecti ve. Hope used many of the samedesign elements as th e Frenc h designers:
Sph inxes , griffi ns and winged lions appearofte n, and ind eed it wou ld be ha rd to
differentiate th e two styles at first glance .
T he English designs also show a more
regu lar use of Egyptian elemen ts, which
were added to t he Greek-inspired repertoireaf ter the 180 2 publication of Voyage dansla Basseet la Haute Egypte (Voyage ill Lowerand UpperEgypt). T hat book illust ratednumerou s exa mples of ancient Egyptian artin th e af te rma t h of Napoleon's 1798
campa ign th ere.
Hope's designs are more of an honest
t rib ut e to ancient cu ltures th an a statement
of imperial grandeur. Hope enjoyed
su rro undi ng himself wit h anc ient artifacts
so much th at he devoted three rooms in hishouse to the display of classical vases. His
furnitu re designs were intended to give theaura of antiquity to all t he furnishings in the
hou se. Household Furniturewas intended to
extend it to th e houses of others .
REGENCY STYLE
Like th e French Empire style, t he Regency
called for dark woods, in t his case mahogany
and rosewoo d . T he use of satinwood washeld over from th e earlier phase of the
Neoclassical, but it soon passed out of favor.
Regency designers used bronze mo unts, butwit h more rest rain t than th e French. Their
metalwork was not as carefully detailed as
DESIGNS FOR T WO CHAIRS AND A TRIPOD TAB LE , DETAI LS OF PLATES XX AND XXII . THOM AS HOPE .
HOUS EHOLD FURN ITURE A N D I N TERI OR DE COR ATION (LONDON, 1807) .
Hope's English Regency designs included thecurule or cross-base chair, an armchair with rear saber legs andgriffin arm supports, and a tripod table likesome unearthed at Pompeii.(COURTES Y DOVER PUBLICATIONS!
th e French , and th ey employed a different
lexicon of orna me nt . Am on g th e favorite
English mount designs were wat erleafs,
rosettes, wreaths, fem ale faces and lion
masks. Ca ryat id figu res (female figures used
as colu mns) were also used widely. Lion
masks with ring handles became a sta ndard
eleme nt of th e Regency, as did brass animal
feet or paws with caste rs for use on saber
legs. Brass also came into use as an inlay
int o th e dark wood , both in fretwork
designs and as a st ring inlay. This was a
feature th at Sheraton spoke fondly of in his
later publicati ons. Brass was also used for
attached moldings and pierced galleries.
Another feature of the era was th e use of
fabric as a decorative panel eleme nt . Door s
and panel s were often fitted with silk
cur tains stretched within their frames,
often behind pierced metal fretwork (see
the photo at top on p. 108).
Other works that advan ced the
Regency designs included George Smith's
A Collection of Designs for HouseholdFurnitureand Interior Decoration of 1808
and Rudolph Ackerman's all-enco mpassing
periodi cal, Repositoryof Arts, Literature,Commerce, Manufactures, FashionsandPolitics, which sta rted in 1809 and
continued for anothe r 20 years. Thomas
Chippenda le Jr. also worked in the Regen cy
style, and he is noted for his restrain ed use
of orna me nt and elegant handling of the
style, whi ch some conside r to be t he best
practi cal interpret ati ons of the ideals of
t he peri od .
English Regen cy fu rn iture never
possessed the same sen se of unity or level
of artistic ach ievemen t as Fren ch Empire
designs. Mu ch of the Regen cy style was
borrowed from the Directoire and Empire
designs but with t he addition of m ore
diverse ancient eleme nts . Regen cy designs
did not come from a cent ral sou rce as did
the designs of Percier and Fontaine. Neither
did they serve a unifying purpose as did t he
Empire de signs in providing a stage set for
Napoleon. The Regency was create d in t he
trad e rather than in t he cou rt, and
designer s and builders were free to add
their own influen ces, for bet ter or wors e.
Finally, the English crafts me n did not have
the expe rience or skill in th is kind of design
to make the desi gners' ideas work as we ll as
their Fren ch cou nte rpa rts .
American GrecoRoman RevivalThe Am erican em brace of th e seco nd phase
of the Neoclas sical era permeat ed Ameri can
society and exte nde d well beyon d the rea lm
of furniture and interior design. T he
interest in the new European styles began to
surge after the War of 1812 and was seen in
all manner of popu lar tastes. Arc hitecture
underwent a strong Greco-Roman revival,
and white-eolumned houses and public
buildings came to stand amon g th e earlier
G eorgian bui ldings of every Ameri can town
and city. Paintings of th e per iod dep ict
idylli c Neocla ssical pastoral scenes and
women in Greek-inspired clothing reposing
on Grecian furniture forms . In the
American expansion, many new towns took
t he names of an cient citi es. There was a
civility and sophisticati on in th e lat e
Neoclassical ideals that to Americans was
the proper image to sym bolize the
cont in ued succ ess of their new nation.
The Ameri can Greco-Roman revival
drew upon both the Fren ch and English
des igns. T he pu blicati on s of Sheraton,
Fon taine and Percier, H op e, Smith and
Ackerman were all circu late d in America,
and cabinet makers took up the aspects of
the style that suited their tastes and
appealed to their clients. Their chosen
pieces were bo ld but cert ainly more
restrained t han the imperi al Fren ch designs.
T he Ameri can crafts me n captu red th e
essence of the style without bein g carried
away by its excesses .
EA R LY EM P I RET he Empire style in America tends to be
d ivided into t hree parts, which very loosely
describe its evolut ion during this peri od .
T he early Empire is some t imes called the
late Neocla ssical or Ameri can Directoi re,
A M ER I C A N E M P I R E 105
SCR OL L·BACK S I D E CHAIR , N EW YORK, 1807.
One of a set of ten from the shop of Duncan Phyfe, thisscroll-back chairshows the light and delicate nature ofPhyfe's designs.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR MUSEUM)
TRIPOD CARD TABLE ,
NEW YORK . 1810-1820.
This card table haswaterleaf carvingon thelegin the styleofDuncan Phyfe, whichwas adopted bymanyNew York makers. In thisfamily of tables, amechanism turns theside legs backwa rd asthe supports under thetop areextended to holdthe top when it isopened.(COURTESY YALE UNIVERSITY
ART GALLERY)
106 C H AP T E R S I X
SCROLL - B AC K SI D E CHAIR, NEW YORK. 1810-1820.
The influence of the Greco-Roman revival is evident inthis chair in the klismos or saber-legformwith a lyrebanister.(COURTESY WIN TERTHUR MUSEUM)
and, as in France, it was th e transitionperiod from th e first to th e second phase ofth e Neoclassical, or the transiti on from
Sheraton to Empire as th e dominant style.Thes e designs predate th e War of 1812 andfirst gained popularity in about 1805.Furniture of this era continued in th edelicate spirit of the Federal period butincluded more of th e Greek and Romanforms, most notably th e klismos chair andother pieces, like pedestal tabl es, thatshared th e use of th e saber leg. This erasaw a gradual increase in carving as adecorative element. On Am erican pieces,
waterleaf carving was a favorite treatmentfor th e tops of sweeping saber legs. Th eEnglish Regency designs had limit ed impacton Am erican styles.
Duncan PhyfeSom e of th e finest examples of th e earlyEmpire style were executed by DuncanPhyfe (I 768-1854 ). Phyfe was a Scotti sh
immigrant with American training whoopened a shop in New York City in 1792 .He was a talented designer and craftsman,and his acumen extend ed to th e businessside of th e tr ade as well. At its peak, hismanu factory was considered one of th eprem ier cabinetmaking and upholsteryshops in th e country, employing over 100craftspeople working in every facet of th etr ade. Phyfe was at th e forefront of th edeveloping styles, and was always able tooffer th e most refined int erpretation of th elatest Neoclassical tr end .
Phyfe is best remembered for his work inth e first two decades of th e 19th century.During thi s time, before th e full weight ofth e Empire style had come to bear on th emarket , he produ ced elegant and delicatefurniture th at made use of th e new Greco
Roman forms. His designs had th einspiration of th e Sheraton style, but unlikeSheraton's th ey remained graceful after th elater inclusion of French tastes. Phyte'sdesigns had a decidedly anglicized flavorth at often find s parallels in th e morerestrained examples of th e English Regency.To say that he worked in one style oranother would be incorr ect, since he drew
on many influences to create his ownNeoclassical style. Th e use of th e saber leg
CA RD TA BLE .
NEW YORK. C.1815.
This cardtable isascribedto Lannuier,whointroduced theearlyFrench Empire style toNew York in 1803.(COURTESY THE
METROPOLITAN MUSEUM
OF ART)
in chairs and pedesta l tables, with itsornament of either waterleaf carving orreeding, is so closely associated with himth at furn iture of th at design is popul arlysaid to be in th e Duncan Phyfe style. Th efirm continued in business until hisreti rement in 1847.
AME RICAN EM PIREAmerican Empire refers to th e furnitu rethat has a more direct French Empireinfluence. Th ese designs were made afte rthe War of 1812 until about 1830. Duringthi s phase, American pieces assumed th esolid auste rity th at marked th e Frenchdesigns. American makers took up th e useof bronze mounts and included gildedcarvings to contrast with glossy expanses ofdark wood. Th e ancien t forms of Greciansofasand klismos and curule chairs were attheir peak of American develop men t . T heheight of th e Empire period in furn iturecoincided with th e peak of th e Am ericanobsession wit h th e aesth etic styles of th eancient civilizat ions.
A leadin g figure of th e period wasCharles-Honore Lannui er, a Frenchimmigrant cabinetmaker and ebeniste whobrough t th e best of th e French Empire styleto his pract ice in New York. His presenceestablished a high standard for th e Empirestyle and helped make New York th e
leading center for its dissemi nation inAmerica. Co mi ng from France, Lannuierhad a style th at was very different from thatof Phyfe. Th e true French Empire styledepend ed heavily on carved and gildedacanthus leaves, wreath s and win ged figuresin sup porting roles. His designs were rich,opulent, crisply detailed, deeply carved andbold. O ne of th e nota ble features of his
work is th e calculated balance betweenbright gild ing and ormo lu, and th e deeprichn ess of th e mahogany or rosewood. By
using both in th e proper way, th e qual it iesof each were enhanced.
Am erican Empire designs fro m the peakyears of th e period are bold and excit ing.Th e formality of th e style, with its coldrectilinear features, prevented it fromenjoying a popular usage across all levels ofAm erican society. Th e pieces executed byth e leading cabinetmakers of th e day werefor th e upper stra ta, and th e vast majority ofAm ericans fu rn ished th eir hom es withfurn itu re th at was a con ti nuat ion of anearlier style with Empire-like details, or asimplified version of the Empire designs.Painted or "fancy" furniture was anAm erican interpretation of th e designideals of the per iod, and grew to be a subsetof vernacu lar furniture that enjoyedwid espread popularity. Th ese pieces wereusually painted black or with a verydark brown graining and decorated wit hgold paint, emulat ing th e decorativescheme of ormolu mou nt s on dark wood.Late Sheraton and early Empire formswere cont inued, wit h painted decorationbeing su bstituted for the earlier use of inlayand veneer.
L AT E EM PIRELate Empire describes th e period of 1830 to1840, a decade th at saw a degradat ion ofth e Empire style into a coarser, massproduced version . The Late Empire piecesbear littl e resemblance to th e original
PIER TABL E,
18 10- 1 8 2 5 .
The influence of theFrench Empire appearedwith increasingfrequency in fashionablefurniture after theWar of1812. As was typica l ofthe period, this piecehas darkexpanses ofmahogany veneer withcontrastingbrightormolu mounts.(COURTESY HENRYFORO
MUSEUM AND GREENFIELD
VILLAGE)
A M E R I C AN E M P I R E 107
SEC RETARY · B0 0 KC AS E.
NEW YORK . C.18 25.
This imposing Empirepiece stands nearly8Yz ft. high. Theornament on thisexample includes gildedandpainted carving andstenciled gold designs,all of whichcametosupersede ormolumounts.(COURTESY THE
METROPOLITAN MUSEUM
OF ART)
SOFA . NEW YORK.
1820-1830 .
The Empire style broughtsofaswith wonderfullyscrolled arms andpowerful carved feet.This style and Greciancouches with onescrolled arm were invogue for most of thesecond quarter of thecentury.(COURTESY YALE UNI VERSI TY
ART GALLERY)
108 C H A P T E R S IX
French designs. Many concessions weremad e to manufacturing at thi s time, andth e style assumed a heavy, ponderous anduninspired appearance. Produ ctionmethods made furniture in thi s styleavailable to a large number of people, and itbecame th e main stream Empire furnitureth at most Am ericans could own. In its finalform, Empire furn iture was characterize dby large expanses of mahogany or rosewoodveneered su rfaces, th e use of th ick sidecolumns, th ick lyre or scrolled elements,and frequent use of wide ogee or gentlyrounded, pu lvinated molding profiles.Ormolu mounts were phased out andinexpensive glass knobs were int rodu ced.Th e verna cular style of th e Empire had fewendearing qualities and gave th e style a badconnotat ion in later years.
The 183 0s marked th e end ofcabinetmaking as it had been known sinceth e end of th e 17th century. Th e Indust rialRevolution that had brought labor-savingmachinery to th e craft required a largecapita l investment. To cover th e cost of th at
investment, furniture had to be made inquantity, and quantity required simplicityand homogeneity. As a result, furn ituredesigns were largely st ripped of th eir laborint ensive decoration and detail , andredu ced to a manu facturable form. In order
to mass-market th ese mass-produced pieces,manufacturers had to design th em to have auniversal appeal, necessitat ing th e lowest
commo n denominator of styling.Individually made pieces of customfurniture were st ill available to th e morewealthy or discriminating buyer, but th evast majority of Am ericans purchasedfactory-made furniture. Workshops hadbecom e manufactori es, and with th eexclusion of hand work th ose becamefactories. While furn iture of good qualitybecame more affordable to th e averageperson, it had lost its individuality andspirit in th e process. Other interesting stylescame and went, but th e remarkable chain ofevents and web of circumstances th atsparked th e Am erican masterpieces of th e18th century were not to be repeated.
A HISTORICAL SUMMARY
O ne hundred years is a relatively shortperiod of tim e in th e history of humanevents, but changes of great significance andmonumental prop ortion occurred duringth e 18th century.Th e world was a verydifferent place at th e end of th e centurythan it had been at th e beginning, andfurni ture design, cabinetmaking and th ewide spect ru m of th e decorative artsreflected th ese changes.
At th e time of th e Restoration ofCharles II, designs developed amongcour t iers and royalty. As th e nobility turnedits atte nt ion to cultural pursuits and aprosperous middl e class grew, cour t designsfiltered down, eventually exte nding to th efar reaches of th e Empire as th e 18thcentury dawned. Furniture design, nowhaving been decentralized, becameincreasingly driven by the market andwas shaped by th e needs and tastes of
customers. Thi s trend culminated withth e explosion of illustrated design booksth at appeared after th e mid-century,makin g furniture designs marketablecommodit ies in th emselves.
Th e design books led to a mu ch fasterdissemination of styles. Onl y the timerequired for engraving, printing andshipping separated outlying colonists from
th e newest tr end s in Lond on . Th ese books
also led to a more rapid succession of stylesas designers competed with one anot herand imp roved up on earlier designs. Twice as
many styles appeared in th e second half ofth e century as in th e first . Th e designpublications also led to a more uniformint erpretation of th e styles. William andMary pieces were diverse, imaginative andregionally distinct, but Sheraton pieces areso similar th at th eir place of origin is oftendiffi cult to pinpoint.
For each style, th e form and decorativeelements were a reaction to th e style thathad preceded it . In cont rast to th e Jacobeandesigns, William and Mary pieces featured adeliberate vert ical thrust and an emphasison a rich and detailed surface. Th e QueenAnne designs increased th e verticalemphasis but made it appear effortless, andshifted visual interest from th e su rface toth e shape. Th e Chippendale eratransformed thi s loftiness into a statelypresence, and refocused interest toward arich and opulently deta iled sur face. Th eFederal period called for an elegance ofform with a simplicity of su rface orna ment .Even within th e Neoclassical, th ependulum of style swu ng. Adam usedapplied surface orna ment, Hepplewhitecalled for smooth su rfaces with inlaidorna ment, Sheraton augmented inlay withsimple shallow carved detail, while th eEmpire designs called for all new forms.
From thi s series of opposites, similarit ies
appear in every other iterat ion of style.William and Mary, Chippenda le and
Empire designs share similarit ies in th eirbold presence and imp ortance of surfacedetail. Queen Anne and Federa l piecesshare an emphasis on a graceful form andth e rest raint of orna ment . Th e writer LewisMumford was cor rect in assert ing, "Everygenera t ion revolts against its fathers andmakes friends with its grandfathers."
The styles are nearly perfect analogies forth e lifestyles and outloo ks of th e t imes inwhich th ey existed . Th ey reflect th eincreasing prosperity over th e century andth e value given to th e decorative arts. Th eWilliam and Mary period reflected th eglobal influences and cultural int erests ofth e Enlight enment th at were unl eashed inpost-Resto rat ion England. Th e Quee n Annestyle typified th e standards of gent ility andrefin ed elegance pursued by th e emergingupper class. Th e Chippen dale-era designsreflected th e need for richness andopulence born of increasing power andwealth. The Federal style embodied th est ructure , orde r, harm ony and opt imism ofa Republic inspired by ancient civilizat ions.
Th roughout th e century, some aspectsheld constant . Am erican designs came fro mEnglish styles, and English styles came from
109
IMPORTANT D E SIGN PO INTSO F FU R N I TU RE STYLES
110
JACOB EAN
• Horizontal format• Low center of mass• Rectilinear forms• Ornament app lied
to st ructure
• Contrasting su rfaceornament and/orshallow carving
WILLI AM & M ARY
• Vertical format
• Evidence of raised mass
• Symmetry and ord erlydivision of space
• Deep profiles to turningsand carvings
• Rich and Visuallyinteresting surfaces
Q U E EN A N NE• Extended vertica l format
• Weightless appearanceto disgu ise mass
• Extensive use of graceful,cyma-eurved shapes
• Balance of solid and void
• Smooth glossy surface withoccasiona l ornamentation
CHIPPENDALE• Co ntinuat ion of
Queen Anne format
• Mass is made more evident
• Continuation of curvedshap es with increase inrectilinear form
• Extensively carvedsurfaces and add edornamental elem ents
• Deep, rich andopulent surfaces
FE DE RA L• Delicate appearance with
light, high, stable stance
• Amount of mass isminimized
• Rectilinear in elevation,gently cu rved fronts in plan
• Classical or geom etricalelements used forornament
• Lightly carved ordecoratively veneeredsmooth surfa ces
French and European trend s. Th e mannerin which th e successive styles came to beado pted in a given country is remarkablysimilar over th e century. Th e English
undertook an Anglicized version of eachstyle that differed in interpretati on fromth e Cont inenta l version . O n each occasionth ere is mention in th e literature of th eEnglish taking up a style with out a fullappreciat ion of its developm ent , mixing inother influences and arr iving at th eir ownversion . Th is new style usually superseded aprevious style th at had evolved to a point ofornamenta l excess, and had been totallyexhausted of new design possibiliti es. Th eAm ericans were consistently select ive inwhat th ey chose to take up from England,th eir tastes filterin g out th e occasionalexcesses of English design. Th e Americansinfused th e designs with th eir own sense ofproportion and detail, which yielded aspir ited and distin ctly Am erican version.
By examining th e events andcircu mstances th at surrou nded furn iture
making in th e 18th century, it becomesclear why America n furniture has adisti nctly different character from Englishfurn iture. Th e att ributes of Americanpieces were shape d by th e prevailing tastesof th e colonies, th e small size of colonialcit ies and th e nature of th e cabinetmaking
business at th e tim e.
Conse rvative values of thrift anddiligence were deeply rooted in th e cultureof American cities. Th e early Q uakerPhiladelphians and Puritan NewEngland ers were opposed to frivolou sornament and ostentatious display. Unlikein England , there was no aristocracy tosup port flamb oyant furniture of un limitedcost. Th e tastes of th e colonies had anunderpinn ing of practicality and functio naldesign, but th e beauty of a piece was equallyimportant. Good aesthet ic qualities were areflection of th e owner's status andrefinement and th e cabinetmaker's skill asa designer and craftsman.
Th e American cities were very differentboth from one another and from Lond on.They were scattered along th e coast, eachunder a different regional govern mentand each with its own relationship withEngland. Th ese were very small cit ies: At
mid-century, when Boston and Philadelphi awereof nearlyequal population, each wasless th an 2.5%th e size of London. Th erelative isolation of Am erican citiesallowed regiona l preferences and variationsto flouri sh.
Because of th e small size of th e cit ies,American cabinetmakers and th eircustomers were on a more equal andpersonal basis th an in England. Th esuccessful Amer ican cabinetmaker was arespected member of th e community, andhis clients were likely to be among th e
lead ing members of th e same community.Each was known to one another and knownabou t th e city. Th ey had a personal andoften long-running relati onship th at didnot end with th e delivery of th e fini shedpiece. In Lond on, a journey man cabinet
maker could have worked in th e employ ofa shop master makin g furniture in a backst reet for th e distant man or hou se of anaristoc rat he would never meet .
Th e size of American cit ies was reflectedin th eir cabinetmaking shops. At mid
century, even th e leading American shopsemployed only a handful of workmen, andmost of th em were likely to be familymem bers or live-in apprentices.C hristopher Townsend 's Newport shopmeasured only 12 ft . by 24 ft . At th e sametime, Th omas Chippe nda le's businessoccupied three hou ses, several outbuild ings,and employed at least 22 specializedworkmen. (Both businesses were dwarfedby th e London firm of George Seddo n,whi ch employed 400 journeyman in th e1780s.) With such a small operation, th eAmerican cabinetmaker was persona llyresponsible for every aspect of th e work. Hehad none of th e anonymity of being a smallpart of a large firm. In addit ion, smallfamily-owned shops had a consistent andrepet itive method of work th at led to th e
cont inued development and refinementof a design over time. As independ entcraftsmen, Am erican furnitu re makers
were proud of th eir work and th eirindividual style. Their good reputation andfuture commissions rested on th e quality ofevery piece th ey made.
Alth ough wealthy Am ericans could anddid import English pieces, Am erican piecescont inued to be a favorite . To a successfulAm erican, furnishings ofloca l origin, ifth ey were equal in design and workmans hipto th ose available from London, were atestament to th e refinement and civility ofth eir own city. Promi nent cit izens wouldnaturally want to exto l th e virtues of a placeth ey had helped develop . Th eir patronage oflocal craftsmen rein forced th e regionalstyle, furthered its developm ent and set asta ndard of good taste for other mem bers ofth e community to follow.
Th e period was remarkable for itsevolut ion of design and noteworthy for its
embodime nt of lifestyles and prevailingtastes in its decorative arts. Am ericanfurniture, sparked by a rare combination ofopportunit ies and motives, and guided byan inh erent sense of design and personalresponsibility for th e final produ ct,tr anscend s being mere art ifact . Eighteen thcentury American pieces stand withoutequal as milestones of achievement inapplied art and design.
A HI S T O RI C AL SU M M A R Y 111
Part TwoTHE METHODS AND MATERIALS
OF THE 18 th-CENTURY
112
CABINETMAKER
Thestylesand designsof lSth-century A merica II [um iture were influenced grea tly by
the methods and techniquesof its makersand the materials that wereavailable to them.
A familiarity with theconstruction of periodpiecesisessential toa thoroughappreciation
and understandingof lSth-centu ry designs.
Throughout the lSth century, refinements ill techniquesallowed advancements in
design, while trends in styleand taste required updated methodsof cabinetmaking. This
pattern ofalternatingj urth erance ofstyleand technique isevident in every major phase
of lSth-century design. During the William and Mary period, the techniqueof
dovetailing allowed[urn iture to he built in a vertical format. The QueenAnne- era
ideal of lofty grace required structuralchanges toaccomplish that end. During the
Chippendaleperiod, opulently carved ornament was added totheestablished structure.
By the Federalperiod, the techniqueof inlay and veneeringand thejoinery required for
thin structureshad advanced tosatisfy theprevailing taste in Neoclassicaldesigns.
Techniqueand design progressed together, each spurringadvancements ill theother.
Lookingat how[urniture was made in the 18th century offers a revealingglimpse
intoA merican livesduring theperiod. Thecabinetmakers, many of whom worked ill
small, family-run shops, weredesignersand businessmenas well as extraordinary
craftsmen. Theirproductivity, industriousness, inventivenessand quality of
ioorlemanship becomeapparent when their individual and collective works are
examined ill detail for both design and tech 11 ique.
An examination of methodsand materials callalsooffer insight into theeconomics
of thecabinetmaker's trade. Urban examples oftellexhibit labor-intensivepractices
designed to maximize theyield f rom wood. Thesedetails indicatean abundanceof
available laborand a relativelyhighcost of materials, which were often imported.
111 contrast, ruralexamples show less of (//1 investment ill timeand a willingness touse
native materials f reely. A ll cabinetmakers sought tooptimize their methods of
construction because they would be responsiblefor any future repairs that would be
required. Since lSth-century cabinetmakerswere ill the business of makingjurniture,
theirproducts wereshaped by economicforces as wellas by stylistic influences.
Thefirst part of this bookconcentrated on theevolution of[urniturestyles during the
18th century. Thissection focuses0 11 theother half of thesubject; it is a close lookat the
materialsaI1d techniques used by the lSth-century cabinetmaker. 111 thesectionson
materials, thepurpose is todiscuss what wasavailable to theperiodmakers, what the
characteristics of the materials were, how theperiod makers used them, and what our
current knowledgecan add to the understanding of the material. Thesections on
techniqueexplore the traditional methodsof work, how they evolved Oller thecentury,
how they wereaffected by theavailability of materialsand changingtastes, and how
modern techniques compare and contrast with lSth-century methods.
113
PERIOD
7SURFACES
AND THEIR MAKING
h e workin g methods of 18th-centurycabinetmakers were dictated by th eir tools,
th eir materials and th e very designs th ey setout to make. Every period original showsth e unmistakable signs of the maker 's hand,whether it is in th e undulating sur face of ahand-planed board or in th e marks made tolay out and cut th e joinery. The evidence of
hand craftsmanship is an inte gral part ofthe nature of period originals, th ou gh itoften goes unnot iced to th e untrained eye.
Th e marks of original tools, and th emethods of work th ey represent, are soimportant to th e character of original piecesth at th ey warrant th eir own detaileddiscussion. Th ey speak to th e fact that, incentur ies past, a deliberate human effortwas made to create an original object ofbeauty and utility from raw materials , basictools and a practical edu cation in designand th e ways of wood.
The Importanceof Period SurfacesWe have all seen repl icas of importantoriginals th at are dimensionally accu rate
and academically perfect but lack th e lookand feel of th e period piece. Th isshor tco ming is most often th e result of
114
app lying modern methods of work to250-year-old designs. A wid e belt sander
will yield a smo oth tabl e top of eventhi ckn ess, but it will not have th eunmistak able character of a hand-pl anedtop . A duplicating carving machine willproduce a close approximation of a ball andclaw foot, but it will never capture th e spiritof th e hand-sculpted original.
Even handmade replicas are sometimesmad e in a manner th at fails to capture th etrue character of th e originals. O ne cannotapply th e modern sta ndards of absolutelyflat surfa ces, machine-like uniformity andperfection to objects that were originallymad e by hand with relatively simple tools.Period furniture should look like periodfurniture, and an lSth-century design witha 20th-century surfa ce finish is not an
accurate re-creation of the original.Understanding the original tools, methodsand standards is essential to faithful
replications.Those wh o bu ild furniture in th e period
manner need to achieve an authenticsurface as a foundation for an authenticlooking fini sh. Apart from th e obviousdifferences in color, finish and patina, th esurface of th e wood in a period piece isfundamentally different from a su rfaceachieved by modern means. This
observation is not sur pr ising, given th edifference in available tools and th e lack of
power equipment in th e 18th century. Th eimp ortance in pinpointing th e underlyingbasis for th e look of a period surface istwofold : for th e collecto r, it yields moreinformation about how th e piece was built;and for today's maker, it offers th e key to
replicating th at look successfully.
T H E CUT SURFACETh e most fundamenta l feature of originalsur faces is th e evidence th at period makerscut, rath er th an sanded, wood. One reasonfor thi s was that th ey did not have th ereadily available, long-lastin g abrasives th atwe have today. Th e first definitiv e referenceto sandpaper appears in an 1827 editio n ofThe Cabinet-Maker'sGuide, published by
Jacob B. Moore in Co ncord, Massachu sett s.Thi s practical guide describes how to make"glass-paper" by crushing glass in an ironmortar, sift ing it th rough a sieve andsprinkling it onto glue-coated paper.Pum ice stone, in solid-block form, is knownto have been used as an abrasive, but, aswith sandpaper, it was more for smoothingth e surface for finishing rather th an for
shaping th e wood. It is impor tant toremember th at th e original makers were
cutt ing, shaping and smoo t hing with sha rp
hand tools th at left smoo t h su rfaces, so
th ere was very littl e need for sandpaper in
th e actua l shaping of wood.In any discussion of period surfaces it' s
important to distingu ish between th e levels
of attent ion afforded different areas in a
given piece. Prim ary surfaces are th ose thatare visible and finished; naturally th ey are
given th e greatest care in preparation ,
smoo thing and flattening. Secondary
sur faces are th ose th at are not readilyvisible, including th e undersides of tops,
th e insides of cases and frames, and th e
backs of drawer fronts. They are planed flatand true but not dressed beyond th at
preparatory stage . Tertiary surfaces, suc h asth e undersides of drawer bottom s and th e
backs of cases, don't warrant mu ch planing
at all. In most instances th ey are planed only
to redu ce th eir thickn ess, and they often
show th e saw marks of rough-sawn lumber
(see th e photos on p. 116).
O n period pieces, th e subtle marks of
hand tools are everywhere, if th ey arefortunate enough to have survived . They are
not always readily ap parent, and it helps toknow wh at to look for. Knowing what to
expect requi res being fami liar with the
methods of t he or igina l craftsme n, and
knowin g where a certa in tool was likely to
have been used. The parallel waves of th eplane on seconda ry surfaces are th e most
obvious, but the tra ces of cabinet scrapers
on primary su rfaces and the inimitable
mark s of chisels and marking tool s requirecloser scrut iny.To historians and scholars,
th ese mark s indi cate th e available tools and
prevailin g meth ods of th e period ; to
collectors and antiqua rians, they are a clu e
to origina lity and authent icity.
The Adventof Sawn StockTh e earliest American furnitu re was of
Jacobean frame-and-panel design. Its
compo nents were eit her nearly square
frame members or thin flat panel s, both of
wh ich were relati vely sho rt. These were
easily split , or riven , from short length s of
oak or ash using a froe and mallet and
dressed to their final dimen sion with
drawknives and hand planes.
As th e 17th centu ry drew to a close and
th e William and Mary sty le came into
vogue, frame-and-panel join ery gave way toth e dovet ailed join ery of thin boards (see
C hapter 8) . Dovet ailing was a radi cal
departure from th e previou s way ofbu ild ing furn iture, and with it came
d ifferent methods of work. Instead of thickfram e members and thin panels, the new
sty les requ ired thin boards that could only
be produced by sawing them from a log.
As early as 1634 a sawm ill was operat ing
on th e Piscat aqu a River, on wh at is now the
bord er between New Hampshire and
Pitsawing is illustratedin The Book of Trades,an English publicationreprinted inAmerica in1807. While waterpowered sawmills wereoperating inthe coloniesas early as 1634,pitsawing was requiredtocut logs into boards inareasawayfrom mills.Since the coastalfurniture-makingcentershad an abundance ofworke rs but fewsawmills, pitsawingcontinued to bepracticed into the19th century.(COURTESY DOVER
PUBLICATlONS)
Main e. By 1706 th ere wer e 70 sawm ills in
operation in th e colonies. In more ruralareas, mill s did not arrive until the middle
of the centu ry. Most of th ese water-powered
mill s cou ld develop only 2 hp to 3 hp
eno ugh to operate only one reciprocatingblade. Those th at cou ld develop more
power had multiple blades cutt ing severa lboards simulta neo us ly. The average m ill was
doin g well if it cut 1,000 board-feet ofsoftwood a day. Where th ere were no water
powered mill s, sawing was done by hand
with a pitsaw. Two men were required to
work th e saw, one sta nd ing ato p the log and
the ot he r in th e pit below.
P E RI O D SU R F AC ES 8< T IIE IR MAK IN G 115
Sawn lumber was used to sheathehou ses, and by th e end of th e 17th cen tur yit was coming int o use increasingly in th emakin g of furniture. While th e use of sawnlumber in cabinetmaking offered newchallenges, it also created some newpossibilities. Cabinetmakers were no longerrestri cted to using easily riven, st raightgrained woods. Other native hardwoodswith more att ract ive color and figure, suchas maple, walnut and br ittl e fruit wood s, allof wh ich were not easily split but were
The uneven marks of pitsawing are evident onthe pine drawer bottomof a Hepplewhitesideboard.
Water-poweredreciprocatingsaws leftparallel blade marks, asseen on this undersideof a maple tabletop.
readily sawn, came into widespread use.Thi s change coincided with th e emergingtastes in furn iture aesth etics, whereinth e sur face features of th e wood itselfbecame an important part of th e design,as evidenced by th e exte nsive use ofmatched figured veneers on William and
Mary pieces.The saw marks of rough stock are rarely
seen on fini shed furnitu re except onun seen surfa ces suc h as drawer bottoms andcase backs. Th e nature of th e saw markstells how th e piece was sawn. Pit-sawn wood
is distinctive in th at th e saw marks left onth e board extend across its width, but showth e variat ions th at are inherent in handwork (top photo at left) . Th e marks are notperfectly parallel or stra ight, since onesawyer could get ahead of th e other, andth ere was nothing to hold th e saw perfectlyverti cal. Th e advent of water-powered mills,which were basically mechanized pitsaws,produ ced saw marks th at are straight andparallel (bottom photo at left ). Th e spacingof th ese marks is often un even, however,since th e reciprocating blade cut at its ownpace. Ci rcular saw marks, with th eirdist inct ive cur ved shape, are not seen on18th-century Am erican furn iture. Th ecircu lar saw for cutt ing wood was inventedin England by Samuel Miller in 1777, butcircu lar saws did not come into widespreaduse in America until th e middle of the 19thcentury, when th ere were steam enginespowerful enough to run th em . Th eband saw, also an English invention, waspatented in 1808 by William Newberry, butit did not see popul ar use in th e United
States until afte r th e Civil War.
Hand PlaningOnce th e roughsawn wood was properlydri ed, it was cut and planed by hand to itsfinal dimensions. A number of differentplanes were used in prepa ring and finishingstock, each with a specific purpose.
FORE PLANESThe first task was to flatt en th e stock,remove th e saw marks and plane it to aneven thi ckness. Thi s would have been donewith what was th en called a fore plane, aplane 12 in. to 18 in. long with a blade, oriron , about 2 in. wid e (see th e top photo on
th e facing page). Since th e stock was widerth an th e plane, th e cutt ing edge was groundand sharpe ned with a slightly convex edge,with not mu ch more than 1/ 16 in. of crown,so th e corne rs of th e blade would not leavet racks. Thi s convex shape is responsible forth e distinctive waved surface of handplaned wood, which is especially noticeableon secondary surfaces. Fore planes are more
116 CHA PTER SEVE N
Flattening a Board with a Fore Plane
Straight-grained wood
Measuring from 12in. to18in. long, thefore orjackplane was used toflatten and true roughsawn lumber and topiane it to theappropriate thickness.(COURTESY BUD STEERE)
(COURTESY BUD STEERE)
Smoothing planes,which measure from7 in. to 9 in. long, wereused for smoothingprimary surfaces. Thissmoothing plane wasmade byCesar Chelor,slave of Wrentham,Massachusetts, planemaker FrancisNicholson, some timebetween 1753 (whenChelor was given hisfreedom) and 1784(when hedied) .
Figured wood often requiresplaning at a diagonal tominimize the possibility oftearing out thegrain.
Planing in alternatingdirections is required toflatten a board.
Figured wood
12-.-------
commonly known as jack planes today, bu ta 1677 text mentions that wh ile carp en terscalled th em jack planes, joiners referred to
th em as fore planes because they were usedto prepare th e stoc k before using othe rplanes. (Some sources sta te that fore planeswere th e longer of th e two, bu t furnituremakers were likely to have used smallerplanes th en carpente rs.)
By using a fore plane and planin g th esur face alterna tely with th e grain and th enacross it, a fairly flat and t rue surface can beachieved. Th is planing tech nique is
especially important on wide board s orpanels tha t have been assembled of board sglued edge to edge, where there may besome cupping across th e grain. In the caseof edge-glued panels, th e boards wereplaned, glued togeth er and th en planedagain to achieve a flat surface and un iformthi ckness. Som e highly figured wood, suchas tiger maple, flame che rry or birch,cannot be planed easily in th e d irection ofth e grain, since the figure d grain tends totear out . To dr ess their sur face flat and t ru e,th ey can be planed in alte rnat ing diagonaldirections across the grain. Given th esystem of shop hierarchy at th e time, thi skind of preparatory planing would havebeen one of th e first jobs for apprentices.
SM O O T H ING P LA N ESWith th e stock planed flat and to its nearfinal thi ckness, a smoothing plane was usedto dress th e surface. Smoothing planes ofth e period were 7 in. to 9 in. long with ablade about 2 in. wide and a coffin-shapedwooden body (ph oto at right). As with foreplanes, th e blade was ground with a slightlyconvex cutting edge, th ough with less of acrown. Since th e pu rpose of this plane was
to smooth th e surface rath er than removematerial quickly, it would be keptexceptionally sharp and set for a very finecut. Smoothing planes were used onprim ary surfaces that were to be eventua llyfinished, and probably would not have beenused to smooth secondary sur faces. Th e
cutting of th e fore plane was usuallyadequate for th ose surfaces .
PER IOD SURFACES & THE IR M A K I N G 117
The jointer planemeasures from 20 in.to 30 in. longandwasused to straighten theedge of boardsbeforethey were joined. Thelengthof the jointerplane enabled it toflatten slightcurves inedges that shorterplanes wou ld onlyfollow.(COURTESY BUO STEERE)
The low-angle strikeblock plane,sometimes called a miter plane, was designed to cut across end grain.(COURTESY BUO STEERE)
Wedge
JOINTER PLANESTo achieve th e very str aight edge required tojoin two or more boards togeth er, a longerjointer (or joyner) plane would have beenused . Jointer planes range from 20 in. to30 in. long with blades about 2 1/ 2 in. wide(ph oto above). Th eir long length enabledth em to st raighten curved profil es th atsma ller planes wou ld only ride over. Sinceth e jointer was required to make a flat cut,and since most edges were narrower th anth e blade, th e cutt ing edge was ground andsharpened straight and flat . Shorter jointerplanes were later referred to as tr ying ortruing planes, since th ey would be used tomake minor adjustme nts to th e jointededge, and obta ining th at perfect edge-to-edge fit was a process of tri al and error.
Most hand tools were imported, but overth e course of th e 18th centur y, Americantoolmakin g grew, especially in th e area ofwooden planes. Th e body of Americanplanes was made of a hardwood like yellowbirch ; English plan e makers preferred to use
ST RIKE B L O C K P L A N ES
Special plan es for trimming across th e endgrain were called st rike block planes in17th-eentury references, and later were
called st raight block planes or mit er planes.Th ey were designed to hold th e blade at avery low angle of 12° to 20°, so low th at th ebeveled side of th e blade is up. Thi s lowangle is required to cut cleanly across th egrain, slicing th e fibers direct ly across th eirlength. Miter or st rike block planes of th eperiod are known to have been about 12 in.long. Th ey were essentia l for smoothingth e surfaces of cross-grain cuts made witha handsaw.
Iron
Iron
Body
Body
BLOCK PLAN E
Cutting-Edge Geomet ry of Planes
SMOOTHING, FORE, TRYINGAND JOINTER PLANES
118 C II A P T E R S E VE N
With the grain
Scraper blade
The cutting action of the hooked edgeof a scraperbladelimits its depth of cut.The fine cut does not tear out thegrain,makingthe scraperideal for figuredwood surfaces.
Cutting Actio n ofa Scrape r Blade
(;
th en drawn across th e su rface of th e wood,in th e direction of th e grain, removing anexcept ionally th in shaving, far thinner th anshavings produced by most planes. Sinceth e cut is so gentle and shallow, th e scrape rdoes not tear out chunks where th e graindip s, as planes can do, and th e orientationof th e grain is not as impo rtant .
Scrapers fall int o two categories: beveledge blades and square-edge blades. Beveledge blades are sharpened like plane blades,and th en th e cutt ing edge is rolled into ahook shape by drawing a hardenedburnishing tool along its length (see th ed rawin g on p. 120). Square-edge blades aresharpened with stones to have sharp squareedges, which are th en worked into hookshapes with a bu rnisher. Either blade isdrawn across th e su rface so th at th e hookdoes th e cutt ing. By bu rnishing th e bladewith a large or small hook, you can vary th ecutt ing characteristics of th e scraper.Th eblades can be hand-held, or fixed in anynumber of blade holders available for th epurpose. Eighteenth-eentury blade holderswere littl e more th an blocks of wood with aslot to hold th e scraper blade.
After planing, primary surfaces were takento a higher level of smoothness with cabinetscrapers. Scrapers were especially importantto early cabinetmakers, and mu ch of what isnow accomplished by sanding was done byscraping in th e 18th century.
Scrapers differ from planes in thegeomet ry of their cutting edge and in th echaracterist ics of th eir cut . A scraper Cit isnothing like a paint scraper) is a sharp bladeth at is shaped to produ ce a microscopichooked edge. Thi s sharp hooked edge is
is honed with a leath er stro p th at removesany wire edge th at has formed and polishesth e bevel.
Th e cutting act ion of a plane slices a thinlayer from th e sur face of th e wood. Th equality of the cut su rface is affected by thesharpness of th e blade and whether th e cutis with or against the grain. Cutting withth e grain implies cutt ing in th e samedirection in which th e wood fibers arerising. Cutt ing against th e grain is cutti ng inth e direction th at th e fibers are falling.Wh en going against th e grain, th e shavingtend s to split off ahead of th e blade, andbelow th e level of th e cut . Th e result is ajagged surface of broken wood fibers. Bycutt ing with th e grain, in the direction of itsrise, th e shaving will split off above th e levelof th e blade, leaving a smooth cut sur face.Th e doubl e-iron blade th at is in general usetoday is intend ed to break th e chips offbefore th ey can split ahead of th e cut .Double irons first appeared in 1767 asimported irons for American-made planes.
Wh en planing across th e grain, th esharpness of the blade is especiallyimportant. Wood fibers are weak in th eiradherence to one another, and th ey tend totear away from th e surface before th ey arecut from it. Planing across th e grain is ofteneasier than planing with it, and mate rial isquick ly removed. Whil e th e final surface isnot as smooth as a cut with th e grain, crossgrain planing is often th e only way to planefigured wood.
Scraping
Double-iron blade actsas chipbreaker.
Planing Direct ion
Against the grain
beech. Cast-iron, brass or bronze planes didnot appear until th e end of th e 18thcentury, and th ey did not see widespreaduse unt il th e middl e of th e 19th century.Most plane irons, even for American-madeplanes, were imported from England . Th eirons were positioned at about 45° (exceptfor low-angle planes) and held in place witha wooden wedge. Th e amount th at th eblade exten ded was adjusted by tapping th etop of th e blade gently. Irons are sharpenedin the same manner as a chisel. Th e bevel isground at about a 25° angle with a grindingwheel, and th e beveled edge is sharpenedwith progressively finer oil- or waterlubricated stones. Th e final cutt ing edge
PER IOD S URFA CES & T HE IR MAK IN G 119
BEVEL-EDGE SCRAPER
The fact th at the scraper cuts wit h
its unique hooked edge prevents it fro m
cutt ing deep below the surface. The
shaving fro m a scra per can be less th an one
th ousandth of an inch thick. By comparison,
plan e shavings are rarely less than two
thousandths ofan inch thick, and paper is
about four thou sandths of an inch thick.
A shaving this thin is so flexib le th at it
doesn 't tend to splinter off material ahead
of the blade, an d the inside rad ius of th e
hook edge, whic h acts like a microscopi c
chipbrea ker, furt he r reduces th at possi
bility. As a resu lt , the scrape r works nearly
as well against th e grain as it does with it ,
making it about the on ly tool t hat can cut
and leave a good surface on highly figured
wood . Since th e scraper cuts th e surface
rather than abrades it, it leaves no scratc hes
and does not clog th e wood pores with du st .
While th e scrape r produces an authent ic
primary surface, its use does not end th ere.
Almos t any job th at wou ld be done by
sanding tod ay was originally don e with a
scrape r. Forexample, to mak e two su rfaces
flush, suc h as where a drawer divider meets
a case or a case joins to a leg, modern
practi ce would call for block sanding. Using
period method s, a hand plan e or spokeshave
would be used to even the sur faces, an d th e
fin al levelin g wou ld be don e by scrap ing. It
is qu icker, clean er, easie r and far less pro ne
to erro r. A sha rp scrape r can remove a lot of
materi al qu ickly, and it produces a smoo t h
su rface without scratc hing th e adjoining
areas. The user do es have to pay attent ion to
how t he tools are cutt ing and change
directi on if th e wood shows any signs of
tearing out . Scrapers do not cut well across
the grain, and that can be a problem whe re
a level su rface joins anot he r at right angles.
Us ing th e scra pe r diagon ally across th e join t
can minimize any ill effects. A craf tsperson
wh o is proficient with a scra per can build a
piece that is virtua lly ready to fini sh
without the use of sand paper.
Edges burnishedto a hookon both sides
SQUARE·EDGE SCRAPER
Blade sharpenedto square edges
Cutting edgeburnished to ahook with aburnishingtool
Bevel sharpenedto a point
Bevel-Edge andSquare -Edge Scrape rs
Scrapers havebeen madeina variety offorms for use on surfaces ofdifferentshapes. Flat surfaces are smoothed with a straight-edged blade held by hand or inasimple wooden holder. Curved molding profiles that cannot be made with straightmolding planes can be shaped with profiled scrapers.
SpokeshavesSpokeshaves are in essence littl e hand planes
with handles on eithe r side . They are used to
shape and smoot h complex shapes and
swee ping curves like th ose of cabriole legs.
Their cutt ing blades average about 11/ 2 in.
120 C H A P T E R S EVE N
Spokeshaves work likesmall planes and areused for smoothing andshaping curvedsurfaces. They featureflat orcurved soles, and,like 18th-century planes,hadwooden bodies.(COURTESY BUD STEERE)
wide and are usually grou nd st raight across .
They are able to follow curved surfaces
because th e len gth of their sole is less than
1 in . f or smaller-rad ius curved surfaces,
th ere are cu rved-sole spokeshaves that can
cut wh ere flat- sole mod els cannot. For th e
more specia lized tasks of hollow ing and
rou nding, spo keshaves are available with
convex and concave blade profil es.
A spokes have is one of the most useful
tools for making period pieces, and it is also
a joy to use . It can quic kly sha pe curved
components th at would have or iginally
been rough-eut to sha pe wit h a bowsaw or
framed saw. These pieces include cabriole
legs, chair st iles, crest rails, back splats,apro n pro files, and serpenti ne and bombeforms. A spo keshave can be used to rou nd
or cha mfe r any corne r or edge, especially a
cu rved edge, and can also cut a round or
half-round sect ion on square stock . The
spokeshave lets th e user make complex
sculpted shapes with th e safety and cont rol
of a tool th at rem oves a consiste nt and
adjusta ble amo u nt of material with each
pass. Like th e plan e, it is a sharp cut t ing tool
and leaves a surface th at is clean and smooth.
Rasps and FilesWhi le spokeshaves are versati le, th ey do
have th eir limitat ions, and anything they
cannot do can probably be acco mplished
with a rasp or file. Rasps and files were an
important part of the peri od furniture
maker 's inventor y of tools. They were used
for both shaping and smoot hing, tasks that
are usu ally don e with abrasives tod ay. Rasps
have raised met al points th at remove
mater ial aggressively, and are prim aril y used
for rough shaping th at can' t readil y be done
with ot he r cu tt ing tools. Files have fine
parallel cutt ing ridges, wh ich leave a
smoot he r surface, and are used for fina l
sha ping and smoot hing. Some of th e
complex shapes of th e peri od , suc h as
cabriole legs, sna ke feet and swee ping
aprons, were brought to th eir fina l sha pe
with progressively fin er rasps and files.
There are a few areas of peri od pieces
that can be shaped on ly with rasps and files.
Rasping is abo ut the onl y way to shape the
top of a pad or Dutch foot (see pp . 152-153)and blend it into th e round sect ion of an
ankle. Similarly, rasping and filin g can cut a
smoot h tran siti on from the back side of
cabriole leg into its kn ee block, as well as
dress th e top of a kn ee where it join s th e
apron . Rasping is a qui ck way of rou nd ing a
squ are corner or easing a sha rp edge . In
addition, a very fin e rasp or wood file can
do anyt h ing th at a sand ing block can do,
and is especia lly useful in smoothing away
any flat cuts fro m a curved surface t hat has
been chiseled or spokeshaved to shape.
A carefu l exa minat ion of pe riod pieces
reveals th e marks of rasps or files used in
their makin g. They are mos t often seen in
th e inco nspicu ou s places and undersid es of
curved aprons and rails. Many cab riole legs
show th eir marks on th e underside of the
knee w here it meet s the knee block. File
mark s are frequ ently evident on the sharp
insid e corners of sha ped arms and crest
rails. O n ver y we ll-prese rved origina ls, t he
marks fro m individual teeth of th e file used
to break sharp edges or rou nd a profil e are
often st ill visibl e. Files were used in places
that other tools cou ld n't reach and in places
that today would be sande d.
Rasps. with aggressivefreestanding teeth, andfiles , with a series ofraised cutting edges,were used to shape andsmooth wood in areasthat othertools were notable to reach. Both filesand rasps were used inlieu ofabrasives.(COURTESY BUD STEERE)
P E R I 0 [) S UR FA C E S & THE I R M A K IN G 121
Shaping an Apron
Saw kerf
Chamfered edge
Inside of apron
Eighteenth-centurycabinetmakers used acombination of sawing,chise lingand rasping tomake shaped apronsand rails . The marks ofthese tools are usuallyevident on the undersideof thecomponents.(This photo shows theunderside of the frontlegand apron of theQueen Anneside chairpictured on p. 245.)
______.-- Front of apron
A saw was used tocut awaymost of thematerial. The finalshapewas cut withchisels.
Chisel and gouge marks
Chiseling the finalshapeleft the insideedgeragged andsplintered, so it wasusually chamfered.
Cutting Shaped ElementsDuring most of th e 18th century, Americanfurniture was built with shaped aprons orrails as int egral part s of the design. Th eseshapes were int end ed to be seen in profile
or as silhou ettes and played an importantpart in creat ing th e graceful shapes, th ebalance of solid and void, and th e sense ofconst rained energy that were amo ng th eaesthetics of th e period . These shapesinclude th e curved aprons of high chestsand dressing tables , th e scalloped aprons of
rectangular tea tables and th e shaped seatrails of chairs.
Cutt ing th ese shaped parts was notalways easy. Eightee nth-eentury cabinetmakers had handsaws used for cutt inglumber and joinery, but th ese cut instraight lines. Cutt ing along a curved linerequired th e narrow blade of a framed saw.Framed saws includ e th ose with a bladeheld in tens ion in the cente r of a woodenfram e, whi ch could cut gentle curves, and
bowsaws, which have th e blade mounted onth e outs ide of a fram e and are better able tocut more complex shapes. Even th e mostversati le bowsaw was limited by th e widthof its blade, wh ich was not less tha n % in.and prevented th e saw from cutting verytight curves.
Because of th e limi tations of th eir saws,18th-eent ur y cabinetmakers used acombinat ion of sawing, chiseling and
rasping to achieve th e final shapes ofaprons. The gentle curves th at could be cutto shape with a bowsaw were trimmed andadjusted with chisels and spokeshaves.Shapes that were more intricate were sawnwh ere possible and chiseled the rest of th eway (see th e drawing at left). How mu chwas sawn and how mu ch was chiseleddepended on th e int ricacy of th e shape andthe capability of the cabinetmaker's saw.The combination of sawing and chiselingfrom the outs ide edge toward the inside lefta ragged and splinte red inside edge. Thi sedge was th en cleaned up by chamfering.
Th e undersides of th ese shaped apron sare some of the most int erestin g parts ofper iod furniture. The tool marks of th eor iginal maker usually rem ain clearly
122 C 1-1 APT E R S EV E N
Creating a Complex Molding Profilevisible. Th ey offer great insight int o th etools and methods of th e 18th century andare th e cabinetmaking fingerprints of th ecraftsman wh o mad e th e piece more th antwo centuries ago.
Making MoldingsEighteenth-century moldings were eit hercut with molding planes or scraped withscratch stocks. Plane makers made moldingplanes in a number of stand ard shapes thatcould be used singly or in combination to
produ ce more comp lex shapes. Scratchstocks were shaped scrape r blades used tomake shallow molding deta ils.
MOLDING PLANESMolding planes were mad e to cut only oneshape. Many cabinetmakers used favoritemoldin g planes so ofte n th at th ose moldedprofiles became ind icative of th eir work .Planes could also be used in combinationsto make a wide variety of shapes for corn icemoldings. Th om as Sheraton 's Ca binet
Dictionary (Lond on , 180 3) illustrates how arabbet plane is used to cut molding stoc kinto a series of ste ps, and each step is th enshaped with a different molding plan e asif it was th e edge of an individual board(see th e drawing at right) . Similarl y,
complex moldings could be assembledfrom single moldings, each made with adifferent moldi ng plane.
SCRATCH STOCKSScratch stocks are shopmade tools th at canbe shaped to any shallow design. Th ey aremade by filing th e desired profile in th eedge of a scraper blade, sharpening th e edgelike a scraper blade, and affixing a fence ofsome sort . Th e blade is drawn along th esur face of th e wood repeatedly, guided byth e fence, and th e wood is cut by a scrapingaction. Since th ey were easily mad e, scratc hstocks were a favorite tool of joiners forcutt ing shallow shadow moldings on th est iles and rails of join ed chests . Th e use ofscratch stocks cont inued through th ecentury whenever a small molded shape,especially on a curved shape, needed to becut . Th e beaded edges of cur ved chair st ilesand th e cockbeaded cases and drawer
A moldingplane is capable of cuttingonlyoneprofile, but several profilescould be cut on a board witha seriesof rabbeted steps.
Rabbeted cuts tostart the molding
Using a Scratch Stock
Shapedscraperblade
Shaping each stepwith a moldingplane
Individual moldings could beassembled into more complexshapes, as on this cornicemoldingof a high chest.
dividers of curved-front case pieces are justtwo of th e many uses of scratc h stoc ks laterin th e 18th century.
Scrat ch stocks were also used to moldor flute tapered legs. Because molding or
fluting tapered with th e leg, th e scratc hstoc k could not be used with a simple fence.For this purpose, th e molding box wasdevised . Th is box was designed to hold acomponent, like a tapered leg, in a fixedposition whil e a scrape r cutte r in a slid inghold er was guided along its length . Byadjusting th e position of th e component,th e cutte r could be made to cut stra ighttapered flutes anywhere on th e leg.
PER IOD S URFA CE S & THE IR MAKI NG 123
8CONSTRUCTION
JOINERY
W ile Am erican furn iture of th e18th century is che rished for its aesthetic
qualit ies, th e pieces also set a sta nda rd forstruct ural int egrit y and ingenuity.Th etra de of th e cabinetma ker, wh ich includedmore varied disciplines th an th at of th ejoiner, had not blossom ed in Am erica untiltoward t he end of th e 17th century, so th etech niques were st ill quite new and underdevelopment during th e 18th century.Never theless, th e join ery and const ruct ionmeth ods used during th at per iod weresophist icated and elegant solut ions to th etask at hand. Th ey reflect a familiarity andund erstandi ng of wood and its propertiesand were chosen with th e fun ctionalrequireme nts of th e joint in mind. Overthe century, Am erican cabinetmakersopti mized th eir joinery. O ne rarely find sjoin ts th at are more complicated th an theyneed to be or examples th at have failedbecause th e joine ry is not adequate. Therequire ment of having to make fu rn it ure oflasti ng integrity, balanced by th e need toproduce it by hand and for an affordablebut profi table price, were driving forcesbehind the opt imizat ion of th e join ery andst ruc ture of fu rn itu re.
The pr imary methods of joinery of
18th-century furn iture were th e mortiseand-tenon joint and th e doveta il joint. Th e
124
mortise and tenon is a joint as old aswoodworking itself, and was th e primaryjoint of fram e-and-panel furn iturecons t ruct ion. Dovetails had been knownfor millennia but saw a resurgence in usenear th e end of th e 17th century. T heint erlocking tri angular eleme nts of dovetailjoints allowed thin pieces of wood to bejoined without th e need for a th icker joinedframe. As exemplified by furniture of th eWilliam and Mary period , th e new method
of join ery revolutioni zed th e way furniturewas built. In addition to the importantmeth ods of join ery, th ere are a variety ofmethods of attaching tops, moldings andfeet, all of which show an ingenuity,inventiveness and innate knowledge of th enature of wood .
Mortise-andTenon JoineryThe mortise and tenon is th e most un iversalof joint s. It is used to join fram ed pieces,like tables and cha irs, th at are composedof nar row members, as opposed to casepieces th at are made up of flat panel s. Th e
mortise, or slot, is cut int o th e side of onemember, and a snug-fitt ing tenon, madeto fit int o th e mortise, is cut on th e end
of th e other member. Wh en th e tenonis assembled into th e mort ise, th e two
pieces are held secure ly at right angles toone another.
Th e joint is easily made with simplehand tools, including a saw, drill andchisels. Cabinetmakers lay out the jointwith a mortising gauge, an adjustablemarking gauge th at can scribe two parallellines simulta neously. Th e gauge is used tomark th e size and position of both th e
morti se and th e tenon . To cut th e mort ise,a series of holes are drill ed between th escribed lines to rem ove most of th e wood,and th e rem ainin g material is cut to thelines with chisels. Mortising chisels withth ick blades were made expressly for thispurpose. Th e tenon is cut with a tenon saw,a small backsaw made for just such cuts.Th e tenon is th en trimmed to th e scribedlines with chisels. Th e resulting joint fitstogeth er snugly and with a flu sh joint
surface. Most morti se-and-tenon joints inpe riod pieces were drill ed and peggedth rough to lock th e joint togeth er.
Mortises and tenons th at are 3fs in. wide
are found on many 18th-century pieces,corresponding to th e width of a stan dardchisel. Th e morti ses are located 1/ 4 in. to112 in. from th e flu sh su rface of th e joint
and are laid out to leave a shou lder on both
Lay ing Out and Cutting a Mortise-and-Tenon Joint
1. Width of mortiseand tenon is scribedwithmortisinggauge. \
2. Length of mortiseand tenon is laid outwith square.
4. Mortiseis chiseled toscribed lines.
3. Holes are drilled to removemajorityof material from mortise.
5. Tenon is cut with sawand trimmedto scribedlines withchisel.
6. Joint is assembled,drilled and pegged.
Visiblescribed lines
CONS T RUC T ION J O I N ER Y 125
sides of th e tenoned piece. It is usuallypossib le to see th e or iginal mortising gaugemarks on th e wood just outs ide th e joint .
Mortise-and-tenon joints were madein a wide number of variat ions. Some wereangled; some were hou sed to have shoulde rson three or four sides; othe rs extended
clear th rough th e mortised member; andsome were do ub led or appear in a series.They were designed and cut to suit th epurpose of th e joint without weakening th ejoined pieces.
Time-honored methods of join ery haveachieved th at distin ction for th eir ability to
accommodate th e dynami c nature of wood .To join two pieces of wood securely issimple enough, but for th e joint to endure itmu st maintain its st ructural int egrit y whil eth e two compo nents are cont inuallyexpandi ng and con t ract ing with changes inhumid ity. (For more on wood and woodmovement, see Appendix I on p. 293.)
The key to maintaining a secure joint isto retai n a comp ressive force betweenthe shoulder of th e tenoned member and
Maintaining a Secure Joint
th e mating surface of th e mortised part .A peg dr iven th rou gh a cross-dr illed holeaccomplishes this perfectly (see the d rawingbelow). The compressive force th at gives thejoint its int egrit y can be achieved in one oftwo ways. Th e joint can be clamped tightly,and th en drilled and pegged before th eclamp is rem oved , or th e joint may be drawbored . In draw bori ng, th e hole is d rilledth rou gh th e mortised part first. Then th ejoint is assembled and th e exact posit ion ofth e hole is marked on th e tenon . Th etenoned part is th en rem oved and th e holeis drill ed slightly closer to th e shoulde r thanth e markin g. Wh en th e joint is reassembled,th e holes are slightly out of alignment;
driving a peg through th e joint dr aws th etwo parts tightl y together.
Draw boring, whil e clever and effective,was probably not a com mo n pract ice inth e makin g of fine furn itu re during th e18th century. Most structura l tenons inperiod pieces are 3jg in. th ick and rarelylonger th an I in. With suc h a delicate
tenon, a misalignme nt of more th an about113 2 in. in th e holes would result in breaking
out th e back of th e tenon when th e pegis forced th rough. Th e risk of breakagewould be of part icular concern when
work ing with well-dried and somewha tbri ttle hardwoods. Per iod cabine tmake rsfreq uen tly used spoon or shell bits t hat didnot have an accu rate center point to drillsmall-diameter holes, so th ey wou ld havehad difficulty in positio ning a hole withthe kind of precision requ ired to make adraw-bore d joint . Furthermore, any cabinetmaker of note would have had clampsamo ng his inventory of tools, and wouldnot have needed to dr aw-bore a joint.
In th e pegged mortise-and -tenon joint,th e tenoned piece is free to expand andcont ract without affecti ng th e st rength ofth e joint (see th e dr awing on th e facingpage). Th e mortised piece is also free toexpand and contrac t, with th e exception ofth e nar row width between th e peg and th eshoulde r.Th at area is under consta ntcomp ressive force in a tight joint, and is sosmall th at expansion and contraction th erewou ld be negligible. Th us th e pegged joint
The integrity of a mortise-andtenon joint relieson maintaininga compressive force along thejoint line, which is achieved byclamping across thejoint or bydrawboring.
Holes in mortiseand tenon areslightly off-center.
Peg driven throughhole tightens joint.
CLAMPING
126 C H A PT E R E IG HT
DRAW BORIN G
Pegged and Wedged Mortise-an d-Tenon Joints
Cross-wedged tenon may betightened but is impractical forrefinedfurniture.
CROSS-WEDGEDMORTI SE AND TENON
Mortisedpiece shrinksawayfrom shoulder.
Tenon shrinks in widthand loses wedged force.
Both members are free toexpand and contract.
PEGGED MORTI SE AND TENON
WED GED MORTI SE AND TEN ON
\~
_L~----l
l'
I , ',
,J
--. .4-- ~
= =rr, ·' 1'
~-•• - . .@ \ .11
'~~.L \ I' \•_ \ \. 11 \
- -+--1= ~ =--'+1i \I I1 I
l
Dovetail Joinery
is virtually immune to th e effects ofchanges in humidity.
Th ere are some other variat ions of th emortise-and-tenon joint th at are occasionallyseen in furn itu re, but most lack th edurability of th e simple pegged joint. Oneof th ese is th e wedged mortise and tenon,where a th rough tenon is split with one ormore wedges to tighten th e joint. Thisjoint relies on th e outward pressu re of th etenon at th e outs ide edge to maintainenough friction to keep th e joint together.Unfortunately, th e tenon will shrink in
width and th e mortised member is free toshrin k away from th e tenon shoulde r. Onceth at happ ens, th e integrity of th e joint islost . Th e cross-wedged mortise and tenon isanot her variation of th e joint that is ofte nseen in early trestle tables. Th e tenon is longenough to pass through th e mortised pieceand extend out th e other side . Th e wedgepasses th rough th e outs ide of th e extendedtenon, drawing th e joint together. Th isarra ngement allows for easy tight eni ng ordisassembly of th e joint wh en needed .Alth ough thi s is a great idea for furn itureth at will be assembled or disassembl edfrequently, it is not appro priate or practicalfor more refined pieces.
Dovetails are th e interlocking tria ngularshaped joints th at enable wide, th in piecesof wood to be joined end-to-end, usually atright angles to one another. Because th egrain in both pieces is oriented in th e samedirect ion, th e pieces are able to expand andcont ract simulta neously with no adverseeffect on th e integrity of th e joint. Th e joint
evolved over th e course of th e 18th centuryas it was continually refined and optimized.Th e exte nsive use of dovetailing began inAmerica with th e William and Mary periodat the end of th e 17th centu ry and signaleda fundamenta l change in th e way fu rn iturewas made. Th e use of th e dovetail and th emore complex furn it ure designs th at itenab led marked th e divergence of th ehighly skilled trade of th e cabinetmakerfrom th at of th e joiner. Th e new meth od ofconstruction formed th e st ruc tural basis forth e many styles of furn itu re th at evolvedduring th e 18th century and after. Dovetail
C O NS T RUC T I O N JO I N ERY 127
Dovetail Joints
THROUGH DOVETAILHalf pin
join ery is virtually synonymous with18th-century drawer and case const ruct ion,and for th at reason it is best to explore th euse of dovetail s in that context.
DOVETA IL LAYOUT ANDCONSTRUC T IONTh e traditi onal method of making adovetail joint is to lay out and cut th e tailpiece and use th at as a patt ern to mark andcut th e pin piece (see th e drawing on th efacing page). A markin g gauge is used toscribe a line across th e end of th e tail pieceequal to th e thi ckn ess of th e pin piece orth e desired length of th e tails. Th e locat ionsof th e tails are laid out on th e tail pieceusing a bevel gauge set at th e proper angle.Th e tri angular spaces between th e tails aresawn and chiseled away. Th e markin g gauge
is th en used to scribe th e thi ckn ess of th etail piece across th e end of th e pin piece,and, in th e case of a half-blind dovetail, th e
DOVETAIL ANATOMYDovetail joints are comprised of two pieces:th e tail piece, which has one or more angledtails exte nding from it, and th e pin piece,wh ich int erlocks with th e tail piece. Th eshape of th e tails on th e tail piece is cut atright angles to th e flat surface of th e wood.Th e tail piece can th en be used as a patt ernto trace th e joint onto th e wood from whichth e pins are cut. Th e pins are cut at rightangles to th e end of th e pin piece, but are atan angle to th e surface of th at piece. Amongth e definin g characteristics of a dovetailjoint are th e angle, width and length of thetails. Th e spacing of th e tails determines th ewidth of th e pin .
Dovetail joints fall int o two maincategories: th rou gh dovetails and half-blinddovetail s (see th e drawin g at left) . Th roughdovetails exte nd th rough th e th ickness of
th e pin piece and are flu sh with th e outsidesurface. In instances where th e end of th etail piece would be better un seen , halfblind dovetails are used and th e tails donot exte nd th rough th e pin piece. Halfblind dovetails are preferr ed to join dr awer
fronts to th eir sides and on certain areas ofcase construct ion, such as th e top edges ofslant-front desks where th e joinery is not
covered by a molding (see th e bottomdrawin g onp.1 39).
Tail piece
Tail piece
Angle
Angle
SpacingPin piece
Scribed lines
Pin width(narrow end)
Pin width(narrow end)
Tail length
Pinpiece
HALF-BLIND DOVETAIL
128 C H A P T E R E IG HT
Laying Out and Cutt ing Doveta il Joints
.----__.....,~Marking gauge
Tail piece
Length of tailor thickness ofpin piece
~..e-- Scribed lines
Dovetail angle
Chiseled toscribed lines
k:::Ie--- Saw kerfs
1. Line is scribedacross end of tail piece.Distance from end equals thickness of pinpiece or length of tail for half-blind dovetails.
2. Position of tails is laid out with bevelgauge set for dovetail angle.
3. Spaces between tails are cut awaywith saw cuts and chisels.
THROUGH DOVETAILS
4. Location of tails is scribedonto pin piece.
Tail piece
Tail piece
6. Joint is assembled.
Pin piece
5. Areasbetween pinsare sawnandchiseled away.
Thickness of tailpiece scribed here
Pin piece
Pinpiece
Tail piece
Tail piece
Pin piece
HALF-BLIND DOVETAI LS
Pin piece
Scribed lineon pin piece(distancefrom end =
thicknessof tail piece)
C O N ST R U e T I O N J 0 I N E R Y 129
lengths of th e tails are scribed across th eend grain. Th e tail piece is positioned overthe pin piece and th e pattern of th edovetai ls is scribed onto th e end grain of th e
pin piece. A saw cut is made on either sideof th e pins and th e material between th emis sawn and/or chiseled away to th e scribedlines. Th e two parts of th e joint may th enbe assembled .
DR AW ER CONS T RUCT IONDrawers are an integral part of casefurni ture, and th eir meth od of const ruc t ionis a primary meth od of dat ing a periodpiece. Th e details of drawer const ruct ioncan be as revealing as th e overall style ofa piece.
The typical 17th-centurydrawer was sidehungandbuilt with nailedhalf-lap joints.(COURTESYWETHERSFIELO
HISTORICAL SOCIETY)
Over the course of the18th century, dovetails(and pins) becamesmaller and more closelyspaced.
130 C H A PT E R EI GH T
Furn iture in th e Jacobean style, made inth e American colonies as late as th e ]680s,had drawers that were nailed togeth er. Inth e English tradition , all th e drawer partswere thi ck and usually made of oak. Th esedrawers were side hung; th at is, th ey weresuspend ed and slid on runners nailed to th einside of th e case th at fit into corresponding grooves in th e drawer sides (see th e topphoto below). Th e front of th e drawer wasjoined to th e side by a nailed half-lap joint ,so th e groove in the drawer side ended atth e drawer front and was not visible whenth e drawer was closed.
Thi s kind of const ruction had severaladvantages and disadvantages. Th e biggestdisadvantage was th e weight of th e drawer.
Thi ck drawer sides were required toaccommodate th e side groove and towithstand being nailed togeth er. Th edrawer bottoms were also nailed to th edrawer sides, and in keepin g with th e rest ofthe drawer st ructure were substantial. Th eassembly,wh ile strong and rugged, was alsovery massive. Thi s weight limit ed th e sizeand height of th e case,and as a resultJacobean pieces remained low, horizontaland correspondinglystro ng and solid enoughto support th e drawers (see Chapter l ). Inaddition, side-hung drawers were not easilyrepairable if th e groovewore out, which wasinevitable given th e weight they bore.
Th e greatest advanta ge of thi s system ofdrawer suspension was that th e groovesrunning on th e two rails fully const rainedth e movement of th e drawer. Later drawerswould need runners to slide on, kickersabove th e drawer to keep it from tippin gdown when pull ed out, and guides oneither side of th e drawer to keep it movingst raight . Th e grooves and runners of sidehung drawers did all th ese things. Inaddition, since th e groove stopped at th edrawer front, th e front end of th e runneracted as a very accu rate drawer stop. Best ofall, th ese drawers were easy to bu ild, and,with th e except ion of th eir mass, workedquite well.
Toward the end of th e 17th century,when dovetails came into more common
use, th ey were large and few in nu mber.Wh ere drawer sides met th e fronts, halfblind dovetails were used so th e tails wouldnot extend through to th e drawer front s(ph oto, far left) . Through dovetails joinedth e sides to th e backs. Th e drawer sideswere th e tail pieces and th e fron ts and backswere th e pin pieces, th us or ientin g the join tto th e stresses of being pulled in and out of
a case. Since th e joinery eliminated th e needfor nails, th e drawer parts could be madethinner, lighter and from more fragilewood, such as pine. Th is trend preclud edth e use of grooves for side-hung drawers,and cases were designed with runners alongth e bott om of th e drawer openings for th edrawers to slide on (see th e drawi ng onp. 26). Th e lighter, dovetailed drawers made
possible th e tr end toward th e verticalproportions of th e William and Mary andlater periods.
17TH CENTURY
Butted and nailed
Let into rabbetat front and sides;sometimes withattached runner
EARLY 18TH CEN TURY
Drawer BottomsFrom th e end of th e 17th century
th rough th e beginning of th e 19th,dovetailed drawer joinery evolved from
what seemed to be an arduous but effect ivejoint th at tested th e skill of th e maker to arefined and sophisticated meth od of join erythat attested to th e skill of the maker. Th eearly dovetailed d rawers had as few as oneor two large dovetails at each corner. Th eywere not delicate, but th ey did th e job andwere an imp rovem ent over th e use of nails.By th e star t of th e 18th century, cabinetmakers found that more dovetails mad e fora stronger and more du rable joint, and th ist rend continued for most of th e cen tury.As th e number of dovetails used in a jointincreased, th eir size becam e smaller andtheir proport ions more delicate (see th ebottom right photo on th e facing page). Bythe close of th e centur y, as th e Heppl ewhite
style was supplanted by She raton designs,drawer-front dovetails had becom e stylized
enoug h almost to be cons idered decorativeas well as fun ctional.
NEWPORT VER SION
Let into front only; buttedoversides and back;runner strip nailed on
MID TO U\TE18TH CENTURY
Let into grooves infront and sides
Drawerbottom slidesin from back.
Drawer bottomsTh e earliest Oate-17th-century) dovetaileddrawers had bottom s th at were st ill nailedonto th e d rawer sides. Over th e course ofth e next few decades, th e d rawer bottom sfollowed th e trend of th e rest of th e dr awerstructure and became th inn er and lighter.
Drawer frontsOver th e course of th e cen tury, someaspects of drawer-front dovetails rem ainedthe same while others evolved. In a casua lsurvey of 18th-century pieces, th e lengthand angle of th e dovetail did not vary overtime . Drawer-front dovetails were consistently about '/2 in. long. Th e angle of th edoveta il varied by a few degrees in a singlepiece and varied from 10° to 20°, averaging15°, amo ng pieces.Th e angle of th e dovetailseems to have had more to do with regionalor personal preference th an with evolutio nover time. The most noticeable changeduri ng the centur y was th e decrease in pinwidth and spacing. Th e narrower side of pinwidths often exceeded li z in. before midcentury but was frequently less then li s in. bycentury's end. Similarly, th e century beganwith dovetails spaced as far as 2 in. apart andfinished with th em closer to half that .
CO N S T R u e T I O N J a I N E R Y 131
Cabinetmakers with more refined methodsrabbeted th e bottom of th e drawercomponents and let th e bott om into th em .Hid e glue and progressively finer nails were
used to secure th e bottom into the rabbet.Newp ort cabinetmakers had a dist inctivemethod of attaching drawer bottoms th atpersisted for the rest of the centu ry. Thedrawer bottom, usually about '/4 in . to 3/s in.thi ck and tapered to li s in. thick at the fron tand sides, fit int o a groove in th e drawerfront and was nailed to th e bottom of th esides and back. Two thin st rips were nailed
over th e drawer bottom along each side.Th e drawer slid in and out of th e case onth ese st rips, which cou ld easily be replacedif th ey ever wore out .
A superior met hod of drawer-bot tominstallation was to slide th e bottom intogrooves cut int o th e inside of th e drawersides and front. The bottom was thensecu red with small nails to th e drawer back.Th e const ruction allowed for th e seasonalexpansion and cont ract ion of the drawerbottom without splitt ing, and was a muchmore secure and elegant method ofconst ruct ion. This method had beenadopted by many makers by th e secondquarter of th e 18th century and was th epreferred method of const ruct ion for th erest of th e cen tury.
Dovetail layoutThe way th at drawer dovetails are designedis essential to producing an attractive andfun ctional joint. At th e front of th e drawer,th e doveta ils are laid out so th at th e groovesor rabb ets for th e drawer bottom areconcea led under a full or half tai l, as shown
in th e draw ing below.T he top of the drawerside is laid out with a full dovetail so that,from above, th e side app ears to butt rath erthan overlap th e drawer front. This leavesth e top sur face of th e drawer front unbrokenand allows a molded or rounded top on th edrawer side to terminate against th e drawer
front . Th e layout with a full tail at th ebottom of the drawer front to conceal th egroove leaves a very thi n half pin (left , in th edrawing below). An alternative methodused during th e period was to conceal th egroove with a half tail (cente r,drawingbelow). Both layouts are historicallyaccurate but th e version with all full tailsseems to have been more prevalent, despiteits shortcomings. Newport-style drawerswith nailed-on bottoms used full tails aswell, with the bot tom of th e drawer sideshigher th an the front to allow for the thickness of th e bottom (right, drawing below) .
The rear joint where th e sides meet th eback also has a common recurring layoutand variations th at are equally effect ive.
Th e most prevalent layout (left, in thedrawing on th e facing page) places a full tailat th e top and a half tail at th e bott om . Analternative design (center, drawing facing
page) uses half tails top and bottom . In bothcases, th e lowest pin is placed above th egroove for the drawer bott om . Th e pins areevenly spaced and are usually close in size toth e front tails, th ough th ere may be fewer ofth em . Some drawers with backs rabbetedfor th e drawer bott om (right, drawingfacing page) have a layout th at incor poratesth e rabbet with th e dovetail. The first layoutis well-suited to drawers where the top ofth e sides and back are flat and level. Th esecond layout works well where th e top ofth e drawer side is rounded or molded andth e back can be made to abut it just belowth e shaped edge. Th e third layout is rare andused only for small, inte rior desk drawers.
With th e regional and individualvariat ions in dovetailed drawer construction, it is impossible to call anyone methodth e best. Whil e th e size and spacing of th ejoints changed over tim e, a solid, reliablejoint th at concealed th e grooves or rabbetswas always the goal. Some meth ods, likesliding drawer bottoms, proved to be moresuccessful th an others, but many variat ionsin drawer const ruct ion are historicallycor rect. Th e joinery meth ods of a single
Dovetail Layouts : Drawer Fronts
- - - - - - - - - -1\ \ - - - - - - - - - - -i\ \'
Fulltail~
Exposed side ofdrawer bottom
Runner strip anddrawerbottom nailed on
Drawer front
Half tail
Groovefor draWer\
bottom _ 1Full tail
Half pin
\ \
Drawer side
Full tail
132 C H A I' T ERE I G H T
cabinetmaker evolved and were perfectedover time, so even th e work of a singlecraftsman shows variations. Then, as now,
th e goal was to optimize th e joinery toachieve an elegant and st ructurally sounddrawer. Th e result is often so successful th atit belies th e forethought and plann ing th atpreceded th e work.
BUILDI N G DR AW ER STh e first step in building a drawer is tomeasure th e opening in th e case and planth e size of th e drawer parts accordingly.
Every drawer requires clearan ce room,which needs to be accounted for at th eoutset. A total of I/ l(; in. in width and heightis usually enough clearan ce; more than th atcan cause a drawer to feel too loose in itsopening. In addition, th e bui lder shouldalwaysanticipate th e effects of expansionand cont ract ion due to changes in humidityon drawer clearance. Because of th e widthof th eir components, taller drawers areaffected more th an sho rte r drawers.
Drawer frontsDrawer fron ts are made first, usually fromstock planed to between 3/4 in. and % in. inthi ckness. Flush-fitt ing drawers should becut 1/ 16 in. less in height and 1/ 16 in. less in
width th an th e opening, and lipped drawers
Dovetail Layouts: Drawer Backs
should be cut about 1/ 4 in. longer andI/ S in . taller than th e opening to allow forth e overlap.
Eightee nth-eentury lipp ed drawers havea VIti-in. or 1/ 4-in. bead cut around th eiroutside edge first . Aft er th e bead is cut, t hetop and side rabb et are cut to raise th e lip.This rabbet is about 3/ 16 in . deep and 1/ 4 in.nar rower than th e thi ckness of the drawerfront to leave th e bead undisturbed . In
Drawer side
The front, back andsidesof a drawerareprepared fordovetailing.Thecomponents shouldbesquarelycut andplaned to a uniformthickness.
ord er to make an even overlap, some makerslike to cut th e top rabbet first, adjust th eclearance of th e drawer front in th e case bytrimming th e drawer bottom (wh ich maynecessitate recutt ing th e bottom bead) andth en cut th e side rabbets. Th ere is nooverlapping lip at th e bottom of th e drawer.Once th e drawer front has been cut, it canbe tested in th e drawer opening for fit andthe appropriate amount of clearan ce.
Drawerback
Half tail Half tailHalf pin and rabbetfor drawer bottom
C O N ST RU e T I O N J 0 I N E R Y 133
Lines arescribed acrosstheendsof eachcomponent indicatingthe thickness of theadjoining piece or, in thecaseof half-blinddovetails, the lengthofthe tails.
The material betweenthe tails is sawn andchiseled precisely to thescribed lines.
Lines are th en scribed across th e ends ofth e components with a markin g gauge. It ishelpful to have two markin g gauges or onethat is doubl e sided. One gauge is set forth e thi ckn ess of th e sides and back, and th eothe r for th e length of th e front dovetails,
whi ch is not related to th e thi ckness of anyof th e components and is usually about1/ 2 in. Th e gauge set for th e th ickness of th esides and back is used to scribe lines on th edrawer back, th e back end of th e d rawersides and th e back of th e drawer front.The gauge set for th e length of th e frontdovetails is used to scribe th e front of thesides and th e end grain of th e drawer fronts.With th e exception of th e drawer front, th ecompo nents are scribed on both sides.
Laying out the dovetailsNow th e dovetails can be laid out andscribed on th e drawer sides. In doing so,bear in mind th e posit ion of th e groove forth e drawer bottom . It is importa nt to makesure th at part of a tail covers and concealsth e groove. As a general rule, th e groove isusu ally 1/ 4 in. wide and 1/ 4 in. from th ebottom edge. It is easiest to lay out th e topand bottom features first and add th edovetails, evenly spaced, between th em .Laying out th e dovetails can be confusing,but thinking of th e layout in term s ofpositioning th e pins makes it less so. Takingth e pin width at its narrowest part, thi swidth is marked on th e very end of th epiece at regularly spaced int ervals. Th e restof th e pin is marked back to th e scribed linewith th e use of a bevel gauge set for th eappro priate angle. Th e area within th e pinpositio n can be marked to be cut away toleave th e tails (top photo at left ).
Rem ember th at d rawers built under humid
cond itio ns need very littl e vertica l clearanceand th ose built under dr y con ditions needthe most . Side-to-side clearance is not
affected by hu midity.
Drawer sides and backsAfter th e d rawer fronts are made and fit tothe case, th e sides and backs are made fromth inner secondary wood. Thi ckn esses of% in. to liz in. are com mo n on periodpieces, but thi ckness varies with th e size ofthe drawe r and th e part icular piece. The
134 C II A I'T ERE I G H T
width of th e sides and back is equal to orup to 1/ 16 in. less th an th e height of th efront, exclud ing th e overlapping lip . Th elength of th e sides is dictated by th e depthof th e case, and th e width of th e backshould be made to equa l th e width of th edrawer front, exclud ing th e lips at eithe rend. It is important th at th e sides and backbe planed to a uniform thi ckn ess and th eends of each piece be cut squa rely. It iseasiest to cut th e sides and back as one longpiece and th en cross-cut th em int o th eind ividu al components.
Cutting the tailsO nce th e layout is complete, th e markedareas between th e tails can be removed.To save some time, both drawe r sides canbe clampe d or ta ped togeth er and cutsimu lta neo usly. The material between th etails is remo ved by cutting along th e angledscribe lines with a saw, and th en making aseries of saw kerfs between th e first two.Th e two sides are sepa rated, and each is
trimmed to th e scribed lines with a sharpchisel (bottom photo at left ) To ensure ast raight joint , t his trimming should be done
Marking the Drawer Components
1/11 I 1/
1i3"-AL\?-
" III \11 111 1
~=r-->-T
Each drawerpiece is laidout with the inside facingup, and the top cornersof adjacent pieces arenumbered. The inside, outside, top, bottom andpositionof eachpiece are then identifiable.
from both sides of th e piece. It is importan tto have the edges of th e cuts straig ht andsquare , since these pieces will be used aspatt erns from wh ich the rest of th e jointis made.
The drawer parts may now be marked to
indicate how they will go togeth er. It ishelpful to lay the sides, back and fron t in a
long row as if the drawer assemb ly had been"unrolled" flat with all th e inside surfacesfacing up (see th e d rawing above). Th isarrangem ent positions all bu t one of th emating edges next to each other. The up percorne r of each adjacent piece may be markedwith a nu mber.Th is way,when all th epieces are in a jumble, t he inside, top andposition of each component will be clear.
Laying out and cutting the pinsNext, t he pins are cut in the back to acceptthe drawer sides. This is best done byclamping the drawer back vertica lly in th evise and laying the correspon ding drawerside over the end. After careful alignme ntof the two pieces, th e doveta ils are scribedonto the end of th e drawer back with a fineknife (top photo at right). If th e d rawerside is position ed so th at it exten ds slightlyover the back (only about 1132 in. or so)while the joint is being scribed, th e pinswill be marked just a littl e larger and willensu re a very snug joint. O nce th e pins havebeen marked, saw kerfs are cut straightdown on either side of th em, just outsideof the marked line, to th e scribed line.Th e mater ial between th e pins is removedby cutting along th e scribed line with acoping saw. The rema inder of th e materialis trimmed on the bench with a chisel(bottom photo at right).
The drawer side is usedasa templateto transferthetail layout onto theend of the drawer back.
The material betweenthe pins is sawn andchiseled to thescribedlines.
C O N S T R U e T I O N J 0 I N E R Y 135
The front pins arescribed from the tail piece onto the end of the drawer front in thesame manner that the pins were scribed onto the back.
A saw is used to cut on either side of thepins. The saw kerfmay extend across theback of the drawer frontbut cannot extend past thescribed lineon the end grain.
Th e front dovetails are cut in a sim ilarfashion, with th e drawer front heldvertically in th e vise and the drawer side
positioned over its end to mark th e dovetail s(photo at left above). Some makers shift th edrawer bott om to one side so that itoverhangs th e bottom of th e drawer frontby about 1/ 32 in. This positions th e pieces soth at th e assembled drawer slides on th esides and th e bottom edge of the drawer
front does not drag over th e case opening.As on the rear dovetails, th e side can beshifted slightly to overhang th e back tomake th e marked pins slightly larger and toensure a tight joint. O nce the doveta ils arescribed, it is helpful to press the edge of achisel int o th e marked lines to make th emst raight and more visible.
C utt ing half-blind dovetailsIn a half-blind dovetai l, cutt ing th e mat erialaway from between th e pin s of th e drawerfron t is th e most labor-int ensive part of th ework. In other parts of th e work, most ofth e material can be sawn away, but in thi sphase it mu st be cut with a chisel. Thedrawer front is clamped face down with oneend at th e edge of th e bench . Th e pin
markin gs are extended along th e inside ofth e drawer front for an inch or two wit h a
136 C HAP T E R E I G H T
square. A cut is made with th e dovetail sawon either side of th e pins followin g thi s lineand th e scribed pin line on th e end (photoat right above). In doing thi s, th e saw cut ismad e across th e edge of th e piece andcont inues int o th e wood at an angle. Thiscut cannot extend past th e scribed line onth e end grain, but it can extend an inch ortwo across th e back. Now th e material
between the pins can be chiseled away bylayers. A chisel cut is made just inside thescribed line across the areas that will beremoved. Then horizontal chisel cuts aremade from th e end, splitt ing off a layerabout li B in. th ick (photo below). This isdone repeatedly until th e material betweenth e pins has been cut to all the scribed lines.Narrow or bevel-edge chisels are needed to
Since the front dovetailsarehalf-blind, thematerial betweenthepins must bechiseledaway in layers andtrimmed to thescribedlines.
remove material from th e inside corne rs ofth ose areas that th e sawblade could notreach. All th e cut sur faces should be flat ,
square and to the line.
Assembling the drawerWith all the doveta ils cut, it' s tim e for a tri alfit. Th e joints should be snug enough to gotogether with some resistance. Any part ofth e joint th at interferes with anoth ershou ld be found and trimmed. Several lighttaps with a mallet on a protect ive piece ofwood will usually be requ ired to close th ejoint completely. O nce th e drawer istogeth er, a line is drawn around th e insideto mark where th e grooves for th e drawerbottom will be.
Th e drawer is taken apart and th egroovesare cut on all th e pieces with a planeor dado blade. Th e groove should be about1/ 4 in. deep, but in no case should its depthextend more th an halfway through th ethi ckness of th e sides, because that wouldweaken th em conside rably. Th e back,which stops flush with th e top of th egroove, should be marked at th e top of th egrooveand cut to th e correct width. At th ispoint, th e top of th e sides should bechamfered or rounded as desired and anyother sharp edges should be broken with asingle pass of a plane. Th e bottom of th edrawer front should be rounded slightly orchamfered on th e inside edge to ease it overthe drawer opening should it ever sta rt todrag. With all th e final details taken care of,the drawer may be glued and assembled.Th e joints are clamped across th e width ofthe drawer to be sure th e joints are fullyclosed. Th e square ness of th e assembleddrawer shou ld be checked before th e gluedries. Once th e glue has dri ed, any part of
th e joint s can be trimmed flu sh ifnecessary.
Finally, th e drawer bottom is fit andsecured. It is usually th e same th ickness asthe drawer sides and tapered at th e frontand sides to th e width of th e groove.Because of th eir width, drawer bottom s
expand and cont ract more th an any otherpart of th e drawer, and one should
ant icipate and plan for thi s movement aswith any other wide piece of wood. Thegrain of th e drawer bott om should beoriented along its longest dim ension to
minimize th e effects of expansion andcont raction. Drawer bottom s th at areassembl ed under condit ions of highhumidity can be expected to con t ract, andth ose assemb led dur ing low humidity mu stbe given room to expand. It is advisab le toleave a littl e ext ra width on th e drawerbott om extending from th e back of th e
drawer so that future adju stments can bemade if th e wood shrinks conside rably. Thebottom is secured by a few cut brads nailed
into th e drawer back.T he drawer is now complete and may be
fit to th e open ing. Flush drawers requ ire
A groove is cut on theinside of thecomponents to receivethe drawer bottom. Thedrawer back is cut awayat the top of the groovefor installing the bottom.Oncein position, it isheld in place bya fewsmall brads driventhrough the bottom intothedrawer back.
The completed drawer isready for installation inthe case.
drawer sto ps to limit th eir t ravel and mayneed some minor trimming to achieve aneven space around th eir perimeter. Lippeddrawers may require some minor tr immingof th e back of th e lip in orde r to closet ightl y to th e case all around.
CASE CONSTRUCTION
Ju st as th e dovetail joint revolutioni zedth e assembly of drawers, so did it changeth e basic const ruct ion of case pieces. Th eframe-and-panel system of th e 17th centurywas sup planted by dovetailed case
C ON ST R u e T I O N J 0 I N E R Y 137
18th-Century Case Constructi on
Top rabbeted for back
Side rabbeted for back
Backoverlaps case bottom.
CASE SIDE
CAS E TOP
Front andsides of toparerabbeted on some cases.
Top front rail
Side rabbeted for rails
Drawer divider
CASE BOTTOM
Bottom front rail
Bottomfront rail sometimesoverlapscase bottom.
const ruct ion, reducing bulk and weightand facilit ating th e trend to verticallyoriented designs. Whereas 17th-eentu rycons t ruct ion required join ed rails, st iles andpanels for a component like a chest side, th enewer const ruct ion reduced th at to onewide board join ed to th e rest of th e case bydovetails.
O ne nice feature of th e fram e-and -pan elsyste m was that its floating panel s mad e th e
piece relatively immune to th e effects ofvariati ons in humidity. However, th e
138 C II APT ERE I G 1-1 T
limitat ions of th is system outweighedwhatever advan tages it had, and by th ebeginning of th e 18th centu ry dovetailedcase construction was ubiquitous. Th erewere new con cerns that arose from buildingcases from nothing but wide boards, such ashow to deal with th eir movem ent, bu t th esewere nothing that could not be anticipatedand plann ed for.
Like drawer const ruct ion, dovetail ed
case construction evolved in style over time.Early dovetails were large and widelyspaced; over th e cours e of the century they
came to be narrower and closer togeth er.The dovetail s usuall y do not show onprimary sur faces, since th ey are plann ed tobe eithe r covered by a molding or oriented
to be exposed on seconda ry surfaces . O ne ofth e few places wh ere dovetails are seen onth e primary surface of a case piece is on thetop edges of slant-front desks, where th eyhad to be aesthetically pleasing as well asfunct ional (see th e bottom dr awing on the
facing page). The cases of slant-front desksand chests, wh eth er th ey are chests of
drawers, chests-on-frame, chests-on-ehestsor th e top case of high chests, are st ructurally similar. High-chest bases and dr essing
tables are also similar, having been ofdovetailed constr uct ion early in th e centuryand morti se-and -tenon constructio n later.
C hests a nd desksChests and desks begin as empty vertica lboxes with only a top, a bottom and twosides joined by through dovetails. In mostinstances, th e top and bottom of th e caseare laid out as th e tail pieces and are used totran sfer th e dovetail patt ern onto th e upperand lower ends of the case sides. In layingout th e details of th e join ery, specialconside ration should be given to th erabbets for attach ing th e back of th e caseand the top and bottom front rails. Th eback meets th e top in a rabbet and does notexte nd th rough to th e top surface. Th efront rail abuts th e underside of th e top ormeets it in a rabbet . An elegant way toprovide rabbets at th e front and backwithou t having th em extend th rou gh to th esides is to rabbet th e front, back and sides toth e same depth. This makes th e dovetailssomew hat less thi ck, but th ey becom eeasier to cut and fit and are just as effect ivea joint.
By plann ing half tails at th e front and
back of the case to cover th e end of th erabbets in th e side, th e result is a clean andun complicated-lookin g joint . Th e side ofth e joint, th e pin side, is covered with amolding so only th e tail side is ever seen.Th e bottom of the case is also a tai l piece,but it is narrower than th e top or sides. Atthe bottom of th e case, th e case backoverlaps th e bottom . Th e bottom front raileither abuts or overlaps th e bottom . Th e
case bottom can be laid out with full tails;no half tails are required. Th e lower-easemolding covers th e pin side of th e joint th atis visible on th e case side .
In cases where th e top dovetails need tobe hidden, as on a low chest of drawers,half-blind dovetails are used . In th ese cases,
th e top of the sides becom e th e tail piecesand are dovetailed to the top. Th ey are laidout with a half tail at the back to cover th e
rabbet for th e back in th e case top andeither a half or full tail at th e front. Th e
Dovetailed Cross-Ra ilsfor Top Atta chment
joint is not visible from th e top and istotally covered by a molding applied to th ecase side.
Cases th at will have an attac hedoverhanging top are ofte n built with frontand rear cross-pieces th at are joined withhalf-blind dovetails to th e case sides(d rawing above). Th ese cross-rails secu re th ecase sides and provid e a st ructu re to wh ichthe top is later fastened. In th ese inst ances,th e cross-rails are the tai l pieces and thedoveta ils do not extend to the outsides ofth e case. Th e cross-rails and th e joinery arehidden once th e top is attached .
Slant-front desks also employ ha lf-blinddovetai ls on th e top joint (drawing at right).This joint is quite visible, and th rou gh dovetails would be too intrusive. By orient ingth e dovetails so that th e desk top is th e tailpiece, th e assembled joint is on th e top ofth e case and th e sides are left untou ched .As with other cases, a half tail at th e back ofth e case conceals th e rabb et for th e backboard . Th e front of th e joint uses a full tailso th at th e front of th e top abuts th e sideand makes a nice, uncluttered joint.
Attached top
Cross-rail
Half-Blind Doveta ilson Slant-Fron t Desks
Full tailat front
C O N ST R U e T I O N J 0 I N E R Y 139
Case Construct ion with Turned Legs
Front and back dovetailed to sides
Case Constructionwith Cabriole Legs
Front, sidesandback are tenonedinto legs.
140 C H A P T ERE I G H T
Dressing tabl es and high-chest basesDressing tables and th e bott oms of highchests share a st ructure th at is differentfrom th at of chests. Th ese pieces began thecentury as horizon tal boxes comprising afront, back and sides joined at th e fourcorners with dovetai ls. Th e back joints werehalf-blind dovetai ls with the back as th e tailpiece, so th e joint was only visible from th eback. Th e front rails and aprons weredovetailed to th e sides in a similar mann er.Th e joints on th e front were either veneeredover or hidd en under thin strips of woodplaced vertically along th e front edges ofth e case.
The turned William and Mary legs ofthe period were joined to the case by meansof glue blocks. Th ese blocks were gluedinto th e four lower inside corne rs of th ecase and were drill ed to receive th e turnedtenon of th e leg (see th e top drawing atleft). Th e turned legs were also joined toone another by stretchers just above th efeet, which st rengthened th e assembly anddistributed any side load among all th e legs.When th e William and Mary style passedout of fashion in favor of the Qu een Ann estyle with its cabriole legs, thi s method ofjoining legs to th e case was found to be inneed of improvement. With out stretchers,each cabriole leg had to be attachedindepend entl y and be able to with standth e sideways force of being dragged. Th esolut ion changed th e essent ial structure of
th e piece.Glue blocks were eliminated, and the
square top sect ion of the cabriole leg wasextended up to the top of th e case. All th ecomponents of th e case, th e front, sides andback, were tenoned int o th e legs, makin gth e leg an int egral part of th e st ructurerath er th an an addition. Th e one drawbackto thi s meth od of const ruct ion was th at thehorizontally oriented case componentswere not free to expand and cont ract withchanges in humidity since they wereconst rained by being tenoned into vertica llyoriented leg blocks. Cracking of case sidesand backs was frequently th e resu lt (see th esidebar on th e facing page).
Th is new method of const ruct ion fordressing tables and high-chest bases becameth e norm everywhere but in Newport.
PREVENTING CRACK ING W ITH PRECOMPRESSION
Vertical clampsprecompress side.
Most of th e meth ods ofjoinery used by period
furniture makers allowed forchanges in humidity, but thereare a few components th at donot. Th e most notable are th esides of case pieces such asdressing tables and th e bases ofhigh chests. In both of th esepieces, th e grain of th e sidesruns horizontally and oftenexceeds 12 in. in width. Piecesthis wide can show appreciable
movement with even mod eratechanges in humidity, but sincethe sides are tenoned and peggedinto the vertical legs, th e normal
expansion and contractio n isconstrained. Since th e sidescannot move freely, and sincewood is quite weak in tensionacross th e grain, th e sides willinevitably crack.
An effective way toprevent th e cracking of th eseconst rained pieces is to makesure they never go into tensionacross th e grain. Wh en th e pieceis being assembl ed, th e sides canbe clamped tightly across th egrain to put th e ent ire side intocompression. Th e clamps are leftin place un til the glue in thejoints has cured. On ce th eclamps have been removed andthe joints have been pegged, th esides will continue to be in
compression. Wh en th e piece isexposed to lower humidity, th ecompressive force will decrease.Th e precompression willprevent or at least drasticallyredu ce th e possibility th at th eside will experience enoughtension to crack as its moisturecontent d rops.
There is a limit to th eamount of precompression that
Precomp ress ion
Horizontal clampshold assembly untilglue dries.
Precompressing a caseside that is mortised intolegs reduces tendency forsides to crackin tensioncaused by shrinkage.
should be atte mpted. Tocompress a piece of wood moreth an I% in its wid th will exceedth e elastic limit of the wood.Beyond th at point th e wood willtake on a permanent compressive set and will not return fullyto its original dimension whenthe force is released. Withinthat I%however, enoughprecompression is possible to
offset a change in moisturecontent averaging about 3.5%,well within th e range of normalvariations in moisture contentfor well-sealed wood . Thi s allowsa precompressed side th at wasassembled at 60% relative
humidity to experience a dropto 35% relative humidit y beforegoing into tension . (See alsoApp endix I on p. 293.)
Newport cabinetmakers continued to usethe William and Mary case const ruct ioninto th e Qu een Ann e and Chippendaleperiods. Th ey apparently were pleased withthe way th e case par ts were free to expandand contrac t, and they found a goodmethod by which to attach th e legs.Newport makers dovetailed th e case andaffixed th e cabriole legs with th e leg blockheld in place on th e inside corne r of th e
case with glue blocks. Th e leg wasshouldered just above th e knee, so th eweight of th e case was born e by th e leg itselfand not a glued block. Glu ed and nailedblocks held th e block of th e leg into th einside case corner and resisted side loads onthe leg, bu t th ey did not carry any weight.Judic ious use of glue on th ese glue blocksleft th e legs free to be slid out of th e casefor tr ansport.
Drawer dividersDrawer divid ers not only separate onedrawer opening from another, but th ey alsoplaya st ruc tu ral role in keepin g th e casesides stra ight and parallel. The dividers aredovetailed int o th e case with slidingdovetails, which are slightly different from
th e dovetai ls used to join case and drawersides. Slidin g dovetails join a tail cut acrossth e end of a piece to a correspo ndingly
C O N ST R U e T I O N J 0 I N E R Y 141
shaped groove or cuto ut in another piece.A sliding dovetail can join a piece at rightangles anywh ere along th e length ofanother. Th e joint is not limited to end-toend joining as are standard dovetail s.
Drawer dividers of 18th-eentury piecesare dovetaile d into the case by a variety ofmeans . Many pieces from early in thecentury have dovetai led divid ers th atexte nd th rough th e full width of th e caseand are flu sh with th e outs ide surface. Th eactu al depth of th e dovetail is less th anI in ., and th e rest of th e divider is a full2 in. or 3 in. in width. While joints of thi styp e were easily made and ent irelyfun ctional, th eir aesth etic shortco ming wasthat t he end grain of th e divider showed onth e case side. Interest ingly, that was oftenthe only part of th e joint th at was visible,since th e front surface was ofte n coveredwith a single- or doubl e-arch mold ingsurround ing th e d rawer openings.
Th e more elegant method, wh ich cameint o widespread use, employed a shor terdovetail that did not extend through th e
case side. As with the earlier version, t hedivid er was 2 in. or 3 in. wide, but th edovetail was less than 1 in. deep . Th is kindof blind sliding dovetail required moreskill and time to make, but was required asrefinements in cabinetmaking increasinglycalled for unbroken surfaces and aminimization of exposed const ruction.
Often th e installat ion of drawer div iderswas combined with a meth od for installin gdrawer runners. A good way to posit ionrunners was to let th em into shallow (1/Hin.)
dado es and affix th em with a couple ofnails. This way, th e dadoes carry th e weightof th e d rawers and th e nails serve to keepth e runners in th e dadoes. In cutti ng th ese
dad oes, especially by hand with a saw andplane as th e original makers did , it is easiestto let th em exte nd to th e front and back
edges of th e case. Rather than stoppingshort of the dovetai l for th e drawer divider,th e two were simp ly sup erimposed andcombined to make a shou ldered dovetai l.This arrangem ent ensured th e prop eralignm ent of th e runner and divider at th eoutset and over time. Th e lis-in. shoulder
also positioned th e dovetail so th at it wasnot partially hidden under an overlappingdrawer lip.
Half-blind slidingdovetail
Dovetail with mitered shoulder forcase with cockbeading
Slidingdovetail extendsthrough case side.
Case side
Shouldered dovetail provides dadofor drawerrunner.
Joining DrawerDividers to Case Sides
142 C H A I' T E RE I G II T
Th e bombe and serpentine case piecesof th e second half of th e century had cockbeadin g sur rounding th e dr awer opening.Th ough st raight-fronted pieces had beadingon either th e case or drawer, th e complexityof th e curved fronts required th e beadin g tobe cut from th e solid of th e case and dr awerdividers. Th e bead had to be mitered wh erethe dividers met th e case. To do thi s, th edovetail on th e end of th e divider was givenan angled shoulde r, but this precluded th euse of a ru nn er dado th at exte nds to th efron t of th e case.
Drawer runnersIn order to move smoothly in a case, d rawersmust be const rained in th eir up-and-d ownand sideways movement. Th e dr awers slideon runners, are prevented from ti ppingdownward when th ey are pull ed out bykickers above th e d rawer, and are keptstraight in th eir openings by guides alongth e drawer sides. In most dovetailed chestcases, th e inside sur faces of th e case act asguides and th e runners for th e drawer aboveserve as kickers. Top drawers need th eir ownkickers nailed to th e inside of th e case.
As previously menti oned, th e best wayto attach runners is to nail th em int o shallowdadoes in th e case sides. In atta ching th erunners, some th ought should be given toth eir relationship with th e expansion andcont ract ion of th e case side . The runnersshould be a fraction of an inch shorter th enth e depth of th e case so th at as th e caseshrinks th e runners will not push off th eback boards. A littl e gap of not mu ch moreth an 1/ 16 in. should be left between th e backof th e divider and th e front of th e runner soth e divider is not pu shed out in th e sameway. In nailing th e runner in place, one na ilshould be close to th e front end, and th eother no more th an halfway back. If th erewere to be one nail at either end of th erunner, th e case side would likely crack inthe middl e upon shrinking or loosen a nailupon expanding. Placing th e nails in th efron t half of th e divider allows most of th eside to expand and contract freely andsubjects th e nails to only half as mu ch woodmovement. Similarly, if glue is used inadditio n to th e nails, it should be appliedonly at th e front sectio n of th e runner.
Drawer Ru nners
Case side
Drawer divider
CROSS SECTION OF DUSTBOARD
Drawer divider
It is imp ortant to rem ember that with alet-in runner, th e dado carrie s th e weight ofthe drawer th rou gh th e runner, not th enails th em selves. Th e nails serve only tokeep th e runner in th e dado. Often th erunner will pop out of th e dado at th e rearof th e case if it is nailed only at th e frontand th e case side will cup inward. Tocounter th is problem, th e attac hed side ofth e runner may be plan ed with a slightconcave shape along its length before it isnailed in place.
Som e 18th-eentury pieces are knownto have drawer runners that were affixedwith shallow sliding doveta ils that exte ndedover their full length. Th ese runners stay inplace without th e use of nails and allowth e sides to expand and contract freely.
Drawer runne let into shallowdadoand nailed and glued in fronthalf only to allow movementofcase side
./
This is an elegant meth od of attachingdr awer runners for which th e originalmakers should be commended, but it is alabor-int ensive method th at never saw
wid espread use.
Dustboa rdsMany 18th-century cabinetmakers installeddu stboard s between dr awers to keep th econte nts of th e dr awers as clean as possible.These du stboard s exte nded th e full widthand depth of the case and doubl ed as
dr awer runners. Th e board s were let intothe dadoes on either side of th e case andwere ofte n dadoed int o th e back of th edr awer divid er. They were free to expandand cont ract within th e side dadoes.
CON ST R U e T I O N J 0 I N E R Y 143
Du stboard s were ofte n made from th e sameth in-sawn secondary stoc k as th e dr awercomponents and are th erefore ofte n thinnerth an th e width of th e side dadoes. To makeup th e difference, a filler st rip was add ed,thus filling th e space and serving as a kickerfor th e dr awer below (see th e bottomdrawing on p. 143).
Other kinds of cases require a morecomplicated system of runners and guides.Chest cases with front quarter colum nshave inn er case sides th at are not in linewith th e sides of th e drawer openings.Th ese cases require added drawer guidesattached to th e inn er case sides, and asyste m of freestanding runners th at arejoin ed to th e dr awer divid ers at th e frontand a rail at th e back. Dressing tables andhigh-ehest bases require runners let int o th efron t and rear of th e case, and guides andkickers th at are eit her let int o th e insideof th e leg blocks or nailed to th e inn ercase sides.
Sliding Dovetail forTop Attachment
Case top slidesontodovetailon case side.
Side
Case AttachmentsMany parts of 18th-eentury furni t ure
includ ing tops , moldings and feet- areadd ed to th e basic st ructure of th e case afterit is assembled. Because th ese part s are notint egral to th e case, th ey are joined by avariety of means, each designed to attachth e part securely whil e allowing both th ecase and attac hed parts to expand andcont ract independe ntly.
Battens for Top Attachment
CROSS SECTION
Top
TOPSPieces with att ached tops present a uniqueproblem for furniture makers. Tops areusually th e widest component of a piece,and as such th ey are subject to th e greatestamount of expansion and contraction. Th etop is also th e one component th at needs toremain flat and inta ct more than any other.We have already discussed chest tops th atare int egral to th e case itself; we will now
Battens attachedacross a frame orcase are usedto attach topfrom underneath.
Rabbet for back
A sliding dovetail joins atop to a side whileallowingthe top to expand andcontractwith changes inhumidity.
144 C H A I' T ER E I G H T
Top
Frame
Frame
Peg
fram e, the top was able to expand and
cont ract. A more elegant method involved
the use of sho rt cleats, whi ch were tenon edinto mortises in th e fram e and screwed or
nailed to th e underside of th e top . Theadvantages of tenon ed cleats were th at they
allowed the top to expand and cont ract
freely while st ill holding th e top secur ely
in place.
A com mo n method of const ruc t ion for
rectangular tea t ables was to rabb et th e
Top
Glue blocksand pegs were afavorite methodof attachingatop, but theydidnot allow for anyexpansion orcontraction.
A tenoned cleatholds the top tothe frame whileallowingthe topto expand andcontract.
Glue block
Frame
Top
Onsomerectangularteatables, the topis rabbetedwhere it joinsthe frame, andthe top andmoldingaregluedand nailedin place.
Screws can beused by themselves to securea top if theyare screwedthrough angledpockets in theframe.
Top Attachment
th e top is attached to th e batten , usually
with screws. Battens were favored amo ngNewpor t cabinet ma kers , who used th em to
attac h the tops of dr essing tables, tea tables
and dining tables.Screws were also used to screw directly
th rou gh fram es int o th e underside of table
to ps (see the drawin g above). An angled
pocket was chiseled into the inside of th e
frame, and th e screw ente red th e top at an
angle. By providing an oversized hole in th e
look at other tops th at are added to a case or,
as with tables, a fram e.
One way th at a top can be added to a
frame is with sliding doveta ils. The
geometry of t he sliding dovetail allows th e
top to expand and cont ract along th e
dovetail while rema in ing secure ly attached .This meth od is somet imes used to join a topto a dressing table of mortise-and -tenon
constr uctio n by cut t ing full-lengt h tails on
the top of th e case sides so th ey exte nd up
past the top of th e leg blocks at th e corners
(see th e d rawing at left on th e facing page).
Th e dovetail cut int o th e under side of the
top stops sho rt of th e front edge, so th e top
can be slid on from th e front. The only
visible signs of th e joint are on the backedge of th e top.
A sim ilar met hod was used for at tac hingoverhanging case tops, where th e top joints
of th e case were slid ing dovetails and th e
botto m joints were conventional through
doveta ils. Somet imes th ese sliding dovetail swere tapered over th eir length so th ey
wou ld tight en as th ey were pressed intoth eir final position . A variat ion on th esliding dovetail is a wedged slid ing dovetail,
where th e doveta il is on on ly one side of th e
joint and small wedges are driven into th e
straig ht side of th e joint to lock it in place.
Thi s method elimina tes th e ext raordinary
precision and tr ial-and -error fitti ng of
stra ight or tapered sliding dovetails. It
appea rs to have only half th e hold ing powerof two-sided slid ing dovetails, but, wit h th e
use of th e wedges, th e joint can be mad every tight over its entire length .
Cross-pieces were mention ed in th e
discussion of case const ruct ion (see p. 139) .
These members are dovetailed across th e
front and back of th e top of th e case and
create a false case top to whi ch th e over
hanging case top is attac hed. Som etimes the .front of th e top is screwed in place and the
rear is affixed with sma ll sliding dovetails toallow t he top to expand and contract freely.
Tops can also be attac hed with battens(see th e drawing at right on th e facing page).
A batten is a narrow strip of wood th at
extends across th e width of th e top . It is
first attac hed to th e case or fram e and th en
C O N ST Ru e T I O N J 0 I N E R Y 145
underside of th e top, t hereby allowing it todrop onto th e frame. The thin edge wasgiven a rounded profil e and allowed tooverhang th e frame. Th e top moldi ng was
appli ed directly over th e top and nai ledth rou gh th e top int o th e frame. Because thetop was not free to expand and contractacross its width, many of th ese tables havecracked tops. A better method wou ld havebeen to let th e top into a rabbet in thefram e and apply a mo ldin g to the frame,th ereby secu ring th e top in place whi leallowing it to expand and contract freely.
A less refined method of attaching
tops was simply to glue th em to th e frame
Applied-Molding Attachment
As case expands andcontracts,front jointremains intact.
Top of case
Front molding
146 C H A P T ERE I G ilT
I
and add some glue blocks around th einside; often this method of attachmentwas augmented by driving wooden pegsth rou gh th e tabletop into th e frame. Madeto fit t ightly, the pegs help ed to hold thetop in place. Neither th e pegs nor th e glueblocks allowed th e top to expand and
cont ract , and th e tops inevitably crackedand some of the glue blocks came loose.Nevertheless, there was still enough of abond to keep th e tops attached. Those thateventually came loose were frequ ently putback in place with pocketed screws th roughth e fram e.
Side molding
Very little glue isusedtoward backof case.
Front and miter areglued well.
Cross-nail miter joint.
MOLDI N GSTh e historically accurate method ofatta ching most case moldings is to glue andnail th em in place. Original pieces were
nai led with thin brads th at were taperedover th eir entire length and held quitesecurely. Across th e front of cases, th eappli cation of a molding is straightforward,but on th e sides , perpendicu lar to th e grain,th e expansion and contraction of th e casemust be considered.
Moldings that are securely glued andnailed in place restrict th e movement of theside and will lead to a cracked side or an
un attached molding, depend ing onwh ether th e side shrinks or swells. Wh en
th e side expands, it usually pu lls apart t hemitered joint wh ere th e front and sidemoldings meet .
Th e best way to attach moldin gs to thecase side is to affix th e moldin g at th emitered joint securely and let th e rest of th emold ing be less firml y attached. Thi s meansappl ying a concent rat ion of glue at th emiter join t and th e area within a few inchesof it, and mu ch less glue along th e length ofth e molding. Th e molding is best cross
nailed through th e miter joint itself and atregular int ervals of 4 in. or 5 in. along thelength of th e moldin g. The nails toward theback of th e case will flex to accommodateth e movement of th e case side. Wh en th ecase side expands or cont racts as a result ofchanges in humidity, th e front of th emolding will remain secu re and th e mit erjoint will remain inta ct whi le th e back partof the attachm ent yields.
Boston cabinetmakers were fond ofgluing and nailing a st rip of wood on thebottom of th e case exte nd ing from front toback on eithe r side. Thi s st rip provided asubframe of sorts , to which th e moldin gand feet cou ld be atta ched . The sides of th ecase were able to move on the sub framewithout seriously compro mising th eattac hment of th e moldin g or feet.
Back foot
Corner block
Case side
Case side
~'--f- Corner block
-oE--'--------'---\, Glue block
Stripsacrossfront and sidesofcase bottom createstablearea toattach feetandmolding.
Solid strip nailedto case bottom
Glue blocks
o
'--~_~~-.L~Corner glue block
L-t--r-N:r t-- Corner glue block
Back
Front molding
Case bottom
Glue block
Front molding
BOSTON METHOD
Foot Attachment
FEET GLUED TO CASE BOTTOM
FEETFindin g a st ructura lly sound meth od ofattaching feet to a case is a challenge. Th ecase side and bottom expand and cont ractacross th e grain, and th e molding applied tothe outs ide edge does not. Th e feet areattached to both of th ese dynami callydissimilar pieces and will have to bear th eweight of the finished piece and th e sideforces of being dr agged across th e floor. Inadditi on , the feet have to exhibit th eethereal or powerfu l qualit ies of th e era inwhich th ey were mad e.
Atta ched feet depend on glue for theirprimary means of adherence. William andMary ball feet were turn ed with a rou ndtenon that was fit into a d rilled hole in th eund erside of the case and secured withglue. Bracket feet and ogee bracket feet werealso glued in place. Front feet are joined by45° mit er joints at the edges; rear feetusually have an abutt ing support on th eback side. Th ey are glued together and
glued to th e molding on th e case bottom . Avertical glue block in th eir inside corne rreinforces th e miter joint and carr ies mostof the weight of th e case. Horizontal glueblocks between th e feet , molding and casehelp to adhere th e feet to th e case bottom .Band y legs, or short cabriole legs, werejoined in mu ch th e same way. Their wide
knee blocks served as large glue blocks bothto support and adhere th e feet to the case
Th e liberal use of glue and glue blocksdid not leave mu ch allowance for theexpansio n and cont raction of th e sides, andmost cabinetmakers probably figured th atenough big glue blocks would compensatefor the effects of wood movemen t. Inreality, the feet were adhered well enough
to the case to move wit h it, and the gluejoint with th e stat ionary molding yielded.In retrospect , the Boston method ofattaching th e feet and molding to a st rip ofwood on th e underside of the case wasmore structura lly sound and offered betterjoint integrity.
CON ST R u e T I O N J 0 I N E R Y 147
9CABRIOLE LEGS
BALL AND CLAW FEET
h e cabriole leg is one of th edistinguishing features of Queen Annefurniture, and its use held over into theChippenda le period. Good cabriole legs arenot diffi cu lt to make, but a discerning eyeand careful planning are need ed to achieveth e subtle grace of th e best originalexamples. Since th e basis for Queen Annedesign lies in sculpted shape, and th ecabriole legs are often th e most sculpturalcomponents on a piece, the success of th e
piece can lie in th e refinement of the legs.Ball and claw feet were one of severa l
types of animal feet used to terminatecabriole legs. They are closely associatedwith th e Am erican C hippendale periodan associat ion that is more by coincidenceth an design .
Cabriole LegsOn original pieces, th e characte rist ics
of th e cabriole legs can help identify th eorigin and skill level of th e maker, andth ey are also indi cative of th e overall levelof sophistication of th e piece. High-stylepieces from th e shops of leading urbancabinetmakers have legs th at flow smoothlyand are well integrat ed with the ent ire
design. More rural examples may appearout of proportion to th e whole, or lack
148
smooth ly flowin g conto urs. As with othe raspects of 18th-centur y furniture, th ecabriole legs of less-refin ed examples ofte n
show the idiosyncrasies that give th e piecesth eir cha racte r, whil e formal pieces exhibitthe skill in design and execut ion associated
With thecabriole shapeused for both legs andarm supports, and astrong presence affordedbybold ball and clawfeet , the Newportroundabout chair is atightly composedsymphony of sculpturalelements. This examplewas made bytheauthorfor a private collectionafteran original byJohnGoddard of Newport,1760-1780.
with th e craftsme n who were leadin g th edevelopment of the style.
Because th e cur ved shape of cabriole legsis fund amental to th eir form, even min orirregulariti es can be glaringly apparent.Irregularit ies becom e even mor e obvious
after th e piece has been fin ished to anice luster, at wh ich point it is too late toreshape th e leg. Th ese irregulariti es arenot so mu ch th e result of variati ons indim ensions, but rath er of awkwardtransitions from one part of a cur ve toanother, or min or bumps or dip s in anotherwise smooth cur ve. After a leg hasbeen handcrafted, it makes very littl edifference if one leg is, for example, '/ 16 in.th inner at th e knee th an anothe r, but it isglaringly appa rent if th e cur ves of th e legdo not flow smoothly. A smooth shape ismore important th an an actual dimension .Wh en it is well executed, th e cur ve of th eleg should carry th e eye from th e top of th eknee to th e tip of th e foot in a seamlesstransition without interruption ordistraction.
MAKING CA BRIOLE LEGSTh ere are four steps in making a cabriole
leg. First, a patt ern is made to define th eprofile. Second, th e profile is traced ontoth e prepared blank, which is th en sawn torough shape. Third, th e bottom of th eDutch or pad foot is tu rned on th e lath e.Finally,th e contours are smoothed , and th eleg is shaped to its final form. At each stepof th e process, careful atte nt ion to th eprofile will help ensure well-shaped andconsistent results.
Making the pa tternSuccessful cabriole legs begin with acarefully made patt ern . One pattern of th eprofile is all th at is needed to define andcreate th e leg. It is in thi s patt ern th at th edim ensions of th e leg are set and th e cur vesare worked out before any wood is cut. Ifone is working from an original piece, th e
patt ern making is redu ced to th e relativelysimple task of copying th e leg profile, eit herby tr acing or measuring. If working from aphotograph , it is helpful to have one th atshows th e leg profile from stra ight ahead.Because th e legs are cur ved on all four sides,looking at th e leg from an angle shows a
shape th at is an exaggeration of th e patternprofile. Similarly, any part of th e leg th at isnot round in cross sect ion, and th at can
include all but th e foot and ankle, willappear to be thi cker th an th e patt ern profilewhen viewed at an angle.
Def in ing Dimens ionsof Cabriole Legs
K
A. overall lengthB. maximum width at kneeC. length of leg blockD. width of legblockE. height of adjoining knee blockF. depth of back curveG. footdiameterH. foot heightI. pad diameterJ. pad heightK. ankle diameterL. ankle heightM.distance to peak of kneeN. distance to peak of back curveO. distance to front inflection pointP. distance to rear inflection pointQ. knee angleR. transition angle to knee block
In making th e pattern, th ere are manykey features th at can be measured to aid infaithfully replicat ing th e or iginals. Thedr awing at left shows th e dimensions th atdefine a cabriole leg. Besides th e obviousmeasurem ents, th ere are several point s th atare imp ortant in defining th e cu rve. Th esepoints denote th e width and location of th epeak of th e knee, th e back of th e knee, th ethinnest part of th e ankle and th e infl ect ionpoints. Inflect ion points are th ose pointswh ere th e profil e changes from concave toconvex. It is rare to find period originals
th at have any discernible st raight sect ionsalong th e length of th e leg. Th ere areusually very slight curves th rou ghout th elength , and locating th e infl ection pointsaids trem endou sly in captur ing th eir mostsubtle nu ances.
Th ere are a few general rules of thumbth at apply to cabrio le legs. Th en , as now,th e makers used rou gh stoc k in d imensionsof inch multiples. Most large cabriole legswere cut from 3-in . stock, whi ch afte rdr ying and planing could be more like2314in. or 2% in. This dimension is acom mo n th ickness at th e knee and foot fortall -chest, dre ssing-table and dining-tablelegs. Small er legs, such as th ose on chairsand tea tabl es, usually measure 2'/ 2in. to2% in . at th e knee. Very slender legs, such
as those on tu ckaway tables, may have beensquee zed from 2-in . stock. Because th e legis cut from a straight and squa re piece ofstoc k, just wid e enough to accommodateth e pattern, th e width at th e knee is nearlyalways th at at th e foot . Proportionally, thi swork s out very well: Th e foot usually looksto be of proper size wh en its diam eter isclose to th e width of th e knee .
Experience in measuring man y cabriolelegs has yielded a few more empiricalmaxim s: Even on very robust legs, th e kneerarely protrudes more th an 314in . beyondth e leg block. The block tends to be no lessth an two-thirds th e width of th e knee onwell-proportioned legs, and th e ankl es arefrequ ently about 40%of th e knee width.
Th e location of th e peak of th e knee iscritica l to the appearance of th e leg. A goodfirst app roxim ation is to locate it downfrom th e block a distance about 1/ 4 in.greate r th an th e width of th e leg block. The
C A B R I O LE LEG S, B ALL & C LA W F E E T 149
angle at which th e top of th e knee meetsth e block is about 45 0
• The height of theadjoining knee block is roughly equal to th ewidth of th e leg block. The height of th efoot is about one-quarter to one-third itsdiameter, and th e pad, whi ch is usuallyworn down on originals, probably sta rt edat I/~ in. tall. Once again, th e actualmeasurements of original legs are th e bestsource for th eir repl ication , but th eserelatio nships in th eir geomet ry appearrepeatedly.Th ey may be of use where onlya few actua l measurements may be determined and th e rest must be est imated.
O nce th e important dimensions of theleg have been determined, th e pattern maybe drawn and cut from posterboard or thinwood. It may take a few attempts before th eprofile pattern truly captures th e feel of th eoriginal. Measurements can go only so far inquantifying th e curves of a well-shapedcabriole, and a discerning eye is alwaysessent ial. Even a direct tr acing from anoriginal will require some smoothing, assmall variat ions in th e shape can alter th e
look of th e fini shed leg. It is very importantto have smoothly flowin g cu rves in th epatte rn , and sight ing along th e length of th epattern can help show any irregularitiesmore clearly. The pattern will look like th edrawing of th e leg on p. 149, but it is notnecessary to include th e shape of th e foot,because th is will be turned later. The ext ra
The pattern is used todraw the leg profile ontothe wood . The extra1/4 in. at each endwill becut off when the leg iscomplete.
150 C II A I' T E RN I N E
Growth -Ring Orientat ion
By orienting thegrowth ringson the endgrain to point toward the knee, thegrainpatternsfollowthe contours of the leg.Orienting them in the opposite directionyields a lessattractive pattern.
effort required to perfect the patt ern moreth an pays for itself by making th e rest of th ework easier and yield ing a well-shaped leg.
Preparing and cutt ing the stoc kTh e stock fro m which th e legs are to becut shou ld be dressed straight and square.It should be about liz in. longer then th epattern or finished legs, and at least as wide.Th e ext ra length allows I/~ in. on each endof th e leg th at will be marred by clampingand lath e centers; it will be trimm ed offwhen th e leg is complete . A littl e ext rawidth allows for a continuous cut overth e knee without th e blade running offth e stock.
Before th e pattern is traced on th e stock,th e orientation of th e growt h rings on th eend grain shou ld be noted. Th e leg shouldbe cut so th at th ose rings are or iented topoint in th e dire ct ion of th e knee. As shownin th e drawing at left , aligning the rings thisway ensures th at th e visible features of thewood (the grain patt ern ) follow the shape ofth e leg. Aligning th e end-grain growt h rings
across the leg, from side to side, orients thegrain pattern in a way that is in oppositionto th e contours of th e leg. Whil e th e grainorientation is not noticeable on darklyfinished pieces, it is quite apparent on lightpieces made of grainy wood like mahogany.On some pieces, like those in which the legsare th e major element of th e form, thisorientat ion of th e grain adds to th e qualitiesof th e fini shed piece. It is one of th e smallfeatures that separates truly inspiredfurniture from th e ordinary.
Th e best way to mark the stock for th eoptimal grain orientation is to draw adiagonal line on th e end grain in the direction of th e growt h rings. One end of thatline will be th e corner of th e knee, and th eother will be th e inside corner of th e leg. Inchoosing which will be which, it's import antto remember th at th e leg block and th eankle will be at th e inside corner, and thatcorne r should be free of any imperfectionsin th e stock. It is helpful to mark th e insidecorner to aid in locatin g th e patt ern.
O nce the best or ientation of th e grainis determ ined, th e patt ern can at last betraced onto th e wood. With 1/~ in. left at
either end of th e pattern, th e profile is
drawn on two adjacent sides of th e blank soth at th e ankle and block are positioned inth eir marked corne r (ph oto, facing page).For th e sake of accuracy, a marking gaugeshould be used to scribe th e straight line ofth e block. If th e leg is to have a turnedDutch foot, th e centers of both ends aremarked by drawing crossed diagonal lines.The leg may th en be sawn to shape.
To create a sharp corner wh ere th e blockmeets th e knee, a cut is made along th e
Sawing the Profile Line
Sawing fromboth ends of theprofile line tothe intersectionof the blockandknee results ina sharp insidecornerat thatpoint.
scribed line of th e block first (usin g a framesaw or bandsaw). Th en, sta rt ing from th e tipof th e foot, th e cut is cont inued up th e leg,over th e knee, to meet th e first cut . By usinga piece of stock slightly larger th an th e widthof th e leg, th e cut over th e knee can be madecont inuous and smooth. Very careful sawingwill make th e rest of th e leg shaping thatmuch easier. For th e utmost in accuracy,half th e line on th e leg should be left .
Aft er th e profil e on one side has beencut out, th e scraps can be reattached with aspot of hot glue or double-sided tape andth e second side can be cut out. On ce all thesawing is done, th e scraps can be pu lled offto reveal the rough cut shape of the leg.
Turning th e footBefore the leg is shaped, the foot and padare turned on th e lathe (see p. 183). At th ispoint, th e foot is st ill square stock, definedby th e sawn shap e on th e top and th e penci l
line from th e pattern on th e bottom .Th e leg is set up in th e lath e using th ecente r marks on either end, with th e footnearest th e tailstock. Th e eccent ricity ofth e piece will require sta rt ing th e lath e atits slowest speed.
Th e square foot may now be turned tonear round. Before th e pencil lines areturned off, a parting tool is used to cutstraight in below th e bottom line, leavinga stub less than I in. in diam eter. Thi s stu bis cut off when th e leg is complete.
With th e foot turned near round, th eprofil e of th e bottom of th e foot and th epad may be turned. Using calipers ensuresa cons istent diam eter of the foot and padfrom leg to leg. Th e shape of the bottom ofthe foot is best determined by eye. Beforethe leg is completed, th e lathe should bestopped to make sure there are no flatsfrom th e square stock remaining on th elargest diam eter of th e foot .
After onesideof the leghasbeen cut, the scrapsare reattached (with hotglueor tape) to aid incutting the second side.With the scrapsremoved, the legshowsits rough-cut shape.
The foot is turned fromthe square using thelineson thewood andthe sawn shape asreferences. A skew chiselis used to cut the linethat will define the topedge of the foot.
C A B R IO LE L E G S, BAL L & C L A W FEET 151
With the leg securelyclamped, a spokeshaveis used to smooth thesawn contours of the leg.
The topof the foot isshaped round with raspsandfiles. The contour ofthe foot from the roundankle to its largestdiameter should besmooth andcontinuousandshow no trace of theflat sawn surfaces.
A line is cut with th e point of th e skewchisel to defin e th e top of th e foot . This cutis usually a good 1/1 6 in. deep . Th e line
should go all th e way around th e top of th efoot , and not disapp ear at th e bandsawnsect ions. A scribe line should be cut first;then, with th e lathe sto pped, th e position ofthe line should be checked before th e finalcut is mad e. This line will be used as a guidein shaping th e top of th e foot and willrema in a visible characterist ic of th e back ofth e foot . If any sanding is necessary, it canbe done whil e the leg is st ill in th e lath e.
Shaping the legNow that th e bottom of th e foot and thepad have been tu rned to th eir fin ishedshape, th e shaping of th e rest of th e leg maybegin. At thi s point, th e leg is cut to itsrough shape and is probably difficult tohold whi le working on. O ne good way ofsecur ing it is to clamp it length wise in apipe or bar clamp . The clamp may th en beheld verti cally or hori zont ally in a benchvise (top photo at left) .
With th e leg held hor izontally, aspokeshave is used to smooth as mu ch ofthe curved, sawn surface of th e leg aspossible. Th e ext remit ies of th e leg, th e topof th e foot , th e ent ire leg block and th e topof th e knee wh ere it meets th e block may be
left rough for now. At thi s point, th e goal isto shape the cu rved surfaces to th eir finalcontour . Most of th is curve smoothing can
be done with a flat-sole spokeshave. A flatsole spokeshave will do a better job offlatten ing bumps, wh ereas a curved-solespokeshave will tend to follow th em. Forbest results, th e spokeshave should be heldat a skewed angle while cutt ing down theleg, in effect increasing its length . Th espokeshave should be in peak sharp ness,and set for a very thin cut .
If th e pattern was smooth and th esawing was done carefully, this smooth ingshould amount to littl e more th an cleaningoff th e saw marks. Sight ing along th e lengthof th e corne rs and looking for irregularit iesis a good way to check th e smoothness ofth e shape. With a well-sharpened andfamiliar spokeshave, irregularit ies can
usually be felt better th an th ey can be seen.
152 C H A PT E R N INE
A smooth cut and a continuous shaving areindicative of a smooth shape.
By moving th e leg to a near verticalposition, the shaping of th e top of th e footmay be sta rted (bottom photo, facing page).Shaping is don e with a half-round rasp andfinished with a fine file. Working from theankle down, th e sharp corners are removedso th at th e ankle is round in cross sectio nand the round shape flows downward to th eturned cut that defines th e top of th e foot.Th e sawn sur faces serve as guides toachieving th e final shape, especially on th e
front of th e leg. Itcan be helpful to maketh ese sect ions octagonal first, and th enround. This shaping is more art thanscience, so th e most valuable tool is a keeneye. Wh en properly shaped, th ere should beno bandsawn flats on th e top of th e foot,and th e shape should be symmet rical whenviewed from th e front or back. Wh en usingth e rasp near th e outer edge of th e foot, th ecut should be made inward to avoidchipping off th e outer edge.
Th e corne rs of th e leg are shaped with aspokeshave so that they remain nearlysquare at the knee and blend into th e roundcross sect ion at th e ankl e (top photo atright) . Legs vary greatly in shape, with somebeing fully round from th e knee down, andothers being square th rough th e ankle.
Whatever th e final shape, it is cut at thi stim e. It's important to keep an eye on th esymmetry and th e side view of th e leg as itis being shaped. As was the case with th etop of the foot, it may be helpful to cutth ese corners at a 45° angle first , and th engo back and round th em. By doin g that, th ewidth of th e cut is indicative of its depth,which helps make a smooth tr ansition froma square knee to a round ankle. Chamferingthe corners first also helps make th e shapingfrom corne r to corner and leg to leg moreconsistent . A fine file should be used tofinish th e shaping and blend th e cur ves intothe ankle and foot.
Th e leg is now in its final form, and thesurface may be scraped or sanded smooth(bottom photo at right) . Care mu st be takennot to round th e corners of th e leg block orth e sides of th e knee where th e knee blocksattach. (Using a small sanding block onthe flat surfaces of th e leg helps detect and
The corners of the legfrom the knee to theankle areshaped withaspokeshave. The legs oforiginal pieces vary fromsquare to fully roundatthe knee. Over thelengthof the leg, thatshapemust show asmooth transition to thecross-sectional shape atthe ankle.
A final scrapingsmoothsthe surface, and thecabriole legis complete.Asmall sandingblockmay be used to flattenanyminor irregularities,though careful work withthe spokeshave usuallymakes that unnecessary.
C A B R I O L E L E G S, B AL L & C LAW FEE T 153
flatten any irregularit ies.) The leg need only
be smoot hed fro m the knee down; the topof the knee and the tran sition to the knee
blocks will be trimmed and sm oothed later.
Sim ilarly, the outs ide of the leg block will
be scraped to be flu sh wit h th e rest of thepiece afte r it is assembled. The ext ra 1/ 4 in .
on eit her end of the leg is cut off, and the leg
is ready for mor tising and assembly.
REGIONAL AND STYLISTICVARIATIONS
This look at how cabriole legs are made
used t he case of a fairly gene ric leg that was
square at the knee and round at the ankle
with a Du tch or pad foot, not unlike wh at
one wou ld expect to find on a Queen Anne
piece of New England origin. As mention ed
previously, th e pro file and fin al shaping of acabriole leg are ind icat ive of its time and
place of origin, and ofte n its maker and hislevel of expertise. New England legs tend to
be t hin and st raight, wh ereas Philadelphia
legs tend to be sto uter and with a more
pronou nced S shape to th eir profil e.
Newport cabinet makers made the square
cross section of th eir legs one of thesignature elements of some of their designs,
C -SCROLLS
while Boston makers produced examples
that were more complete ly round from th ekn ee to the foot.
The foot and pad are also distinctive
features. Between individual makers, even
in the same city, variation s in feet and pads
can be ext reme. Some examples have wafer
thin feet on unusually tall pads, whil eothe rs have feet of full thickness on nearlyunnoticeabl e pads . Som e feet have flat
tops that look like discs, while other tops
are conical and meet the foot at a morevertical angle. While indi vidual makers had
their characte rist ic shapes, these shapes
were subject to change over time, and in
fact could change from piece to piece. In
repli cating a leg, all of the subtle cha rac
teristics are as imp ortant to a successfu l legas the major dimension s and shape of thecabriole. In designing a piece in the manner
of the originals, these minor cha racte ristics
sho uld be conside red .
The shaping and detailin g of cabriole
legs give a good indi cati on of the degree of
sophisticati on of ori ginal makers. There are
numerous exa mples of legs that are too
straight, as well as exa mples wh ere th e legs
are so cu rved as to be com ical. Ap art from
the continu ity and fluidity of th e cur ves
and th e balance of the knee with th e foot,there are other detail s th at point to th e
maker 's level of skill. For example, you
occasionally see tops of Dutch feet that are
not quite round and still bear th e vestiges of
th e sawn flat surfaces. This feature seems to
point to a timid and weak effor t on th e partof the original maker. More sophisticated
furniture makers would have had th e
confidence to make the shape of th e legconform to their wishes.
Knee BlocksKnee blocks are one of the sma llest
components on any piece of fu rni ture, but
they are imp ortant enough to merit their
own discu ssion. Knee blocks make th etransition from th e vertica l form of th e legto the hori zontal aspect of an apro n, frame
or seat rail. They also have th e visually
imp ortant job of finishing th e sweeping
curve of a leg and connecting it to either a
robust cyrna-cu rved apron, as on a Q ueen
Anne high chest or chest-on-frame, or a
rectilinear form, as on a Chippendale chair.
On a piece like a chest with ball and claw
C-scrolls are carved details
that help blend the shape
of the cabriole leg into the apron
on more sophist icated QueenAnne pieces. The scrolls
terminate in little volutes th at
protrude from the profile shape
of the leg and apron, and theyneed to be planned for in the leg
pattern from the very beginning.
The bumps th at will event ually
be volutes have to be cut out andworked arou nd until they are
ready to be carved, which is
usua lly about the last ste p in
making the leg.
154 C H A P T ERN I N E
The C-scroll is not any higher
then the sur round ing surface,
but it has that app earancebecaus e the adjacent material
is carved in a gentle slope tothe scroll. The depth of this
carving is usually about I/ S in. ,
and the width of the scroll itselfis between 3/16 in . and 1/ 4 in.
On well-executed examples, the
carved relief that brings out
the C-scroll continues uninterrupted from the apron,
down the leg, and flows into the
shape of the corner below thevolu te .
The C-scrolls at the topof cabriole legs are raised by carvingawaythesurroundingarea after the leg has been assembled to the apron.
With short bandy legs(knee blockacts as aglue block)
Knee block is gluedandattachedwith cut nails on the underside.
Knee and knee blockare trimmedto shapewith spokeshave andchisels.
Profile is tracedfrom pattern.
o
Under-the-apron
o
Cross sectionis tracedfromkneeand cutto shape.
Over-the-apron
Knee-Blo ck Styles
Installi ng Knee Blocks
feet or a band y-legged desk, th e blocks arewider, more elaborately shaped and visuallyimportant. Here th ey are st ructura l as well,serving as large glue blocks to secure th eshort legs.
In most cases, th e knee blocks are add edafter th e piece has been assembled . Kneeblocks fall into two groups, th ose th at goover an apron, and th ose that attac h underth e apron or rail. In both cases, th ey maketh e t ransition from th e leg to th e apro n,and make a logical terminus for th e cabrioleshape. Th e over-the-apron knee block is
seen in th e Queen Anne period on examplesfrom Boston and th e North Shore, and th eConnect icut River Valley, most notab ly, t heDeerfield area. Th e under-th e-apron kneeblock is far more commo n, and makes upth e bulk ofk nee blocks on Qu een Ann eand Chippendale pieces.
In eit her case, th e blocks are made to fitth eir posit ion, cut to rough shape, attac hed,and th en tri mm ed to final form. Except inth e case of a very wide knee block, th e grainis oriented vert ically to match th at of th eleg. A square blank of suffic ient size is firstheld in place, and th en th e profile of th etop curve of th e knee is drawn onto it(drawing at right). Th at shape is th en cut,forming th e front curve of the block. Th enth e profile of th e block is d rawn onto that
face, using a cardboard pattern , and th atshape is cut. Th e block is now cut to shapeand may be glued in place. O nce th e gluehas set up a littl e, a coup le of small cutnails should be added and set for goodmeasure. Th e original makers d id use bothglue and nails to secure th e knee blocks.(Glu e alone should be sufficie nt for th eover-the-apron blocks.)
After th e glue has dri ed, th e top of theknee and th e knee block may be cut to finalshape. A skewed, hori zontal cut with asharp chisel across th e knee and blockworks well. Th e top of th e knee and th eblock are th en scraped, filed or sandedsmooth. Th e side profile of th e blockshould be cleaned up with a fine rasp or
chisels. As with shaped apro ns, th e insidecorne r of th e block should be chamfered toremove th e rough edge (see p. 122).
CABR IO LE LEGS , BA LL & C L A W FE ET 155
Anatomy of a Ball and Claw Foot
Tendons
t hat was a design goal of th e period. The balland claw was based upon th e Chinesesymbolism of st rength as the guardian ofpurity from evil, as exemplified by a dragonclut ching a pearl, but it was modeled closelyafter th e claws of English and Am ericanbird s of prey. Like so many aspects of th efurniture, Am erican ball and claw feet oftenhave a spirited presence that exceeds th eirfun ction as mere decorative elements andmakes th em remarkable in th eir own right.
The carving of ball and claw feet is oneof many signato ry features of Am ericanfurniture of th e period . As in many otheraspects of th e furniture, regional preferencesand styles emerged (see th e drawing on th efacing page). Massachu setts ball and clawfeet have the dist inctive characte rist ic of
side toes and talons that are swept back atan appreciable angle. Newport feet areexceptionally life-like, with st rong knu cklejoints and often an open space between theball and talon . Philadelphia feet tend to bestout and powerful. Th ey often have aslightly flattened ball with a web stre tchedover it between th e toes, and show verylittl e of th e talon . New York feet are similarbut have a distin ctive square and sharpknu ckled quality. Neglectin g all th e otherdetai ls of design and const ruct ion, ball andclaw feet alone can indicate th e place oforigin of a piece.
Ball and claw feet can ident ify th e makeras well as th e place of origin. No two makerscarved feet exactly th e same way,so anindiv idua l carver's work was as un ique as asignature . Th e works of John Goddard andJohn Townsend , two Newport furnituremakers who se work was often lumpedtogether in the past under th e headin g ofth e Goddardffownsend school, areimmediately recognizable and distinguish
able from one another by th e characteristicsof th eir ball and claw feet alone. Godd ardfeet feature a bulbous hallux and anklesth at are set well back on th e ball. Townsendfeet show a more vertical aspect, with asmooth, cont inuous hallu x extending froman ankle that is positioned closer to th e topof th e ball. Th e stylized ball and claw feet ofth e Hartford area's Eliphalet Chapin areclearly recognizable. Many of th e largerurban shops emp loyed carvin g specialistsfor th eir work, so th e shop may not havehad a distin ct indi vidu al style. Whi le th ework of individual hired carvers is identi fiab le, most worked in obscurity and carvedfor a number of shops during th eir careers.
With practice, carvers of ball and clawfeet arrive at their own indi vidual styles
over time. A carver who is not tr ying toemulate another carver's style will develop a
unique method of work, a set of details anda preferred style. Once one has establishedan individual style, it is more difficult torepl icate someone else's style, but th at isnecessary for an accurate and authenticreplication of a piece. Th e analogy of asignature holds that it is more difficult toforge a signature convincingly th an to signyour own effortlessly.
Talon
Front toe(or digit)
Knuckle joints
Undercut (ofopentalon)
-?-- - - Diameter at floor------;~
Ball
Rear toeor hallux
Ball and Claw FeetWhile Dutch or pad feet were th e mostcommon type of foot for a cabriole leg,especiallyduring th e Queen Ann e period,ball and claw feet were also a popular
termi nus. Ball and claw feet were seen inEnglish furn iture during th e first quart er
of th e 18th century but did not come intouse in America before about 1740. Th eycame into fashion during th e Queen Ann eperiod, but peaked in popul arity with th eChippendalestyle, and th erefore, quite bycoincidence, are associated with Am ericanChippendale furniture.
Th e associat ion is appropriate, sinceth e foot portrays th e power and presence
156 C II A PT ERN I N E
Ball and Claw Foot Variat ions
MASSACHUSETTSSwept-back sidetoe and talon
NEWPORTStrongknuckles, open space
between ball and talon
PHILADELPHIAFlattened ball, webbed toes
NEW YORKSquare, sharp knuckles
JOHN TOWNSEND JOHN GODDARD ELIPHALET CHAPIN
CA RV ING BA L L AN DCLAW FEE TBalland claw feet can be carved methodically,one ste p at a time-they are not justchiseled from th e solid in an off-handmann er.Thi s meth od ensures a well-formedfoot with a continuous spherical ball,st raight and symmet rical claws, and aconsistency and un iformity among otherfeet in th e set . As a general overview, th eemphasis is first given to forming a wellshaped ball, and then th e toes and talons arecarved to conform to it .
Mak ing th e patternLike th e cabriole legs to whi ch th ey areattac hed, good ball and claw feet begin witha good pattern . Th e patt ern defines th eblock from which th e feet will be carved.
The block from whichthe foot is carved is partof the pattern of thecabriole leg.
C A B R IO L E LEG S , B A LL & C L A W FE E T 157
The layout of the foot is drawn on the rough-cut leg and includes a center, theapproximate position of the toes, and circlesthat definethe shape of theball.
Materia l is cut.from around the talons and the ball is cut to a cylindrical shape usingthe large circle on the bottom asa reference.
Th e shape of th e block locates the positionof knuckle joints and defin es th e transitionof th e foot to th e leg. Working from anoriginal, a drawin g or a photo, th e shape ofthe patt ern is an ext ension of th e shape ofthe leg and can be taken from a profil e view.When in doubt as to th e exact profile shapeof th e foot, it is best to err on th e side ofcaution by leaving a block th at is at least astall as it is wide. The width of th e block isequal to th e diameter of th e ball, which isusually equal to th e width of th e leg at th eknee. Th e foot block is cut whil e cutt ing th eshape of th e cabriole leg.
relative to th e height of th e ball and th eposition of th e ankle. Determining whereth e digits meet is not crit ical at thi s point;they can be adjusted later in th e carving.
C arvi ng th e ball and clawTh e leg needs to be held securely wh ile itis carved-a pipe or bar clamp held by th ebench vise is ideal for th e purpose andallows th e leg to be fixed in almost anypositi on (photo at right above). Most of th ecarving is done whi le th e leg is clamp ed
horizontally. Th e position of th e toes isdefined by cutting along th e inside of th eclaw lines to a depth of about 1/ 4 in. with aVshaped tool, veiner or gouge. The ball is
th en shap ed to a cylindrica l form with a flatchisel, using th e larger diameter circle onth e bottom as a guide. A line is drawnaround th e cylinder to mark th e mid pointor "equato r" of th e ball. Th e cylinder will becut to a sphere above and below thi s line.
Th e top of th e ball should be shapedfirst, using a flat chisel to work th e cylinder
Laying out the ball and clawTh e first ste p in th e layout is to mark thecenter of th e bott om of th e foot withcrossed diagonal lines (phot o at left above).
The lines also serve as reference lines for th eposition of th e claws. From th e cente r, onecircle is d rawn tangent to th e outside edgesof th e block and another circle about 1/ 4 in.
in from it. Th e larger circle is th e diameterat the midpoint of th e ball, and th e smallerone is th e diameter at th e floor. Lines aredrawn about 1/ 4 in. to 3fs in. in from th e edgesof the shaped block to mark th e position ofth e toes. As th e lines converge at th e top ofthe ball, th ey mu st be drawn to conformwith th e shape of an or iginal foot . Th ere is
no formula or method for thi s, but the pointwhere th ey converge can be est imated
158 C II A I'T E R N I N E
The midpoint of the ballis drawn on the cylinderandthe top of theball iscut to a hemisphericalshape. The claws are leftuncarved until the ballhas been fully shaped .
to a hemisphere. It is important to notethat th e top of th e ball, th e "north pole," isund er th e front digit, not at th e ankle. As
the top of th e ball is shaped, a veiner is usedalternately to redefine and deepen th e cutson either side of th e toes. The ball shouldbe carved on all four sides of th e foot until ithas the appearance of being round andcontinuous. It should be inspected from allangles to ensure th at it is th e same heighton either side of th e toes.
Next th e bottom half of th e ball isshaped, using th e smaller circle on th ebottom of th e foot as a reference (photo atright). Depending on th e geometry of th efoot, th e smaller circle may have to beredrawn. Feet th at show more of a fullyspherical ball will have a smaller diameter atth e floor. At thi s point, the ball should beroughlyshaped and th e position of th e toesshould be clear. If th e ball appears too flator too tall, it should be adjusted. Th e widthof th e claws may also be adjusted to cleanup th e line where th ey meet th e ball.
Th e toes th emselves are carved next.Th eir posit ion is defined and th eir width isalready approxi mated, but th e layout of th ejoints remains to be marked. A mark ismade at each joint and at th e top of each
Once the ball has beencarved, the position of theknuckle joints is markedand thetoes are carved toshape.
talon wh ere it meets th e toe. The talon smu st be of equal length and th e layout ofth e joints mu st be consistent from foot tofoot. Th e position of th ese features isgauged relative to th e top of th e ball, th emidpoint of th e ball and th eir relativedistance from one another. Th e digits arecarved flat between th e joints, and th en the
The toes arecarved to blend into theankle. TheseGoddardfeet havethin tendons that emphasize thegrip of the claw. The tendons are raised by removingthe adjacent material.
The bottomhalfof theball is shaped using thecircle on the bottom as areference. The shape ofthe ball is then adjustedand refined to a fullyspherical form.
joints are raised by carving th ose sect ionsthinner and concave. The slimness orknobi ness of th e toes is determined by howth e joints are carved at thi s poin t .
The stance and "grip" of th e claw aredetermined by th e str engt h of th e toes andth e way th ey blend int o th e ankle. Powerfull y gripping claws conform tightly to the
The width of the talon is carved to a taper from thetoeto thefloor. These talons are left thick enough to beundercut.
C A B R I O L E L E G S, RA L L & C L AW F E E T 159
Open talons are madeby undercutting the talonwith a small knife orskew chisel.
ball, show th e tension of raised tend ons atth e ank le, and hold th e ball from behin d.Less-powerful grips hold th e ball fromabove and show a more relaxed grasp. Thereare no formulae for making th e tr ansitionfrom the foot to th e ankle, other th an tomake it look natural and contin uo us. Likejoints, tend on s are raised by removing th ematerial on either side of th em . It is best tohave a model or good photo on hand fro mwhich to work. This is th e aspect of th e
carved foot th at requires th e greatestamount of art istry.
Finally, th e talons th emselves are carved.Philadelphia and some New York feet showlittl e more th an a suggest ion of th e talons;often th e end of th e toes is simply carved toa blu nt point. Boston talons are moreappa rent and are frequently delicate andthin. Th e talons of th e Newport ball andclaw feet, however, are a significant part oftheir design . Th ey are long, often sta rt ing ator near the midpoint of th e ball, and are sopronounced as to stand away from th e ball,leaving an ope n space and meet ing th e ballagain just above th e floor.
Th ese dist inctive Newport open talonsare carved by first shaping th eir outsidecontour high eno ugh to allow for th eundercut . Th e area under th e talon is
160 C H A P T E R N INE
The completed ball andclawfoot. Wetting the footwithwater offers a preview of what the foot will looklikewith a more lustrous finish.
removed by cutt ing its outline and th encutt ing awayth e material within th at.Material is cut away from both sides of th eclaw until th e un dercut meets in th e middle(photo at left). Th e underside of the talon istr immed to shape, and th e ball is trimmedto flow smoothly from one side to the other.A small skew chisel or sharp pointed knife isrecommended for undercutting claws.
Th e ball and claw foot is now completelycarved to shape, but many refinemen ts andadjustments are inevita ble. To finish with acrisp and well-detailed foot, as mu ch of itas possible should be shaped with chiselsor
cutt ing tools. Some very fine sanding willbe required to blend th e remainin g toolmarks and to achieve a surface smoothenough for fini shin g.Th ere is some questionwh eth er original carvings were sanded ornot, but close inspection of some very wellpreserved originals shows an absence of toolmarks and a surface consistent with havingbeen smoothed with something like sharkskin or a sand leath er. Th e foot will have
some luster when it is finished with a topcoat, and any irregularities in its shape willth en be more apparent. Wett ing the footth oroughly with water and examining itwhile it is still wet and shiny offers a previewof what th e finished foot will look like.
CARVING A SET OF BALLAND CLAW FEETTo make a set of ball and claw feet th at areuniform and consistent from foot to foot,it is best to work on all four of th emsimultaneously. By performing th e sameste p on all fou r feet before going on to th enext, th ey progress simultaneouslyand,it is hoped, equally.With any ball and clawfeet, and especially the more sophisticatedones, many refinements and iterat ions arerequ ired to achievejust th e right look. Th atlook has to include a cont inuous and wellrounded ball, symmet rical and authenticallydetailed claws, and a consistency amon g thefeet of th e set . In addition, if th e piece is areplica of an original, th e work requirescaptur ing th e spirit of th e original feet.Making a good set of four legs with Newportopen-talon feet can take as long as four days.
Exemplary feet cannot be hurried.
Cabriole legs withslipper feetor trifid feet begin in the same manner as those withpad feet (left). With slipper feet (center). the foot is shaped to a tapered teardropshape rather thanturned. Trifid feet are similar but arecut to a three-toed patternwith chisels and gouges (right).
Th e spirit and presence of th e feet areone of th e most important yet leastdefinable att ributes of th e ball and claw.Th ey exude a presence, and , as an importantpart of th e American Chippe ndaleaesthet ic, th ey were intend ed to do so. Thatpresence can range from th e graceful anddelicate perch of a light piece to th epowerful and mu scular grip of th e flattenedball of a case piece. Between is a range ofball and claw feet from th oroughly life-liketo charmingly stylized. Replicatin g anoriginal design achieves its goal if it imparts
th e same sta rtl ing impression th at th eoriginal does.
Other FeetIn addition to ball and claw feet and Dutchor pad feet, several other kind s of feet were
in use during th e 18th century. Newportcabinetmakers found stylist ic success withslender, pointed, slipper feet. Philadelphi afu rniture makers somet imes used threetoed trifi d feet and occasionally scrolledfeet, both of which were closely linked withprevalent English styles. Makers in bothMassachu sett s and Penn sylvania are knownto have used square feet , whi ch are verymuch like Dutch feet before th ey have beenturned.
SLIPPER FEETSlipper feet are a trademark feature ofNewport cabinetmakers. Th e foot enhanceswell-shaped cabriole legs and furthers th eaim of th e Queen Anne style by giving th efinished piece a delicacy, lightness and smallfootprint. Cabriole legs that end in slipperfeet are made in th e same mann er as th oseth at end in Dutch feet . Th e layout andcutt ing of th e leg are identica l, but th e footis cut to shape rath er th an turned. Thefootprint is th e shape of a teard rop, and th efoot tapers slightly toward th e floor. Someexamples of original Newport legs withslipper feet are square in cross sect ion at th eankle, with a gentle ridge extending alongth e top of th e foot to th e tip of th e toe.Other examples are round at th e ankle,which extends along th e foot as a softlyrounded top.
Slipper feet are made by drawing th epointed patt ern of th e footprint on th e
bottom of th e leg, and cutting th e foot toshape. Since th e foot actually tapers fromtop to bottom, th e footprint pattern shouldbe sized to fit on th e stock with about 1/ R-in.
space all around it. Th at way, th e top of th efoot will be as large as th e stock permits.Slipper feet do not have a pad, and th ere isno need for the ext ra 1/4 in . left on legs withDutch feet . Th erefore, th e foot on th e legprofile pattern may be aligned with th ebott om of th e stoc k wh en th e leg is laid out .Except for th e foot, th e leg is cut out andshaped as usual. In shaping the foot, th ebulk of th e material may be sawn off, andth e rest is best shaped with a spokeshave.Th e shape of th e leg flows right int o th eshape of th e foot, so some of the shaping ofth e foot and leg can be done concurrently.
Wh ereas Dutch feet have a turned lineto mark th e top of th e foot, th e tops ofslipper feet are not so well defin ed. A pencilline SIR in . or 3f4 in. from th e bottom and
extending all around th e foot helps inshaping th e front outside corners of th efoot to a crisp line and uniform height.When th e leg is cut carefully according toth e pattern , and th e shape of th e foot has
been cut, th ere is surprisingly littl e moreshaping to do. Th ese two operations definemost of th e shape of th e foot, and all th at isleft is some smoothing and fine shaping.
Th ere is not nearly as mu ch stock to rasp offas when shaping th e top of a Dutch foot . Aswith Dutch feet , th e symmetry of th e footshould be checked from th e front and back.Once th e foot is in its final shape, a spokeshave is used to chamfer th e bott om edgeabout 11Rin. wid e to avoid chipping of th e
bottom edge.
TRIFID FEETTrifid feet (som etimes called "drake" feet)
differ from slipper feet in littl e other th anshape. Th e layout, cutt ing and shaping ofth e leg are identical, but rath er th an cutt ingthe foot to th e teardrop shape, a three-toedpattern is used instead. As with th e slipperfoot, th e trifid shape is cut at a taper. To
avoid chipping off edges, it is best to shapeth e top of th e foot in th e same mann er as aDutch foot before th e trifid shape is cut .
Th e more intricate shape requ ires th e use offlat ch isels and gouges, aft er wh ich th eshape is cleaned up with rasps and files.
C A B R I O L E L E G S. B A L L & C LAW FEE T 161
10SURFACE
ORNAMENTATION
h e decorat ive tr eatments given tofurni tu re su rfaces during th e 18th centuryare among th e elements th at dist inguishthe importan t style periods. Along withform and proportion, th e surface aided inmaki ng th e piece achieve th e design idealsof th e period. During th e William andMary period, th e focus on th e su rface wasintense, with symmet rically arranged,burled veneers providing most of th einte rest . During th e Queen Anne period,th e emphasis shifted to th e grace of th eform, and th e smooth surfa ces werepunctuated by th e restrained use of carvedorna ment. Th e Chippendale era waswitness to an increased use of carving, aselabora tely carved details were used tocreate a sumptuous su rface. The Federalera brought th e su rface tr eatment fullcircle, returning once again to smooth butelabo rately veneered and inlaid furn ituresurfaces, and confi rming th e idea th att rue revolutio ns in art restore more th anth ey dest roy.
Fan and Shell CarvingsT he use of centrally located fan and shellcarvings is a Baroqu e style of orna men
tation th at came to England with th e influx
162
of foreign influences following th eRestoration of Charles II. Th ere are many
parallels between early English shellcarvings and th ose of Germany and th e LowCo unt ries. Th ese carved ornaments cameto th e fore at th e beginnin g of th e 18thcentury, when th e aesthetics of th e EnglishQueen Anne period called for smoothsurfaces and graceful lines int errupted onlyby well-placed and carefully proportionedcarvings. Over th e next few decades thi srestraint was abandoned, culminat ing in
th e orna men t-encrus ted designs of WilliamKent in th e 1740s. Th e Chippendale-eratastes called for rich and florid carving, andmany of the Baroque carved ornamentswere updated to include more of the flu idRococo influence. Th e Neoclassical t rendsth at followed relied on inlaid orname nt ,so carved shells and fans fell out of fashion
in furniture.American furn iture followed English
trend s in regard to carved ornament, but
Am erican tastesand practical conside rations
Aflat, straight-ray fanis typical of rural NewEnglandcentral carvedornament.
filtered out most of th e English excesses.Th e relative simplicity of American designsmade th e restrained use and proper
placement of cent ral carvings that mu chmore import ant. As with most aspects ofAmerican furn iture , th ere were distin ctdifferences in th e sophisticat ion of carvingbetween urb an and rural areas. Urbancabinetmakers carved designs th at were asdeep and bold as English work, whil e ruralmakers tend ed toward shallower, geometricdesigns. Given th e individualistic nature ofAmerican cabinetmaking, shells and fansran th e gamut from simple to ornate, witheach region and maker having a preferredmethod and style of carving. Like so manyother aspects of furniture of th e period, thedesigns and characte ristics of carvings areusually indicative of th e place of origin andsomet imes identi fy th e individual makeror carver.
Given th e wide range of Amer icancarving styles and designs, th e best way todemonst rate th e technique of fan and shellcarving is to illust rate examples fro m bothends of the spect rum. Th e steps in carvingboth simple and complex designs follow.
CA RV I N G AST RA IG H T- RAY FANAmong th e simp lest of cent ral carvings isth e flat , st raight-ray fan (photo facing page).Thi s design is shallow and geomet ric, andcan be carved with just a few tools. Fancarving is typical of a rural northern NewEngland carvin g used to orna ment a centraldrawer on a case piece.
The first step in making th e carving isto draw th e design of th e fan on th e drawerfront (ph oto above). This is a very simple
The patternof the fan isdrawn on thedrawerfront.
design made with a compass and straightedge directly on th e wood su rface. AV-shaped carving tool or a skew chisel isused to carve a V-shaped channel betweenth e rays of th e fan (ph oto at left below).
Th ese channels are cut in pro portio n to th ewidth of th e ray: At th e outside of th e fan,th e cuts are deep and wide; at th e center,th ey are shallow and nar row. A smallvertical cut at th e small end of th e channelacts as a stop line and prevents th e woodfrom breakin g off past th e inside circle.
AV-shaped carvingtool is usedto cut a channelbetween the rays of the fan. Each ray is rounded with a flat chisel.
SU R FA C EO RN A 1\1 F. N T A T I O N 163
The fancarving iscomplete, sanded andready for furtherassembly or finishing.
Once th e channels between th e rays havebeen carved, each ray is carved to a roundedshape with flat chisels (bottom right photo,p. 163). A fine line is often drawn down th ecente r of th e ray to aid in rou nd ing bothsides evenly.To avoid cutt ing against th egrain, most rays have to be cut toward th ecente r on th e top of th e ray, and away fromth e cente r on th e bottom . It may be
necessary to deepen th e channel betweenrays as th e carving progresses.
Th e finished carving may be furthersmoothed or sanded to remove any flat cutsfrom th e chisels th at remain visible. On
such a geometric design, any areas thatrequire adju stment will be evident and maybe reshap ed easily.
CA RV ING A CU RVED- RAYS HELLCo nt rast ing with simple fan carvings areth e deep and detailed carvings of urbancabinetmaking centers. One of th e moredistinctive of these is the Newport curvedray shell , developed and used extensively byth e Goddard and Townsend families ofcabinetmakers (see th e photo at left below).These shells were used over th e course of
several decades on Newport furn iture,with only minor variat ions. Newport shellsare three-dimensional, fluid and exactinglydetailed . Th ey have a sophist icated gracethat exemplifies th e Newport craftsman'sphilosophy of rend erin g elegant designs
with detail ed precision .Th e carving of a Newport shell begins
with drawing th e outl ine of th e carvingon th e workpi ece. Th e out line is twoconcent ric arcs with th e wavy edge of thelobes drawn between (see th e photo at rightbelow). When a shell is carved on an apron ,
as shown in th e accompanying photos, theshell is fully int egrated into th e design ofthe apron, and it is important that the shellbe sized accordingly. Since thi s is a dishedshell, th e shape of th e sur face of th e carvingis esta blished first . Using gouges, th e area tobe carved is scooped away to th e appropriate depth (top left photo, facing page).Thi s dish ing defines th e depth of th efinished shell, so it is important th at th eshape be uniform, symmetri cal and to th eprop er depth. Drawing th e profile of th edish on th e bottom edge of th e apron helpsin achieving th e prop er shape. When th epreliminary shaping is finished, th e surfaceshould be smooth enough to draw on th epatt ern of th e carving in some detail.
The Newport curved-rayshell is the focal point of this Goddard dressing table.
164 C II A I' T E R TE N
Anoutline of theshell is first drawn on the apron.
The carvingbegins by dishing out an area to establish thedepth of the shell.
Aflat chisel is used to round theconvex lobes of the shell.
Using a gouge , the concave lobes of the shell are carved accordingto the drawnpattern.
The details of the center medallion or rosette arecarved last.
Th e pattern of th e carving is drawnonto th e dished sur face freehand. It is
helpful to draw a vertica l centerline for useas a reference. Since th e carving is cut tofollow th e drawn design, it is important todraw th e pattern carefully and precisely.On ce th e patt ern has been drawn, th e
concave lobes of th e shell may be cut withgouges to a depth proportional to th eirwidth (top right photo).
A flat chisel is used to round th e convexlobes of th e shell (bottom left photo) .Because th e lobes are three-dimensiona l,one side of a lobe may change directions
relative to th e grain over its length . Thedirection of th e carving may have to bechanged if th e cut begins to go against th egrain. Here again, drawin g a line to markth e top center of th e convex lobes aids in
rounding th em and keepin g them shaped toth e correct curve.
SU R F A CEO RNA M E N TAT I O N 165
Throughout the 18th century, veneers werecut byhand with a framed saw.This illustration is from Roubo's Cart du menuisier ebeniste (Paris, 1774).
The carvingof theNewport shell iscomplete and ready forassembly to the case.
On ce th e lobes of th e shell are carvedto shape, th e cente r ornam en t or rosette iscarved. Because of its fine detail, th ecarving of thi s area leaves littl e room fo rerror: T he design should be dr awn verycarefully and carved with great pat ience.Th e details of th e sheaf are in very low relief
and requ ire shar p definiti on to be clear. Theshell shown in th e photos is for a relat ivelysma ll d ressing table, but larger shel ls fordesks and othe r case pieces have larger andmore highly detailed rosettes .
Th e shell is now carved to its fin ishedshape, and adjustments can be made asneeded. Wet t ing the carving with water willgive a rough idea of how th e shell will lookwit h the low luster of a finish. With th eshell carved and smoothed, th e apron may
be assembled to th e case.
Veneering and InlayTh e use of veneers and inlaid decorationwas an important decorati ve eleme nt oflSth-centu ry American furn iture. Thedecorative use of veneer was at its peak inthe opening and closing quarters of th ecentu ry. During th e William and Mar yper iod, which dominated th e fir st qu arter,burled and book matched veneers were usedas a lively surfa ce t reatment. Inlaid bandingor st ringing served as borde rs for thoseveneers on drawer fron ts and panels. Thispractice d imi nished in th e Q ueen Anneand Early Georgian era, as shape supplanted
sur face deta il in visua l importance. By midcentury, t he use of veneer and inlay had all
166 C H AP T E R T EN
but ceased, as carved detail and piercedfretwork becam e th e dom inant decorati vetreatment in Chippendale-style furniture.With th e popularity of Neoclassical designsafter th e Am erican Revoluti on , veneeredsur faces and inlaid details re-emerged as th epreemi nent su rface for th is new furn itu re.
The Neoclassical period was th e pinnacle ofth e use of venee r and inlay in th e history ofAm erican fu rn it u re.
Like most othe r aspects of Am erican
furniture design, th e use of veneer camedirectly fro m English inspiration . Englishcourt furniture afte r th e Restoration wasexte nsively veneered in keeping with th e
latest Cont inen ta l t rends. Wh ere cost wasseemingly no object, nearly every surfacewas covered with decorative veneer.Euro pean cabinetmakers had taken up th epractice of building panels from pieces ofglued-together seconda ry wood andvenee ring th eir entire surface. Especiallypopular were "oyster" and "rou ndel"veneers, medallion-like patches of veneercut directly across or at an angle across smalldiam eter logs. Th e court furn iture alsoincluded a number of other labor-int ensivedetails such as mo ld ings cut across th e grainof th e wood to match cross-grain banding
and edges.The Am erican interp retation of th is
work was mu ch more restrai ned. Temperedby practical considerations and given anabundant supply of attractive cabinet-gradewood, th e American use of veneer wasgenerally limited to the facades of casepieces, including desks, chests and dressingtables. American makers used veneers ofburl ed walnut and maple to enliven th esurfa ce. Veneer was bookmatched to
achieve th e sym metry and order importantto th e aesthetics of th e period . Mostveneere d panels and drawer fronts were alsobordere d with a mitered veneer bandi ng.Cross ban ding was cut perpend icular to th egrain, and feather or herringbone banding
consisted of two strips cut at a 45 ° angle to
the grain and arranged in a chevron-likefashion. Cross-grain moldin gs weregenerally too labor-intensive for Americanmakers.
During th e Neoclassical era, th esimilarities between th e English andAmerican use of veneers were greate r. Th edesign books of Hepplewh ite, Sheraton andothers were very specific about th e use ofveneer and th e details of inlaid orna ment soits use was less open to interpretati on .American makers were also known to haveused imported English inlays. Th e use offigured veneer was so pervasive that a livelytrad e had emerged in satinwood, crotchmahogany and figured birch, and similarmaterials were readily available on bothsides of th e Atlanti c. Th e term marquetry isgenerallyapplied to European and Englishinlaid decoration, but similar work onAmerican pieces is said to be inlay.
VENEE R ING SU RFACESTh roughout th e 18th century, veneer wascut by hand from blocks of figured woodusing framed saws (see th e illust ration onthe facing page).Th e sawn veneer was th enscraped flat . During th e first quart er of th e18th century, corresponding to th e Williamand Mary period, th e coarseness of th e sawsand the fragile nature of th e burled woodpreferred for veneer resulted in relativelyth ick sheets of veneer. Thi s early veneer wassomet imes as much as I/ S in . th ick-morelike thin boards. Since the William andMary furniture designs did not have curvedsurfaces, th ere was no requirement for th eveneer to be th in and flexib le. Surfaces th atwere to be veneered (th e ground surfaces)were first scored with a toothed plane toimprove th e adhesion of glue. Th e veneerswere trimmed roughly to shape andattached with liberal amounts of hide glue .Period references menti on th at th e veneerwas held in place under boards th at wereeither clamped or weighted. Th e usualmetho d of veneering with inlay or borderswas to apply the veneer to th e groundsurface first, and th en add th e band ing orstringing once th e glue had dried .
By the Federal period, and with th epassing of more th an half a century, th e
meth ods of cutt ing and applying veneerhad become more sophist icated. Th erequirements of veneer in thi s period weredifferent from th ose of th e William andMary period . Veneer needed to be flexibleenough to conform to th e cur ved surfacesof Neoclassical forms and capable of beinginlaid in minutely detailed designs. The useof figured woods instead of fragile burl edwood, and a general refinement of saws,allowed veneers to be sawn th inner thanthey had been previously, averaging abou t1/1 6 in. thick. They were sti ll cut by hand;no use of machinery to cut veneer is knownuntil the early 19th centu ry.
If th e figured wood from which th eveneer was cut had an elevated moisturecontent, th e veneer would cont inue to dryand shrink after it had been cut. Becauseof th e irregular grain, th e veneers wouldoften dry too wavy or lumpy to be used, andth ey would have to be flattened. Flatteningveneer is accomplished by sprinkling orsponging th e wood with water to softenit. It is th en stacked with a sheet of absorbent blotter paper between each sheet ofveneer, and clamped or weighted betweentwo board s. Th e paper is changed dailyfor dry sheets unt il th e veneers are fullyflat and dry.
Aveneer hammer isthe traditional tool usedto press thin veneer intoplace andforce outexcessglue.
Hammer veneeringLike th e veneer itself, th e meth ods ofapplying veneer had also evolved by th eFederal period . Primary among th emeth ods was hammer veneering, whereinth e veneer is pressed into place with a handheld tool. Th e veneer hammer has a 3-in. or4-in. wide wooden and brass head and ahammer-like hand le, and it is used like arolling pin or squeegee to press down th eveneer and force out excess glue . As withthe veneerin g meth od of the William andMary period, th e ground sur face is firstscored with a tooth ed plane or scraperblade. Th e ground sur face and th e veneerare coated with hot hide glue, and th e twoare joined .
Th e veneer hammer is held with onehand on th e head to exert downwardpressure, and th e other on th e handle toguide its t ravel (photo above). Th e head ismoved across th e veneer in such a way as toforce th e glue and any t rapped air pocketstoward th e outside edges of th e veneer.On th e ideal flat surface, thi s usually meansmoving th e hammer in parallel stro kesstarting across th e cente r and progressingtoward th e outside, on one side and th en
SURFA CE ORNAMENTATION 167
Hammer Veneering
Angle of veneer-hammer blade
th e other, holding th e head at an angle soth e excess glue is always squeeze d outwards.Thi s process is th en repeated in th eperpendicular direction, until th e glue hascooled and set . The same general method isused on curved surfaces, th ough it is notalways possible to use th e hammer in asmany directions. Glu e appli ed to th e oute rsurface of th e veneer serves to lubricate themotion of th e hammer throughout th eprocedure. It is later washed or scraped off.
The method of hammer veneeringcannot be fully appreciated or understoodwithout a familiarity with genu ine hid eglue . Hid e glue is available in a dry granularform, which is mixed with rou ghly an equalvolume of water and then heated in adouble boiler or hot glue pot . It has to bekept hot (140°F-150°F) for use. Once
dissolved, th e hot glue has a syrupyconsistency and feels slippery between th efingers. As it cools it becom es stickier andmore viscous. It has a firm, gelat in-likequ ality at room temperature. Overnight ,th e moisture evaporates, leaving it hard and
168 C II A l' T E R TEN
Glue and airare forced out.
Directionof stroke
The patternof overlapping strokes ofthe veneer hammeris intended to forcetrapped air and excess glue towardtheoutside edges of the panel.
somewhat brittle. Because of th e hid e glue,th e process of hammer veneering is verydepend ent upon temperature. Both th eground surface, the veneer and th e hammerare best warm ed to keep th e glue fromcooling too soon. As th e veneer is workedwith the hammer, th e glue cools and sets.
Areas th at have not adh ered properly maybe reheated with an iron and pressed downagain. Once th e veneer is properly attachedand th e glue has cooled to near roomtemperature, the glue is strong enough tohold th e veneer in place overni ght until th eglue dri es.
Caul clampingThe other tr aditional method for gluingdown veneer is to use cauls. Cauls are solidwood molds used to clamp th e veneer inplace on a flat or cu rved surfa ce. For cur vedsu rfaces th at have been sawn from th esolid , th e scrap th at was cut away is worthsaving as a perfectly shaped caul (see th ephoto on th e facing page). As with hammer
veneering, th e ground sur face is preparedby scoring it with a toothed plane. It is
recommend ed that th e caul be heatedalong with th e ground and veneer to helpth e glue flow and penetrate. Th e veneer isth en positioned, covered with th e caul, and
clamped down until the glue has set or dried.For repetitive work, cauls of th e period wereoiled and greased to make th em resistant to
glue, and used repeatedly like any othershop fixture. Experience has shown that itis helpful to place a layer of soft andresilient material (like felt, corrugatedcardboard or thin plastic foam) between th eveneer and caul to protect th e sur face anddistribute th e pressure evenly.
Veneering methods comparedTh e methods of using a veneer hamm er orcauls each have th eir advant ages. Becauseth e method is a bit arcane and not ingeneral practice, hammer veneerin g has acerta in allure. Like many other aspects ofth e craft, hammer veneerin g is bestperfected through practice, but once youhave becom e familiar with th e method, it is
a quick and reliable way to adhere veneerwithout clamps, especially edgings and
band ings. Best of all, it offers th e craftsperson cont rol of the work; you do not haveto wait unti l clamps are removed to see th eresults. Th e position of th e venee r may beadjusted and areas th at are d ifficu lt toadhere may be reheated and pressed down.On the other hand, hammer veneerin g doesrequ ire some specialized material andequipment, it can be messy, th e glue on th etop of th e veneer has to be cleaned offth orou ghly, and it doesn't always adheresome stubborn areas of th e veneer.
The use of cauls, or the simi lar flatveneer press, is less of a lost art , but it is adirect and effective meth od. A caul willhold slightly wr inkled veneer flat until th eglue has set, and th e clamp ing pressur e canbe left on until it is thoroughly d ry. Caulscan also hold veneers against irregularshapes and small-radius curves. Panels
comprised of different veneers can be preassembled with paper and glue andclamped in place with a caul. With a caul,th e choice of glue is not limited to hot hideglue and there is lit t le or no glue to clean offthe sur face. O n th e downside, th e resultscannot be seen until th e caul is un d amped .Areas th at have not adhered, th ough th ey
are rare with a well-shaped caul, are moredifficult to re-att ach. In th at case, glue hasto be injected under th e venee r and th e area
must be damped again. Both hammerveneering and th e use of cauls are historically accurate methods. Th e choice ofmethod depends largely on th e nature ofth e veneer and th e sur face to which it is tobe applied.
Modern advances in veneeringIn addition to th e period met hods th ereare some modern ways of attaching vene erthat are worth noti ng. Vacuum-bagd amping is th e latest method of veneeringor lam inating. Th e veneer is glued in placeon the ground surface and placed inside athi ck, clear plastic bag. A vacuum pumpevacuates most of th e air, bri nging th epressure of th e atmosphe re to bear on th eveneer. T he great advantage of this methodis the ability to d istribute even pressure
across irregular surfaces. No caul isrequired , and almost any kind of modernglue can be used . With vacuum pumpsable to reduce th e pressure inside th e bagto 2 psi, t he net pressure from th e 14.7 psiatmosphere is 12.7 psi. That is roughly
equivalent to one wooden hand clampcapable of exerting 1,000 lb. pressure for
every 9-in. square area or 81 sq. in.Other modern advances concern th e
glue itself. Co ntac t cement has been usedsuccess fully for a few decades to holdveneer, but its longevity over centu ries isnot certa in. It is applied to both su rfacesand allowed to dry, and th e parts areassem bled and pressed with a roller.Contact cement is tenaciou s but not read ilysandable, and it is diffi cult to cu t th rou ghand rem ove to add inlays. Hot-melt gluesare available in sheets of soft th ermoplastics
th at allow th e vene er to be iron ed in place.Th e sheet of glue comes on a coated paperbacking and is iron ed on. Wh en it cools, th epaper may be peeled off, leaving only a thinlayer of glue . Th e veneer is positioned andheated with th e iron to rem elt th e glue. Th eveneer is th en rolled with a roller until th eglue has cooled and set . Contact cementand hot-m elt glues are very strong and,unlike hid e glue, are resistant to dampnessand water.
Trimming veneerWhatever meth od is used to attach th eveneer, once it is in place any overlap istrimmed away with a veneer saw or sha rpknife . If th ere are to be any bord ers of
cross bandings or feather bandings, th eirappli cati on is the next ste p. Th e mainveneer is trimmed at th e line wh ere th eborder is to start, and th e excess glue andveneer are sliced away. Because th ey aresma ll, bord ers can usu ally be att ached withhid e glue and th e veneer hammer, th oughth ere are instances wh ere th ey need to beheld in place with a clamp or caul. If th ere isto be any inlay work, it is let in by cutti ngthrough the applied veneer with a sharpknife, and cutt ing away th e veneer to th edepth of th e ground with chisels.
Acaul is used to clamp veneer to a curved surface.The caul for this curved rail is the scrap that was sawnfrom it. A thin layer of resilient material (corrugatedcardboard) has been placed between the veneer andcaul to protect the surface and distribute the pressure.
SU R FA CEO R NA M E N TAT I O N 169
INLAYIn th eir broadest sense, inlays are veneers letinto eit her veneered or solid-wood surfaces.Stringing and banding are inlays of linearstrips of veneer. Some are a single line ofwood, some have two or more contras ti ngst rips runn ing parallel, and others havemore int ricate patte rns of alte rna t ingwoods along th eir length, Paterae include allkinds of meda llion-like circu lar and ovalinlays, including fans and she lls. In add itio n,th ere are a number of other designs andstyles of inlaid decoration on Americanfu rni tu re th at are not categorized so easily.
With its fine detail, inlay making is avery inte rest ing facet of th e cabinetmaker'scraft . The 18th-century inlay maker cutand assembled his inlays from holly, ebony,sati nwood and boxwoo d veneers . Lightcolored woods, such as holly, were oftendyed any number of colors, but most ofte nblack to simulate ebony. Th e field wasspecialized enough to suppor t craftsmen
who made and supplied paterae, stringing,banding and othe r inlays to cabinetma kers.Most bu sy urban shops wou ld have boughtth eir inlays ready-made or had th em madeto order fro m th ese local inlay makers or"ebenists," as th ey sometimes calledth em selves. As a result, shops of a givenregion or city used inlays from th e samefew make rs, and th e patterns and stylesof th e inlay became indi cative of a piece's
place of origin.
St ringing and bandingTh e simp lest of all inlaid banding isstringing, th e narrow st rips of venee r usedto outl ine dr awers, panels or legs. To makest ringing, veneer is cu t into thin stri psabout 1/ 16 in. wide. A more interest ing kin dof banding features a dark string betweentwo light st rings, or vice versa. Rather th anactua lly assemb ling precut st ringing, th einlay maker would laminate a dark sheet ofveneer between two light ones and slice itlength wise int o 1/16-in. strips (see th edrawin g on th e facing page). Th e result ingslices were an assembled stringing of veneerth ickness. Th is meth od produced a greatquan tity of very uniform string inlay.
170 C HAP T E R TE N
More complex patterns could be mad ein a similar manner. By laminating alternating colors of veneers and recutting th emon th e diagonal, a rope-like band could bemad e. This core of diagonal stripes used tomake rope st ringing could also be used to
made a herringbone design. By cutting th elaminated venee rs dir ectly across th e grain,alterna ti ng colors and checkered designswere possible. Th e patterns have th eappearance of having been assembled fromtiny pieces of veneer, but are in reality slicesfrom inventively prepared laminations. Th eterms st ringing and banding are used some
wh at interchangeably, though st ringingimpli es th e more nar row linear inlays andbanding is more appropriate for wide r,more int ricate designs.
Stringing and banding are inlaid int oth e veneered or solid surfa ce by makin g twoknife cuts th e width of th e inlay and th enrem oving th e material between th em with anar row chisel to a depth no greate r th an th einlay's thickn ess. On venee red sur faces, thisdepth is reached wh en th e ground is visible,but on solid wood a careful est imate of th edepth is required. Once th e inlay is inplace it should be just higher th en thesur rou nding su rface. Th e inlay will shrinkas th e moisture from th e glue evaporates .The cut should be just wid e enough th at
th e stringing or banding is held snugly inplace. After a thin layer of glue is spread inth e cut channel, th e banding is inst alled . Itis often helpfu l to press it in with a roller toensu re that it is seated and to squeeze outth e excess glue. A roller, such as a wallpaperseam roller, also help s wid er bandingsrem ain seated until th e glue has sta rted toset . O nce the glue has dri ed th oroughly, th einlay is scraped or sanded flat to th esurrounding surface.
PateraeThe formal definition of patera is a raisedor embossed oval or circular surfaceorna ment, such as th e applied composit ionorna me nts used on th e furniture of RobertAdam (see pp. 81-8 2). The Neoclassical
furn iture th at followed th e Adamesquedesigns substituted inlaid orna me nt for th e
composit ion. C ircular and oval inlays in th epatte rns of fans or shells are generallyconsidered paterae, and were com mo nly
called that (or something similar) in th e18th centu ry.
Inlay in decorative patterns like fans or
shells was not as easily produced in quantityas st ringing and banding, and that fact isrefl ected in its pri ce. Th e 1800 inventory
for Baltimore inlay maker Thom as Barrettshows his most expensive "shell," at 25cents, to be tw ice as expensive as a yard ofhis best banding. At the prevailing wage of$ 1 a day, the productivi ty of an inlay makerlike Mr. Barrett is evident. Th e idea th atinlay makers mad e "length s" of rosettes or
fans and sliced off individual inlays hasbeen suggested, but it is unlikely that anypaterae were ever made this way. Th eorientation of th e grain in period inlays issuch th at t he maker wou ld have had to cutth e segments across the grain, since inlaydoes not have end grain on its sur face. Thefineness of deta il, such as where th e pointsof a fan meet , are so precise that they couldnot have been made to match un less th eywere assembled individually. Furthermore,segme nts th at are mad e of dyed wood could
on ly have been dyed as a veneer, not as asolid segment. Finally, these specialists wereequipped to work with veneer and probablywou ld not have had th e tools required tomake solid lengths of inlay.
From the inspection of ind ividual inlays
and accounts of th e day, these inlays had tobe cut and assembled individually fromveneer. The process of making th em could
be expedited by standardizing th e designsand by makin g component parts inquantity.Th e maker could th en assemble anumber of inlays at one t ime. For irregularshapes, several could be cut out simultaneous ly by stacking veneers, rather thancutting one at a time. In spite of efforts tomake th e work easier, inlay making
rem ained a precisely detailed and laborint ensive field . Inlay was the focal point of a
piece of Federal furniture, and th ere wasreally no way to make outstanding inlaywithout a substa nt ial investment of time.
For an inlay like the commo nly usedquarter fan (see the photo on p. 172), th epie-shaped segme nts wou ld be cut at azz 1/ 2
0 angle with a simple template or
angular guide of some kind . Th ese same
String Inlays
ASSEMBLED STRING ING
Light
Dark
Light
ALTERNATING COLO RS
Solidwood can be sawnat an angle and assembledto makeeithera ropingor aherringbone pattern.
MORE COMPLEX DESIGN S
Contrasting veneers aregluedtogether,then sawn across.
Laminated veneeris cut at an angle.
Sliced into strips
Slices aregluedend-to-endbetween veneer.
Roping
Herringbone
Checkered
,. . 81 •• III iCutting vertically through theblock produces a checkeredpattern.
Every other one is inverted.'
Veneer is gluedon both sidesand sliced to form this pattern.
SU RFAC E O RNA MEN TAT ION 171
This quarter-fan inlay ison thedrawer front of aMassachusetts or NewHampshire Hepplewhitesideboard of the 1790s.Inlays such as thesewereassembled fromsegments ofveneer.
Oval Fan Inlays
Oval fan inlays are designed so that the endsof the segments are of roughlyequalwidth,resulting in segments of differentangles. Theangles varywith the elongation of the oval.
172 C HA P T E R T E N
segme nts cou ld be used to make a circular
inlay of 16 segme nts, also a commo nly useddecoration . The segments were assembled
with glue to thin pap er or fabric. On ce
assembled, th ey could be trimmed to th eir
circular shape. If the ends of th e segments
were to be "filled at the end," th e ends were
cut away with a curved gouge and filledwith a cu rved segm ent of contrast ing wood .With th e ends filled , th e shape of th e whol e
inlay was trimmed round and circled with a
st ring inlay. Mod ern inlays are instantlyrecognizable because th e circle of string
inlay is die-cut from a solid sheet of veneer,
meaning that th e grain runs in one
direction rather than arou nd the circum
ference. Given the way th ese circular inlays
were made, it was probably just easier tomake qu arter fan s by cutt ing a fully circu larinlay into four parts.
Ova l fan inlays are made in th e same
manner, but th eir pie-shaped segments are
not all of the same angle. Oval inlays are
designed so that t he ends of each segme nt
are of roughly equal width. Sho rte r
segme nts have a larger angle th an long
segme nts. Within each oval th ere are
segme nts of four or five different angles,each used four times (on e in each quarter
see th e dra wing at left ). Given th at th e inlaymaker had some sta nda rd-size oval fans, he
likely had some angu lar templates and
cou ld cut out many segme nts ahead of
time. As on rou nd inlays, filled ends of
segme nts and a su rrou nd ing st ring inlay
were com mo n. TheJourneyman Cabinet andChair Makers' New YorkBook0/Prices of1796 lists th e pri ce for an "oval patri e, two
and a half inches long, with twelve stra ightpoints, fill 'd up at the end with different
wood, and a single st ring rou nd ditto" as
one shilling three pence, and "lett ing in"
each as three pence. Gi ven th e daily wage
of seven shillings six pence, a journeyman
sho uld have been able to make and inlayfive of th ese in an II-hour day. (Twelve
pence equals one shilling; twenty shillings
equal one pound. Both pounds and dollarswere used during this time. The daily
wage of seven shillings six pence equalsone dollar.)
Some inlay pattern s of round and ovalfans have shaded edges on th eir segments
rath er th an altern ating light and dark wood(see th e top photo at right). Thi s shadinggivesth e inlay a very fine appearance andth e fan a sophist icated, three-dimensionaleffect. It is achieved by heating th e edge ofth e individual segments to darken th em. Todo thi s, an iron pot is filled with fine sandand heated on a fire or stove until it is hotenough to darken, but not ignite, th e edgeof a piece of paper dipped int o it for about aminute. Wh en all th e segments of th e inlay
have been cut to shape, th e edge of each isdipp ed int o th e hot sand unti l it sta rts toturn brown .
Th is shad ing is best done a littl e at atime until th e prop er color is obta ined. It isbetter to have th e sand too cool rath er th antoo hot, so th e veneer is darkened all th e
way through rath er th an just on th e outsideof th e wood . Th e wood should have a deepbrown shad ing with no hint of beingburned . Shading can be added to th e centerof a segment by heaping a littl e of th e hotsand in th e desired area. Th e key toachieving an attract ive inlay of thi s type isto make th e shading uniform amo ng th esegments. It is best to have many ext rashaded segments so th e most similar onescan be assembled into an inlay.
Other circular or oval inlays usedcurved-ray segme nts and were made in afundamentally different way. Rath er th anbeing assembl ed from pie-shap ed wedgesof veneer, th ese inlays were cut from solidsheets. Close examinat ion of th e inlaysshows th at th e grain runs in th e samedirection rath er th an radiating from th ecenter. To make circular or oval inlays, light
and dark veneers were stacked and th epatt ern of th e inlay was drawn on th em .Both sheets would be cut simultaneouslywith a fine fram ed saw akin to a jeweler 'ssaw. Th e inlay would be assembled andglued to paper altern ating th e dark and lightsegments. Wh en t rimmed to final shape,th e result was two inlays, one th e negativeof th e oth er.
Thi s same meth od of cutting th esegments from a cont inuous sheet was alsoused with inlaysof one color, wh ere th e
Theedges of inlaysegments areshadedbydarkeningtheindividual pieces in hotsand beforethey areassembled.
Curved-ray inlays weresawn from stackedveneer with a smallframed saw,
Pictorial inlays of onecolor, such asthe shellshown here, weresawnfrom a continuous sheet,shaded with hot sandand reassembled.
SU R FA C EO R N A M E N TA T I O N 173
Strips of shaded veneer arejoinedand sawnin a zigzag to make icicle inlays.
This icicle inlay is froma Hepplewhite Pembroketablemade in theConnecticut River Va lleyof Massachusetts inabout 1795.
Ic ic le Inlays
segments were shaded in hot sand andreassembled. A similar approach was usedin making pictorial inlays, like eagles, floraldesigns and sea shells (see th e bottom photoon p. 173) . Different veneers were stacked
and sawn simultaneously,and cont rast ingcolors of veneer were assembled to maketh e fini shed inlay.Th e shapes of individualparts and what appear to be fine kerfssuggest that inlay was sawn rath er th an cutwith a kni fe.
To make th ese sawn inlays in quantity,the inlay maker used some clever, timesaving techniqu es. To make a pattern thatcould be transferred quickly to th e veneer,the maker drew th e design on pape rpattern s and pricked th e lines at closeint ervals with a pin. Th e pattern was th enplaced on th e veneer and du sted with finebitumen (asph alt) powder to t ransfer th edesign. Heating th e surface of th e veneermelted th e bitumen and affixed it to th ewood. To make many pieces at once, asmany as six sheets of veneer of variouswoods were cut simultaneously. A sheet of
low-grade veneer was placed at th e bottomof th e stac k to redu ce th e tearout caused byth e saw. Th e thickn ess of many sheetsactua lly made th e stack st iffer and easier tohandle than one or two sheets . To cutseveral sheets at once and have th e sawn
parts be int erchangeable, it was import antth at th e sawblade be held perpendicular toth e work. To aid in th is, a bench called aninlay maker's donkey was devised to clampth e veneers and hold th e framed saw atright angles to th e surface of th e veneer.
Paterae are inlaid int o th e surface by firsttra cing th eir outl ine with a fine knife. Th eknife cut is deepened, and th e area inside itis cut away with chisels to th e depth of theinlay. Th e inlay is th en glued in place, withth e paper side facing out . O nce th e glue hasdri ed th oroughly, th e paper may berem oved by moistening it and scraping itoff. Th e inlay is th en scraped or sandedflu sh with th e surroun ding surface. It isimp ortant to allow th e glue under th e inlayto dr y thorou ghly; if th e inlay is leveledwhil e th e glue and wood are st ill moist, th earea will cont inue to dr y and shrink, and its
surface will dip noticeably below th e levelof th e surrounding area.
174 C H A P T E R TEN
Other inlayTh e inlaysdiscussed to thi s point have beeneither st ring inlays or round, quarter-roundor oval paterae. Other inlays include icicles,inlaid flutes and husk and drop or pend entbellflower designs. Icicle inlays, for use onlegs, were a favorite of makers along th eConnect icut River Valley. Th ey were madeby shading one edge of st rips of veneer,3fs in. to I/ Z in. wide, and assembling th emon a paper backing. Th e tapered icicles were
th en cut across th e strips. Some icicles haveth e shading on th e top of each segment,
while others are shaded on th e bott om,suggest ing th at th e assembled st rips ofveneer were cut in a zigzag pattern withvery littl e waste (see th e drawing on th efacing page).
Inlaid flutes, also called book inlays,were used at th e tops oflegs and on plinthsth roughout th e Middl e Atlanti c and NewEngland coastal regions. Th ey consist ofth ree or four st rips of light veneer, shadedon one edge and cut with a convex top andconcave bott om . A variat ion of thi s has th eouter strips turned upside-down to becomean inlaid linen fold, a decorative detail seenin earlier carvings.
Husk and drop, or pend ent bellflower,inlays descend ed th e length of most taperedHepplewhite legs. Th e moti f derives from
th e classical anthemion, th e st ring of honeysuckle buds used by Robert Adam as anapplied ornament . Rath er then being a preassembl ed inlay, th ese consist of single budscut from veneer. Each was individuallyinlaid along th e length of th e leg, usuallywith some st ringing to connect th em . Awide variety of bud shapes was used, eachwith regional character istics. Three-petal,tightly closed buds were seen all along th ecoast . Some makers preferred a more flared,bell-shaped bud, th e Newport cabinetmakers among th em. A descendi ng ser ies ofshaded and overlapping ovals is associatedwith New York makers. Th e 1796 Book ofPrices puts th e pr ice of each inlaid bud atfour pence, making a st ring of four or fiveequivalent to a small oval fan paterae. Th e20th-eentury counterpart of th is inlay is areassembl ed sheet of die-eut veneer made tocover th e ent ire face of th e leg, which isquite different from the period meth od.
Inlaid flutes or bookinlays were a commonlyused decorative motif.These inlays arefromthe same Pembroketable asthe icicle inlayon the facing page.
Husk anddrop, orpendent bellflower,inlays derive fromanthemion, theornamental string ofhoneysuckle buds usedby Robert Adam. Thisexample is thedesignused byNewportcabinetmaker JohnTownsend.
SU R FACE ORNA MEN TA T ION 175
h e work of turning wood on a lathewas a branch of th e furniture-making trade
that paralleled and coin cided with cabinetmaking over the course of th e 18th century.Th ere was a distin ction between th e turnerand th e cabinetmaker, just as th ere hadbeen with th e cabinetmaker's predecessor,th e joine r. In th e 17th century, th e frameand-pane l meth od was th e predominanttype of const ruct ion and it was th e dom ainof th e joiner. Join ers built th eir furnitureusing st raight pieces of wood, join ed mostlyat right angles, with mortise-and -tenonjoints , Turnings were not necessarily anint egral part of th eir work .
Turners had th eir own purview.Equipped with littl e more th an a lathe,turners made handl es, wooden plates,bowls, goblets, candleholde rs, balusters and
wagon and mechanical parts. Th ey alsomade cha irs. Turners' chairs are comprised
of nearly all turned parts and are join edwith turned tenons inserted into drill ed
Joseph Moxon's Mechanick Exercises (London,1703 edition) illustratesa lathe driven by a handcranked great wheel that turned theworkpiecedirectly bya cord.
176
11TURNING
mortises. Join ers' and later cabinetmakers'
cha irs were made from flat or sha ped stockjoin ed by mortise-and-t enon join ery.Naturally, th ere were man y accomplishedjoiners wh o owned lathes and could maketurnings, but th ose wh o did not , includingmany of th e very early craftsmen ofAm erica, could call up on skilled lath eowners for th eir turned parts.
The Use of Turnings in18th-Century FurnitureDuring th e Jacobean period in Amer icanfurniture, tu rnin gs in the for ms of bossesand split spind les were used as app liedorna men t on case pieces. T hroughout thefirst quarter of the 18th century, turningsrema ined an important element of William
This English lathe of 1804uses a foot-powered treadle to drive a flywheel , whichturnsa drive center in the headstock. It also hasan adjustable tool rest andcanbeused to cut threads on wood .
and Mary designs, and turners cont inued tobe used as specialists and subco ntracto rs.Urban shops of th e day were busy withjoinery, veneering and finishing. Turning,which did not have to be done on th epremises, could be given to an independ entturner. In a 1733 bill, Boston turner JohnUnde rwood describes selling cabinetmakerNathaniel Holmes th e turned legs, ball feetand drop finials for a William and Marydressing table. In more rural areas, wherefurn iture makers had to master all aspectsof their craft and th ere was not th e volume
to suppor t full-tim e turners, th e cabinetmaker was more likely to make his ownturnings.
Beginnin g with th e Qu een Ann eperiod, turnings became less important asdecorative elements. Wh en th ey were used,th ey were more integral to th e piece rath erthan separate components or add edembellishments. Because of thi s development, it made more sense for shops to dowhat littl e turn ing work was called for inthe course of building fu rni ture. Th e fieldof cabine tmaki ng had grown from th ejoiner's trade as a range of varied skillsincluding dovetailing, veneer ing, carving,finishing and th en turning became part ofthe reperto ire of skills required to build th eI8th -eentury designs. Th e turningsrequired for furni ture likely remained an inshop opera t ion for th e remainder of th ecentury as shops grew in size.
While cabinetmakers went aboutmaking th eir own turnings, turners werestill busy makin g th e things th ey alwayshad, including affordable bani ster-back andladder-back turn ed chairs. As th e societybecame busier and more mechani zed withhorse, water and wind power, th ere was anincreased demand for turned parts. It wasnot unt il th e Neoclassical period ,specifically wit h th e Sheraton designs, th atturni ngs became a major element infurn iture design again. By th at tim e, th elarger shops employed many different inhouse specialists, such as uph olsterers andfinishers, and full-tim e turners would have
been among th em.
(COURTESYCOLONIAL WILLIAMSBURG)
EA R LY LAT HESThere is a dearth of information onEnglish and Am erican tools for most of th e18th century. Between Joseph Moxon'sMeclwnick Exercises, ortheDoctrineof HandyVV{Jrll S (published in Lond on beginning in1677) and the tool cata logs that appeared atth e end of the 18th century, there are noillustrated publications with whi ch to tra ceth e developm ent of tools. From what isknown, we can infer that a tool such as alath e was simpl e, basic and either locallymade or built by its owner. In thi s regard it
is more similar to a workb ench th an tohand tools, many of whi ch were imported.Moxon's illustrations, wh ich are based onFrench tools of th e day, show a lath epowered by a "great wheel: a large, handcranked wheel located behind th e lath e thatturned th e workpi ece by a belt or cord (seeth e illustration on th e facing page). By th eend of th e 18th century, foot-poweredlath es were in use. Th ese used a foot tr eadleto drive a flywheel th at was belted to theheadstock (photo above).
The cente rs on wh ich th e wood tu rnedon early lath es were littl e more th an pointed
rods, threaded to be adjustable. Th e woodrode directly on th ese cente rs, so th ey couldnot be overtightened and were oftengreased to redu ce friction and prevent th ewood from being burned. The Moxon lath eshows two centers, with th e drive belt fromth e great wheel driving th e workpi ecedire ctly. Improvements during th e centu rybrought th e headstock with a drive center,a shaft driven by th e power source, whi ch inturn rotated th e workpi ece. Early tool restswere littl e more than a wooden rail parallelto th e lath e bed with few provisions foradjustment. By th e century's end, betterlath es had adjustable iron tool rests. Bycomparison, modern lath es are luxuriouswith variable-speed electric dri ves, ball
bearin g headstocks and cente rs, fullyadjustable tool rests, and st iff, heavy lath ebeds. It is th e poor workman who blameshis or her modern lath e.
TURN ING 177
A pattern on cardboardis made from the turningof anoriginal bymeasuring the diameterandpositions of theturned features.
T UR I NG PATT ERNSLike othe r arti sans of the period, turnerslooked for ways to make their work fasterand their time mo re productive . This meantusin g patterns and t ime-saving deviceswhenever possible, as well as makingturnings in quantity. (The ConnecticutWindsor chairmaker Ebenezer Tracy,1744-1 803, left 6,400 turn ings in his shopat th e time of his dea th .) A pattern for aturned shape could be either an actua lturning or a flat pro file of it on thin wood.Both are good guides from which toreplicate a shape, but a flat pat tern is easierto use and store. The pattern not on ly showsth e profil e, but also is used in the turningprocess to mark the features of the shape
dire ctly onto the workpiece (see th e top leftphoto on p. 181).
The pattern for any tu rni ng is a full-scaledr awin g of the profile. It is best to have the
pattern on cardboard or thin wood so it isst iff enough to use at th e lathe. A typicalpattern is shown in the photo above. T hepat tern is th e size of th e blank fro m whichthe turning is made and has all th e featuresof th e profile on it. T he profi le is drawnsymmet rically about a centerline, and crosslines are drawn to mark the locat ion of each
178 C II 1\ PTE R E LEV E N
turned feature. A pattern is easily madefrom an exist ing tu rning or scaled from aphoto by measuring th e diameter offeatures and th eir distance fro m either end.Th ere are only two var iables in turnedpart s-diam eter and location-but as withother sha ped parts th e faithfulness of th eduplicate lies in th e role of sma ll details.Th e profile in the pattern should capturethe angle at which one featu re meetsanothe r, th e sharpness or rounding of edges,and othe r subtle features of th e turningth at are worth noting. There's no need tocut out th e pattern; in fact, it's easier tot ransfer th e patte rn to th e turning blank ifit is left uncut.
Turning on the LatheThe skill of turning wood on th e lath e isperfected only th rou gh experience andprac tice, and by acquiri ng a feel for th ework. Apart from practica l expe rience,th ere is something to be gained by lookin gat some of th e principles and forcesinvolved in turn ing.
Th e stoc k or workpiece in a lathe isheld in place by two cen ters: th e rotat ingdr ive cen ter, which is spurred to spin th e
workpiece, and th e tail center, whichsupports th e far end of th e workpiece andkeeps th e wood in contact with th e drivecenter. Th e tool rest is an adjustable barparallel to th e sur face of th e turning stockon which th e cutt ing tools are supported asthey cut th e wood.
Th ere are three main types of turningtools: th e parting tool, th e gouge and th eskew (see th e drawing on th e facing page).Each is a long-handl ed chisel with a veryst iff steel blade made specifically for use onth e lathe. Th e par t ing tool has a tall, narrowblade th at is shar pene d to a point as viewedfrom th e side. It is int end ed to make anarrow, flat-bottom ed cut st raight into th eworkpiece, and is used to establish th emajor diameters of features, as well as for allsorts of st raight plunging cuts. Gouges aremade in a variety of sizes and are used forrough cutt ing, qu ick removal of stock andmakin g concave shapes. Skews are flatchisels, beveled on both sides, and have acutt ing edge angled at about 30° across th e
end . Skews are used for th e fine shaping ofst raight and gently curved sections of atu rn ing, as well as for cutting in sharp
details and scribed lines. Other types ofturning tools for specific purposes are seenoccasionally, but th ese three types of toolscan do nearly everyt hing.
In th e physics of tu rni ng, th e bevel onth e cutt ing tool playsan importan t andoften overlooked role. The bevel rides onth e su rface of th e wood (see th e draw ing onp. 178), serving three fun ctions. First, th ebevel provides a point of support for th efro nt of th e tool. Along with th e tool rest,th e tool is th en sup ported at two points,making it more sta ble and contro llable andpreventing it from tip ping into the spinningworkpiece. Holding th e tool is so effortless
that cuts can be mad e with one hand (buttwo should always be used for safety's sake).
Second, by positioning th e tool so the bevelrides on th e wood, th e depth of cut of thetoo l is lim ited and a fine, cont inuousshaving, th e mark of a good cut, is th eresult. Th e su rface is cut cleanly and isburnished by th e bevel. Third, th e pressureof th e bevel on th e wood prevents th ework piece from vibrati ng or whipping. Tofind th e ideal posit ion of th e tool on thewood, th e bevel is held against t he round
Turn ing Tools
PARTING TOO L
GOUGE
Bevel
I
Used for straight plunging cuts
Used for roughcutting, smoothingandconcave profi les
SKEW CHISEL
Used forsmoothingandconvex profiles
Cut starts with gougeheld on its side, bevelin contact with wood.
Cutting area
Point up for smoothingcuts on straight, taperedor gentle convexprofiles
Gouge is rotated toflat as bottomof cutis reached.
Point down for steeperconvexprofilesandendgrain
T U R N I N G 179
Using the Bevel
Rotating workpiece
workp iece and slid back until th e cutt ingedge sta rts to shave off mat erial.
Th e pro blem of slende r stock whippingabout off-center, rath er than remainingst raight and tr ue whi le bein g cut, is one ofth e more persistent and frustra tin gproblem s in hand turning. There are a few
things th at can be don e to min imiz e th iswh ipping. Backin g off th e pressure of thetail cente r on th e workpiece to th e bareminimum will reduce the tendency of th estoc k to buckle in compression. Reducingth e speed of th e lath e will d iminish the
tend ency of centrifugal force to pu ll t hestock off-cente r. Increasing th e pressure onth e tool bevel will restrain th e stock fromwhipping freely. If th e whipping persists, itis necessary to restrain th e workp iece inothe r ways. Wearing a leath er glove, you canwrap th e palm and fingers of the left handarou nd th e workpi ece to steady it whi leusing th e thumb to guide th e turning tool.Th e final resort is to use a steady rest , afixture with adjustable blocks or rollersthat 's moun ted to th e lath e bed to steadyth e cente r of th e workpi ece as it is beingcut. Somet imes th e cha racte rist ics of thewood have a strong bearin g on its tendencyto whip. Som e pieces of wood , especiallyth ose with croo ked grain or int ernalst resses, wi ll start to whip at th e first touchof a tool, whereas a more select piece ofstock of th e same wood wi ll be thoroughly
cooperat ive.
180 C II A P T E R E l. E V E N
Bevel of tool ridesagainst work.
SPINDLE TURNINGMaking the tu rn ing from th e pattern beginswith cutt ing th e ap pro pr iate size stock forth e workpiece. Enough ext ra length , at leastI/Z in., should be left so th e cente r marks on
th e ends can be cut off later. Th e cente rpoints are marked on th e ends with crossedd iagonal lines. If th ere are sect ions of th etu rning th at will remain squa re, th osesections should be marked on at least oneside of th e workpiece. If th e workpi ece willbe turned over its ent ire length, a timesaving idea is to cut th e stoc k to an octago nalshape before tu rni ng it. This can be done
quick ly with a table saw but is not worthdoing by handsaw. O nce th e workpi ece ismounted in th e lath e, th e sect ions th at are
to be rounded can be turned to a straightcylind rical shape, just removing th e flatsides (photo below). A large gouge is th e
best tu rn ing tool for th is heavy stockrem oval. If th e tu rni ng includes sections ofsqua re, unturned stock, th ose sections(whi ch should already be marked) mu st be
cut around and have th eir corne rs roundedbefore turning th e adjacent sectio ns to acylind rical shape .
With th e workpiece turned round, th elocat ions of th e features are drawn directlyonto th e stock. While th e wood is turning,th e patt ern is laid on th e tool rest alongsideth e stoc k. At th e cross line of every featurein th e pattern, a pencil may be touched toth e stock (to p left photo, facing page). Aclear, visible line will result. Early turnerswh o turned many of th e same pattern useda length of wood with sharpened nails alongits length to scribe th e lines simultaneously.
At each line, th e diam eter of th e featurecan be cut into the workpiece, usually withthe parting tool (top right photo, facingpage). The d iam eter is checked with calipersth at have been set to th e diameter on thepattern (bottom left photo, facing page).Any wood that is clearly waste can be turnedoff with a gouge. T he final profil e shape is
The square or octagonalworkpiece is first turnedto a cylindrical shapewith a large gouge.
The pattern is used to transfer the locations of the turned features on the spinningworkpiece.
The diameter of each feature is checked withcalipers.
The diameters of the features are cut withthe partingtool.
The shape between the diameters is turnedwith skewsand gouges.
turned between the feature diamet ers
using a gouge or skew ch isel, dep ending
upon th e shape (bottom right ph ot o,
above). The usual procedure is to turn a few
feature diamet er s at a time and then turn
them to their final shapes. This is done in a
pro gression rather than turning all the
feature di am eter s at on ce . To m aintain a
stiff workpiece and pr event whipping and
vibrat ion, it is advisabl e to leave as much of
the workpiece with as large a di amet er as
possibl e until it is turned to shape. For this
reason, ar eas that are to be turned to a sm all
di amet er are ofte n left until last to pr event
weakening the stock at the outset .
The cuts that bring the p rofil e to its fin al
dimen sion must be light and smooth to
ach ieve a smoot h surface. Because spind le
turning is always cu t t ing across the grain ,
there is a limit to how smoot h the fin al
surface w ill be. It wi ll never m at ch the
su rface fin ish of wood t hat is hand-planed
w it h the grain. T he qua lit y o f t he fin al
su rface is greatly d epen dent on th e
sharpness of the t urnin g tools, since in
cross-grain cu t t ing t he wood fibe rs have a
tendency to pull off t he su rface rather than
be cu t cleanly. It is a goo d idea to give the
tools a qu ick honing before the fin al cu t to
get the best pos sib le su rface. At tention
T U RN I N G 181
Off-Cen ter Turning
C taxis
BJAJ
Center at ankleTransition from square to round
Centerat transition
~en er
<,\>----- . - .1- /
!J- .
-- - . .,,"-T ./
-
\ . .Center axisSkewed axis
Points 'A' are the centers for the taper.Points '8' are the centers for the bottomof the foot.
In making turned and tapered legs with pad feet, the pattern is traced onto twosidesof the stock andthe turning centers are marked. Oncemarked, the profile of the legiscut.
should be paid to th e turned surfaces oforiginal pieces. Rural and early piecesusually have th e marks of th e turning toolsin evidence. More form al and later piecesusually have a more refined su rface. Inworking in th e period style, you shouldnot overlook the fact th at th e appropriate
surface on a turning helps define th echaracter of the piece.
Turning in real life is never as idyllicas in the textb ook representations. Th eimpo rta nce of producing a properly shapedturning always takes precedence overdisplaying flawless tech niqu e. Besides,cantankerous tu rning stoc k and un expectedwhipping can bring an embarrassing end toeven the most impeccable exhibit ion ofturning technique. It may seem crude to say
th at th e ends justify th e means, but th ereare many instances where th e turning toolshave to be used "improperly" to scraperat her th an cut cleanly in order to achieveth e proper shape of th e profile and itsdeta ils. It is not always possible to have th ebevel in contact with th e work and producefine shavings. Cutting can leave a rough
su rface that has to be smoothed on th elathe with a file or abrasives. Given th elimita tions of 18th-eentury lath es, th eperiod makers had to do whatever th eycould to produce good tu rn ings. Th ere isno reason to think they would not haveused a file, sharkskin or a sand leath erwheneve r necessary. Their interest was inthe result, not the technique. While it is
a great accomplishment to turn a piece th atis cut to perfect ion, some sanding should
be expected.
OFF- C ENT ER T UR NI N GStraight tap ered legs with pad feet , likethose used on a number of informal chairsand tables of Queen Anne design, mu st beturned on two different axes. One axis(the one used to turn th e bottom of thefoot) is th e cente r axis of th e workpiece asesta blished by crossed diagona l lines. Theother axis (the one used to turn th e taper ofth e leg) is skewed.
To determ ine th e shape of th e leg andth e locat ion of th e skewed cente r points, afu ll-size pattern of the leg's profile is made(photo below). T he profile shows that theselegs are st raight along one side and cut awayon th e other side to make the taper andfoot . As with cabriole legs, th e patt ern istraced onto two adjacen t sides of th e stock ,so the finished leg is st raight on the backtwo sides and tapered on th e front two
182 C I I A PT ERE L E V E N
The taper of the leg is turned first, using the center pointsfor theskewed axis. The leg is remounted on its truecenters to turn the bottomof the foot.
sides. From th e pattern profil e, the center
of th e leg is marked at th e top and bottomof its taper. From th ese two points, a line is
drawn to both ends of the pattern, and
wh ere it crosses th e ends represents the
cente r points for th e tapered part of th e leg.Since th e pattern is laid ou t on two sides of
th e stock, these center lines must be
extended across the ends of th e stock to the
points wh ere th ey intersect . In laying outth e leg, th e pattern is used as a gu ide to
mark th e position of th e foot , the top , th e
tr ansition line from rou nd to square and
th e profile of th e taper. The taper of the leg
is th en cut away from two sides, leaving a
square taper.Th e taper is turned fir st by mounting
th e leg in th e lat he on th e two skewedcenter points. Once the leg is rotat ing, the
stock should appear to be turning on centerat th e transition line, but it will appear off
center elsewh ere. On this axis, th e
tr ansition from square to round, th e taper
and th e top of th e foot are turned. They
should be brou ght to th eir final surface
fin ish before pro ceed ing becau se th e
skewed center point on th e foot will be cutoff while turning th e bottom of th e foot .
Nex t, th e leg is rem ounted on the lathe on
its true cente r points and the bottom of th e
foot is turned . This is don e just as on a
cabriole leg, with a bottom pad an d a line to
define the top of th e foot . As on the
cab rio le leg, th e top of the foot is shaped
wit h rasps and files to its final shape . The
ext ra materi al at the top and bottom of the
foot is trim med off, and th e leg is complete .
The top of the foot isshaped with rasps andfil es, as on the pad feetof cabriole legs.
FACEPLATE T URNINGIn furni ture making, faceplate turning is
used to make d ished circu lar tabletops. This
kind of turn ing d iffers fro m spindle
tu rn ing in that t he wo rkp iece is not rota t ing
between two cente rs. Instead, th e rou nd
tabletop is aff ixed to a rotat ing plate on th eheadstock of the lat he and spins about its
cente r. Tu rni ng tools are used to cut a
T U RN I N G 183
Faceplate Turning
FaceplateTOP VIEW
Dished circular tabletops areturnedon the lathe witha faceplate. The top is dishedand theedge moldingcut in thesameoperation.
Floor-stand tool rest
Removing an amountfrom bottom equal todished depth preventscupping.
Dishing the topfrom one sideleadsto cupping.
Center of kiln-driedwood is in tension;outside is incompression.-t..
the rough stock. To do this, a layer of woodequa l to the dep th of the d ishing is removedfrom the bottom of the stock first . Wh enth e top of th e stock is d ished the resultingpiece will have less of a tend ency to cup.
••- - +- - =-- ~ 4-• • +
Tension
.. -l
4- + ....1
Wood in tension
Wood in compression
+-\- -+
-\- ;
+ -\-+ ..
L _
Preventing Cupping
skin into compression. W hen th ecompressed layer is removed by dishi ng th etop , th e rem aining unbalanced forces causeth e wood to cup. To balance th e forcesthrough th e th ickness of th e top, th e fina l
thi ckn ess mu st be taken fro m th e center of
mo lding arou nd th e edge and dish th esur face of the tabletop. Rather than always
cutt ing across the grain, as in spin d leturning, facep late turning of a tabletop iscutt ing alternately with and against t hegrain as the workpiece rota tes . To avoidtearing out the grain on the mo lded edge,th e turner must be sure to make very finecuts and hold the cutti ng tool moreperp endicu lar to th e surface of th e work.This position causes th e tool to scrapemore th an cut and minimizes th e chancesof tearout.
An alternative method is to use amodern electri c router. Th e route r can beused to cut a circular molding by subst ituting a stee l rod for its fence. Th e rod turnsabout a pin or bolt protruding from ananchor plate attac hed with glue or shortscrews to th e cen ter of th e top . O nce th eoute r mo lding is cut, a flat cutte r can be
used to d ish most of th e top by cutti ngsma ller and smaller circles. Th e remaining
center sect ion is removed with chisels and aspokeshave and th e surface is scraped flat .
Kiln-dr ied wood usua lly has int ern alst resses that can make any dished topdeform badly as soon as it is cut by eithermeth od . In drying th e wood, th e outsidelayer dr ies and hardens first . Th e insidedr ies and shrinks afterwards, leaving th einsid e in tension and pulling th e outs ide
184 C 11 /\ I' T ERE LE V E N
12FINISHING MATERIALS
AND TECHNIQUES
h ere's an old rule of thumb th at statesth at it takes as long to finish fine furni tu reas it does to build it. Th at may be anexaggeration (unless you include dr yingtime), but the point is that th e fini shin gprocess should not be hurried. Of all th easpects of furn iture making, th ere is noneother th at can spell success or failure asquickly as th e quality of th e final finish.Everyone has seen examples of welldesigned and well-built pieces of furnitureth at have been seriously compromised inth eir final stage of completion by a hideousfinish . A poor finish can instantly undomany months of even th e most skillful
cabinetmaking. But, conversely, even th emost stunning finish cannot make up for
poor workm anship. It is important not tolet th e imminent complet ion of a piececloud one's judgment in fini shin g it, or toexpect the finish to compensate for othershortcomings. Finishing has to beconsidered th e fina l step in building a piece,and the process and th e preparation for itcall for as much care in execut ion as th einitia l steps.
When working in th e period styles, th efinal appearance and feel of th e piece are
as important as th e int egrity of th e joinery.The color, depth, su rface and luster separatean immediately notic eable, run-of-th e-millrep rodu ction from a serious replica thatrivals th e appearan ce of a well-preservedoriginal. The presence of a fin e originalpiece is as mu ch th e result of its patina as itsform. Captur ing the essence of that patina
is th e goal of finishing. Modern standardsand methods of finishing are not applicableto period replications.
An important elem ent in th e patina oforiginal pieces is th e acquired marks of use.Some originals show lit tle or no sign ofhaving been used, and indeed many werecovered and stored for many years beforebein g displayed in a protective mus eumenvironment. Still others show incredible
amounts of use; so mu ch that th e wear haschanged the shape of component piecesand becom e a discernible modifi cation toth e form. Such wear is part of th e historyof th e piece, and attests to its heritage. Inreplicating a piece, the amount of wear that
is chosen to be included depend s on thepersonal preferences of th e cabinetmakerand client. Some makers want th eir work toappear as the originals did when they werefinished so th ey can start th eir own legacy
of use. Others want th eir pieces to beindi st inguishable from originals, with signsof age and use included as part of th epatina. Neither approach is inh erently rightor wrong, but either can vary in degrees ofhistor ical accu racy.
In th e 18th centu ry th ere were aplethora of fini shin g techniques, colorants
and top coats . Som e are well documented,and others are more folkloric. Without th econvenience of commercially preparedfinishes, each shop was likely to have itsown preferred , and no doubt secret,formulae and procedures (see App endix Von pp. 298-299 for some period fin ishin gformulae). In spite of th e limited number ofavailable ingredients, no one fin ish was
universally employed during th e period .Finishes varied wid ely in ingredients,complexity of preparati on and ease ofapplicat ion. Naturally some were far betterth an others. Th e better formulae werepassed down and at some point pu blished,and what was available for ingredientsduring th e period is documented. Like thefurniture itself, period fini shes andmeth ods varied amo ng indi vidu al makers,but all had th e same end in mind.
185
F IN ISH INGTERM INOLOGY
Some mention should bemade of th e vagaries of
18th-century terminology andsome words that have acquireddifferent meanings two or threecenturies later. Dyeingandstainingnow have slightly differen t meanings from th ose inearly references. Du ring th e 18thcentu ry th e terms had more todo with th e intend ed purpose ofeach rath er than th eir physicalqualities. Early references useth e words gum and resin interchangeably, th ough almost allth e components of periodvarn ishes were true hard resins.Th e term varnish was applied toall clear top coats, though todayth e term is generally reserved foroil-based finish es.
Polishin g encompassed awide variety of operat ions,including burnishing th e woodsurface, rubbing in oils, app lyingfinish by th e French meth od,leveling and rubbing out th esu rface with pumice, and, asagreed upon today, th e application and buffing of a final polishto achieve gloss. Th e simulat ionof Ori ental lacquer was calledjapanning. th ough th e origin ofth e original lacquer piecesincluded China and othercount ries. Th e distance betweenEast and West and a generalmisunderstanding of th ecultures (th ey were all equallyexot ic) eroded th e distin ctionsamong th e various Asiancultures. Period documentationis th oroughly enlightening, buta casua l use of terms shouldbe expected.
186 C H A I'T E R T W E L V E
Surface Preparati onA prerequisite for achieving a historicallyaccura te finish is th e creat ion of a woodsur face th at would have been left by th esmoothing tools of th e 18th century. Th epieces of th e period would have beenplaned flat and usually scraped smooth,th ough th e smoothness of th e surfacevaried with th e sophisticat ion of th e pieceand when it was bu ilt. Th e surfaceprodu ced by a smoothing plane wassufficiently smooth at th e early part of th ecentury, but th e Queen Anne aestheticcalled for smoother scraped surfaces. As th ecentur y progressed, th e aesthetics called forflatter and more lust rous surfaces. By th eend of th e century, hand-tool marks on th eprimary surfaces were not to be evident,because th e tastes of th e day requi red ahighly refined surface.
Th e level of sophisticatio n varied withregion and pur pose. Smooth er and flattersu rfaces required skill and time to achieve,which translated into increased cost . Ut ilitarian or rural pieces would naturally have aless refined su rface than th ose of urbanpieces. Wh atever th e characte r of th e surface, it is th e foundation for th e appropriateand authent ic appearance of th e finish.
To achieve th e final surface , 18thcentu ry cabinetmakers relied more on
.:
cutting th e wood with sharp tools th anwith abrasives(see pp. 114-115). Th ere islittl e room for improvement on th e smoothsurface cut by a well-honed blade. The fewabrasives in use were employed to prepareth e su rface for a finish, or between coats offinish, rath er th an actua lly to shape th ewood. Glass paper and sandpaper wereknown to have been available early in th e19th century, and no doubt came into useduring th e preceding one, but th e smoothsurface left by a cabinet scraper neededlittl e or no sanding. Sharkskin, sandleath ers (leath er imp regnated with fineabrasive particles) and dried rushes wereabrasive enough to smooth raised woodfibers in preparation for finishing. Solidblocks of fine pumice stone are also knownto have been used as an abrasivewhenneeded. From a purely economical point ofview, all of th ese abrasives would have beenconsumed in use, while sharp cutting toolscould be resharpened and used for years.If th ere was little to be gained by usingabrasives, th ere was littl e reason to useth em up . Files also played an important rolein shaping and smoothing wood. A closeexamination of well-preserved pieces showsth at files were used to ease sharp corners , ajob th at usually would be done withabrasives today.
Using waterproof siliconcarbide sandpaper andpowdered pumiceto fillthe pores of anopengrained wood simulatesthe original method ,which calledfor rubbingthe surface witha solidblock of pumice.
Most 18th-century dyes or sta ins weredissolved in water and raised th e grain of
th e wood. An experienced cabinetmakerknew that thi s could be avoided by wett ingth e surface first, allowing it to dry, and th enlightly sanding or abrading th e woodsurface to remove th e raised fibers. Th eeffect iveness of thi s procedure is increasedif the wood is sized, th at is, wet with a verydilute mixtu re of animal hide glue in water.
Th e dried sizing holds and st iffens th eraised fibers, allowing th em to be cut offmore effect ively. Andre Jacques Roubo'sL'art du menuisier ("Th e art of th e joiner,"
3 vol., Paris, 1769-1 774) and subsequentpubl ications describe another procedurewherein a block of pumice is rubbed in th edirection of th e grain on still-wet wood. Th ewood is allowed to dry and th e process isrepeated. Thi s technique actually worksvery well, th ough a modern subst itute forth e pumice block would be waterproofsilicon-carbide sandpaper.
FILLING THE GRAINTh e open grain of woods like mahogany andwalnu t presents a special problem forfinishers. Rath er th an filling with finishand becom ing level with the surface, th eopen pores of th e surface remain apparentth rough a top coat. Th ese pores need to befilled before th e finish is applied. Th e
Modern prepared fillerscontain ground silica inoil with pigmented color.They arebrushedontothe surface, andtheexcess is removed bywiping across the grain.
method describ ed by Roubo and otherscalls for filling th e pores with a mixture ofpumice, wood fibers and glue. ThomasSheraton 's Cabinet Dictionary (London,1803) describes rubbing powdered br ickdu st and linseed oil int o th e sur face of th ewood with a cork block. Other referencesmention rubbing clay, whiting andcornstarch into th e su rface, with a dr yingoil like linseed to serve as a vehicle anddryer. Whatever th e method, th e purposewas to fill th e pores with solid particl es th atwere either tr ansparent or th e same color asth e wood . Th e filler needed to harden in
place, be unlikel y to shrink and provide alevel base for top coats.
Modern, commercially prepared fillersare thi ck liquids composed of ground silicain oil with dryers, thinners and pigments.Th e silica is called silex, a ground flint thatbreaks int o tiny, sharp, geomet ric particlesth at interl ock and pack together in th epores. In oil, th e silex is nearly transparent,but it somet imes appears white afte r th e oilhas dried, so a pigment is added to matchth e filler to th e color of th e wood . Th esefillers are brushed onto th e su rface of th ewood, first with th e grain and th en across itto work it into th e pores. Afte r some of th esolvents have evaporated and th e fillerbecomes qu ite st iff, th e excess is wiped offth e sur face with a pliable scraper, like a
credit card, and a coarse cloth such asburlap. The wiping is done across th e grainso as not to pull th e soft filler from the
pores. Becau se of th e oil binder, modernfillers take up to 72 hours to dry. The fillermu st be allowed to dr y th oroughly;otherwise, it will shri nk in th e pores underth e top coat, giving th e pores a white cast.
Coloring the WoodThe use of sta ins or dyes for coloring woodwas a frequ ent practice for most of th e
18th century. Dyestuffs and pigmentswere commonly traded commodities andwere used for textil e dyeing and in th epreparation of paints, so th ere is no reasonto believe th at th ey were not available tocabinetmakers. Original pieces that seem tohave a light natural color frequently have
been st ripped and show traces of deeperoriginal colors under moldings and beh ind
drawer lips. Often, stains were applied tolighter woods to simulate th e appearance ofwalnut or mahogany, both of which wereconsidered desirable woods for most of thecentury. Appl ying a sta in or dye to th e woodnot only deepens th e color and enriches theapp earance, but also evens th e tone ofdissimilar parts and enhances th e figure ofth e wood. One except ion to th e use of
overall staining occurred during th e Federalperiod, when th e use of inlaid veneer ofcontrasting shades prevented th e pract ice.At th e same time, th e practice of dyeingvene er before it was cut and assembl ed intopaterae or stringing became common.
Period pieces were sta ined with colorsderived from a variety of plant and min eralproducts, both dom estic and imp orted(see Appendix IV on p. 297 for a listing ofperiod colorants) . As with most finishingdetails, each cabinetmaking shop or regionhad its preferred formulae. Th e majority ofth ese colorants were mad e by boiling orstee ping th e dyestuffs in water, th oughsome were dissolved in alcohol. Occasiona lreferences were made to adding nitr ic acid
or other chemicals to prevent th e colorsfrom fading. Oil s were not in general use asvehicles for sta ins, but th ere are manyreferences to linseed oil, tinted red withalkan et root, being used to deepen th e colorand enhance th e grain of mah ogany.
F IN I SH I N G M AT E R I A L S ,,,<- TE e H N I QUE S 187
Because they haveno solid pigments insuspension, dye stains(left) have a greaterclarity and theircolorants areable topenetrate the woodsurface. Pigmentedstains(right) aremoreopaque, and thepigments remain on thewood surface. Bothofthese samples are ofequal film thickness andproducesimilar colors.
DYE STA INS AN DP IGMENTE D STAI N S
A distinctio n should be made between dyesta ins and pigmented sta ins. By modernstan da rds, dyes are solut ions of colorants in
wate r, alcohol or oil. Since th ey aredissolved in solut ion, th ere are no particlesin suspe nsion to settle out. Th e colorantpenetrates th e wood , changing its color.Pigmented sta ins conta in ground pigmentsuspended in a solvent with binders andare formulated to help th e color disperse
and make it adh ere to the wood . Thepigments are not in solution and must best irred up from the bottom of the conta inerbefore use. Once appli ed, and aft er th esolvents have evaporated, the pigmentsremain mostly on th e surface of th e wood .
Eightee nth-eentury colorants weremostly dye sta ins. Th e early methods ofboiling or stee ping the dyestuffs put th ecoloran t int o solut ion, and th e sta in wasthen st rained to filter out th e solids.Litera ture from late in th e period makes adistinctio n between dyeing and sta iningthat has more to do with th e process ofcoloring th e wood than th e actualcharacterist ics of th e sta in. In period terms,sta ining meant to apply a colorant to th ecompleted piece of furniture as part of th efinishing process. Dyeing referred to th e
188 C II A I' T E R T W E L V E
coloring of veneers so th e color th oroughlypenetrated th e wood before th e veneerswere cut for use. This practice was most
common in th e last quarter of th e centuryand involved submersing th e veneer introughs of dye, whi ch were periodicallyheated to boiling, for days at a time.
Modern dye sta ins, called aniline dyes,are coal-ta r derivatives available in powder
form. Th ey are available in a wide range ofcolors and are soluble in water, alcohol or
oil. Water-solub le ani line dye stains closelyreplicate th e effect of period water-basedstains. They penetra te the wood su rface,and since th ey contain no solids, th ey colorthe wood with remarkable depth andclarity. Th e deep penetr at ion of the dyeenhances th e figur ing and brings out thebest qualities of th e wood . In a dilute
solut ion, dye stains augment th e naturalwarm color of th e wood withoutoverpowering it, and allow it to darken andage gracefully.Mu ch of th e rich surface offine period originals is du e to th e depth andclarity of th e coloring, and th e use of waterbased aniline dye sta ins is essent ial tocaptur ing th at aspect of th e fini sh .
Oil-solubl e anilines also add a tr ansparent color. Like alkanet root, th ey can beused to tint linseed oil, and th ey are well
suited for imparting color to replicationsof very early pieces th at wou ld have
originally been fini shed with an oil andbeeswax fin ish. Alcohol-soluble anilin es arenot light-fast and are used mainly as atouch-up colorant.
Pigmented oil stains are notrecommend ed for th e authentic replicationof period fini shes. Because th ese stains aresuspensions of ground pigments in oil andsolvents, mu ch of th e colorant is left on th esurface of th e wood as th e carriers penetrateth e wood or evaporate. Th e result is a layerof opaque color on th e surface. Whil e thepigments impart color to the surface, th eyalso mask th e grain and figure, and obscureth e nat ural tone of th e wood. Somemanufa ctu rers produ ce penetratin g oilstains th at have more of their color insolution, wh ich improves th e clarity anddept h of the fin ish like an oil-solubleaniline. Anoth er drawback of oil-basedstain is the tend ency to seal th e wood withth e first application, preventing subsequentcoats from being effect ive.
VarnishesTh e search for th e ideal clear and durabletop coat was one of th e more elusive goals ofth e 18th-eentury cabinetmaker. The searchhad all th e mystery and intrigue of alchemy,and th e potenti al rewards mu st have
seemed as promising. A good film finish notonly had to be clear and durable, but alsorelatively easy to prepare and apply. Th eperiod makers knew little or nothing aboutth e chemistry involved, so mu ch of thedevelopment was done on a tr ial-and-errorbasis. In addition, th e pur ity, origin andeven identity of th e ingredients, many ofwhi ch were imported from distant lands,were uncertain at best. Even afte r having
arrived at a very successful varn ish formula,th e chances of being able to repeat it werenot guaranteed.
In 18th-eentury parlance any clear-filmtop coat was called a varn ish. Varnishes fallinto two categories: spirit varn ishes andfixed-oil varn ishes. Spirit varnishes consistof resins dissolved in an evaporating solvent,usually alcohol. Once applied to th e surface,th e solvent evaporates, leaving a hard filmof resin. Modern shellac is one such spiritvarni sh. Fixed-oil varnishes are similar to
modern oil-based varn ishes and consist ofresins dissolved in a drying oil. Thesevarn ishes dry by th e more complex processof oxidation of resin and oils and th emolecular linkin g of th e const itue nts.
Before exploring th e variety of varnis hes,we should conside r what was used in th eir
absence. All references point to oil and wax,alone or in combination, as th e long
standing alternat ives to varni sh. Linseed oil,heated and with a lead-oxide dri er added,made a fast-drying oil th at left a protectivefilm. Th e addition of a resin made a simplesoft varni sh. Beeswax was shaved and mixedwith spirits of turpentine to make a waxpaste that could be rubbed into th e sur faceand buffed. Neith er left a hard , protectivefilm finish, but th ey sealed th e wood andimpart ed a littl e protection and luster.
Because of its hardness,clarity and solubility,sandarac was the resinof choice for 18thcentury spirit vanishes.For a comparison ofclarity, modern orangeshellac is shown at right.
SPIRIT VARNISHESAmong th e spirit varn ishes of th e 18th
century were every kind of resin th at couldbe dissolved in an evaporat ing solvent (seeAppendix IIIon p. 296). Th anks to th eindustries of colonial America, solventswere easily obtained. O ne of th e leading
industri es in coastal New England was th edistillation of West Indian molasses to makerum, so th ere was no sho rtage of alcohol.Sometimes referred to as spirits of win e(spirits generally meaning distillates at th etim e), alcohol was often rect ified, or redist illed, to redu ce its water content.
FRENCH POLISHING
SandaracA number of tree resins are solu ble inalcohol, but during th e 18th centu rysandarac was th e spir it-varn ish resin ofchoice. Sandarac is a brittle, pale yellowresin from a cypress- or juni per-like tree ofnorth west Africa. It is th e hardest of thespirit-soluble resins, so softer resins, like
French polishing, or frictionvarnishing, is a method of
applying shellac that results in arich and lustrous surface. Theshellac is applied with a rubbingpad rather than a brush, so theapplication const itutes manythin layers instead of a few thickones. By applying th e shellac thisway, th ere is no need to level orrub out th e finish once it hashardened, and th e pores arefilled simultaneously.
A small ball of muslin orflannel is wrapped in fine linen,and dampened with a thinnedshellac consistin g of about I lb.of resin in I gal. of alcohol, with
some raw linseed oil added as alubricant. The pad is rubbed in acircular motion on the wood,covering about I sq. ft . at a timeworkin g from the center towardth e outside. More shellac and adrop or two of linseed oil are
add ed to th e pad as needed.By various accounts, the
process is repeated from three toeight times, allowing the finishto dr y between applic ations.Powdered pumice or brick dustis sprinkled on th e surface prior
to th e second application andworked into th e pores with th eshellac by th e rubbing pad. Th efinal layer of shellac is brought to
a high gloss by "spiriting off" th eoil residue and amalgamatingth e surface with a cloth justslightly damp with alcohol. Athin polish of the soft resinben zoin in alcohol is sometimes
used in this last process toimpart a high gloss.
Like any other aspect offini shing , French polishingrequires skill and pati ence toachieve good results. Those wh owork in the 18th-eentury stylesbut choose not to becomemaster French polish ers can takesolace in the fact that neithershellac nor th e French methodof applying it were in general use
during th e period. Th e firstdefinitive mention of th eprocedure is in an 182 5 editio nof The Cabinet-Maker's Guide,published in Lond on andAm erica under differentauthors' nam es. It is not
mentioned in th e earlier 1809 orc.1818editions. While th epractice of French polishing nodoubt predated thi s guide andcould well have been used late inth e 18th century, it was not th eprevailing method of finishappli cation.
F IN I SH I N G MAT E R I A L S & TE e H N I QU E S 189
mastic or soft copal, were usually add ed tosandarac to make it more elastic and lessbrittle. Sandarac spirit varn ishes werevalued for th eir clarity and luster above allothers. Spirit varn ishes with sandarac resinare men tioned by Sta lker and Parker in th e1688 Treatiseof Japanningand Varnishingand by Rou bo in Cart du menllisier of th e1770s. Soft copals, resins from a widevariety of t ropical t rees and one type ofAmerican sumac, were genera lly solublein alcohol and were also used as spiritvarn ish resins.
She llacShellac is spirit varnish of lac resin dissolvedin alcohol. Th e resin itself is exudedthrough th e pores of th e Southeast Asianinsect Laccifer lacca and forms encrustations on th e twigs and branches of th e treeson which th e insect feeds; up to 90,000insects are required to make I lb. of shellacresin. The resin is collected by gatheringand scraping th e branches. In its naturalsta te, this stick-lac conta ins about 66% lacresin, 6%shellac wax, 6%gluten and II %lac dye; th e balance is impurities. Th e lacdye, a stro ng red color, was an importantcommodity before th e advent of anilinedyes, and was at one time more valuablethan th e lac resin. Th e dye is water solubleand most of it can be washed from th eresin. Th e remaining brown resin is heatedand squeezed through fabr ic bags to filterout impurities. Variou s grades of shellachave undergone different levels of refiningto remove th e impurities. Th e warm resin isst retched into sheets, allowed to cool andharden, and broken into flakes. Th e qualityof shellac is judged by its clarity and purity.
Cont rary to many long-held opinions,shellac was not th e most popul ar spiritvarnish during th e 18th centu ry (see th esidebar on French polishin g on p. 189).Even in its most refined state, the resin hada cloudy brow n cast th at made it inferiorto other common resins like sandarac."Shell-lac" varn ish is mentioned in anuncomplimenta ry way by Stalker andParker in 1688. Not until th e end of th ecentury were th e filtering and bleachingprocesses perfected by which th e lac couldbe made more transparent.
190 C H A P T E R T W E LV E
Spirits ofturpentineAnoth er type of spirit varni sh includ esth ose based on spirits of turpentine, th eliqu id distillate of conifer sap. As withalcohol, American industry produ ced th issolvent in abundance. Sap from a variety ofconiferous t rees, especially th e Southernyellow pine (Pinli S palustris), was animportant natu ral resou rce in th e 18thcentury. Th e sap was boiled down toproduce pitch, which was used to caulkships or could be distilled to produ ce spiritsof turpentine. Rosin or colophony, th e resinleft behind after th e distillat ion, was aninexpensive varni sh resin . A number ofresins, like mastic, dam mar and rosin, aresolub le in spirits of turpentine, andproduced soft spirit varnishes th at weregenerally inferior to sandarac varni sh.Varnishes using spirits of turpentine as asolvent are sometimes called volatile-oil oressent ial-oil varni shes, but since th ey dr ysolely by evaporat ion th ey are spiritvarn ishes.
Th e shortco ming of spir it varn ishes isth at constituen t resins are limited to th oseth at are soft and easily soluble. Th ese softresins have low melting points, which maketh e finish intolerant of heat . Since th ey aredeposited by evaporation, th ey remainsusceptible to damage from solvents likealcohol and water, th ough a protective layerof wax helps th em resist liquids.
FI XED-OIL VA RN IS HE STh e practice of using oil to prot ect and sealwood seems as old as th e use of wood itself.Th e appli cation of oil to any wooden objectsealed and protected th e su rface and gave ita nice appearan ce as well. Oils of variousext raction have been mentioned from th ebeginning of record ed history, but th osethat dr y offered th e best protection .
Unlike pet roleum distillates, most oilsext racted from vegetable and plant materialwill dr y slowly by oxidat ion. Th e bestknown among th ese is linseed oil, which isext racted from flax seeds, th e plant ofwh ich is grown to make linen . Linseed oil isa heavily bodied oil th at was in abundan tsu pply during th e 18th centu ry. Otherdr ying oils th at were in use during theperiod include walnut oil, poppy-seed oiland almo nd oil. All of th ese dr y rather
T H E LONGH ISTO RY
OF F IXED-O ILVA RNISHES
Fixed-oil varnishes have beentraced as far back as ancient
Egypt. Th e interiors of mummycases are coated with a paleyellow varnish . Given that manyof th e resins used in th e 18thcentury originated from Africaand th e Mediterranean, andknowin g that the Egyptiansproduced flax and olive oil, it isthought that these coatings arelikely a fixed-oil varnish.Interestin gly, th e varni sh wasspread on with a knife rath erth an brushed.
Th e Greeks are known tohave valued varnish as well. Inth e third century B.C., Berenice,th e wife of th e king of th e GreekNorth African colonies,sacrificed her amber hair to th egoddess Venus for th e safereturn of her hu sband from anAsian war. Th e Greeks, whotrad ed in Baltic amb er, came tocall th e substance berenice orpherenice, with th e "ph"pronounced as a "v" Th e Latinspelling became verenice, andlater vernix, from which comesth e English varnish.
Other references confirm th euse of varn ish to protectpaintings as early as th e fourthcentury B.C. In th e tenth oreleventh century, th e Swiss orGerman monk Th eophilusPresbyter wrote of howpowdered amber and linseed oilUn th e proportions of I :2 byweight) were mixed and heatedto make varni sh. Th e generalprin ciple remains unchanged toth e present day.
slowlyand tend to remain gu mmy. Theheatin g and addit ion of a lead-oxide or
similar dryer speeds up th e oxidation andmakes th ese oils dry faster and leave aharder film. Oils th at are sold as boiled, asopposed to raw, have undergone thi sheating for th e addition of dr yers.
Th e addition of natural resins to dryingoils combined th e best of two finishes: th ewater-resistant and penetratin g qualities ofoil, and th e toughness and luster of a resinfilm. Th e combinat ion is called a fixed-oilvarn ish, connoting th at th e oil dri es inplace. Th e development of th ese varn ishesis an int riguing facet of th e cabinetmaker'strade (see th e sidebar on th e facing page).
Fixed-oil varnishes are decidedly moredifficult to make th an spirit varnishes, butth ey are far more durable and resistant todamage from water and alcohol. Th esevarnishes have drying oils such as linseed,poppy or walnut oil (and more recentlychina-wood or tung oil) as th eir bases. Theresins used for fixed-oil varn ishes caninclude th e harder fossil resins, like ambe rand hard copal, since oil is th e on ly solventthat can be heated high enough to dissolveth en. Even so, both resins have to be "run"
or liquefied before th ey can be dissolved inhot oil, and thi s can entai l heating th em inexcess of 500°F.Th e process, involving
liquefied resins, boiling oils and hot spiritsof turpentine, all done on an open fire inth e 18th century, was except ionallydangerous. This kind of work was left tovarn ish and paint makers in urban areas.Unfortunately, th e heating required todissolve fossil resins and chemical processesthat accomplished th e same thing bothcont ributed to th eir decay, and th ese
finishes soon deteriorated.Many softer resins, like those used in
spirit varn ishes, could be used in fixed-oilvarnishes. Because th ey liquefied at lowertemperatures, th e preparation of th esevarn ishes was relatively safe. Almost all ofth e soft resins melt between 200°F and300 °F.A common oil varnish consisted of
rosin dissolved in boiling linseed oil, withsome spirits of turpentine added to thin it .English formulae used soft copal andshellac resins dissolved in hot oil. As withspirit varn ishes, various resins were used toalter th e properti es of th e fini sh.
Varn ishes made with th e favorite18th-eentury resins are st ill availableth rough artists' supply sources , but th eytend to be expensive in th e quantitiesrequi red for finishing furni ture. Th emodern equivalents of th ese varn ishescon ta in natural and synthet ic resins inlinseed ancl!or tung oil. Th ese varn ishes areformulated with a variety of charac terist icsdepending on their purpose. Long-oilvarn ishes have a large percentage of dr yingoil relative to the amount of resins, 40 to55 gal. of oil for each 100 lb. of resin . They
take a long time to dr y, remain tough andelastic, and are highly wate r resistant . Thiskind of varni sh includes marin e sparvarn ishes and floor varni shes. Short-oilvarn ishes conta in less than 12 gal. of dryingoil for each 100 lb. of resin . Furniture andgloss-oil varn ishes are of thi s type, dr yinghard quickly. Rubbing and polishin gvarni shes are short-oil varn ishes, but
formulated with hard resins th at may bepolished to a high gloss.
Rubbing OutEightee nth-eentury aesthet ics called forsmooth and well-polished fu rn ituresurfaces . C lear, du rable and lustrou sfin ishes were th e goal of varn ish makers,
cabinetmakers and th eir customers. G iventh e shor tco mings of period finishes and
centur ies of use, few original finishesremain. Those th at do survive havedegraded from th eir original appearance interms of clarit y and luster and don'trepresent th e original appearance of th epiece. Th e effort to achieve a high luster inoriginal work is evidenced by periodreferences to th e glossy qualities ofvarn ishes and by description s of meth ods tosmooth and enhance th eir shine . Ju st howhigh a gloss th e original makers were able toobtai n is not certa in given th e variablenature of th e materials at th eir disposal.
Th e process of rubbing out th e app liedfini sh includes smoothing its surface andpolishing it. Smoothing th e su rface meansleveling any bumps in th e varnis h caused bydu st or raised wood fibers. To create a flatsu rface it mu st be ru bbed with an abrasivebacked by a flat block (see th e photobelow). Period references ment ion rubbingwith a flannel or felt impregnated withtripoli or pumice and lubricated with wateror linseed oil. Th ese pads were backed upwith a block of cork or rubber to aid inleveling the surface. Th e next step was tobring th e surface to a high luster. Th is wasdone by rubbing th e surface with asuccession of increasingly fine abrasives
Period cabinetmakersleveled the surface ofthe finishby rubbing itwith pumice and linseedoil usinga pad backedbya cork block. Themodern equivalent is tousesteel wool or awaterproof siliconcarbide sandpaper.
F IN I S H I N G MAT E R I A L S & TE e H N I QU E S 191
The luster of the finish is increased by rubbing itwith finer pumice or rottenstonelubricated with oi l. Here, mineral oil and mineral spi rits, mixed inequal parts, serveas the lubricant.
The fina l step in finishing is to polish thesurface. Here, a linseed-oil polish has beenapplied and buffed off.
unt il the desired luster was achi eved . Period
su rfaces th at were first leveled with pumice
and oil were brought to a higher luster by
rubbing with eme ry powder, rotten stone,whiti ng and even flour. Flannel, felt , linen
and wool were all cited as good fabrics withwhic h to rub the surface, as were sha rkskin,
sealskin and soft leather impregnated wit h
ab rasive powder.
This process has changed little to the
present day, wit h th e except ion that
different abrasive med ia are used . T he
fin est grades of stee l wool are gene rally usedfor leveling the su rface. On soft fini shes,
like shellac, steel woo l can usually level the
surface witho ut a backin g block. Ontougher finis hes, like oil-based varn ish, very
fine waterproof silicon-ea rbide sandpa per
(600 grit or finer), lubricated with water
and used wit h a felt block, may be needed
to flatten bumps before steel wool is used .
By modern methods , once the sur face has
been leveled with stee l wool it can berubbed wit h pumice and oil, followed by
rot tenstone and oil. It sho uld be noted that
there are d ifferent grades of pumiceavailable commercially; the most com mo n
grades are 2F and 4F, 4F being the fin est. To
192 C I I APT E R T WE!. V E
achieve the highest gloss, a su rface wou ld be
ru bbed wit h 2F pumice, 4F pumice andfina lly rottenstone, with t horough cleaning
of the surfa ce in between , stopping at th e
desired level ofl uste r. Min eral oil andmineral spirits (paint thinner) mixed in a
I : I proportion make a very good lubricant
for rubbing out . Linseed oil is too viscous
and difficult to clean off, and wate r can
only be used on oil varni shes.
The fina l step in fini shing t he su rface is
th e application of a polish. On a micro
scopic level, this step uses a wax, oil or resin
to fill t he last rem aining abrasions fromrubbing out. The many period polish es
consisted of beeswax soften ed wit h a
solvent like turpentine, or th ose based on
boiled linseed oil. They left eit he r a wax or
dried oil film on the surface that could be
buffed out to impart a final gloss. Both
provided a protective layer t hat resisted
liqu ids, an import ant benefit for spirit
varn ishes. Mor e aggressive polishes usedsoft resins, like benzoin or she llac, in
alcoh ol. These polishes, usua lly used for
rejuvenating old surfaces, laid down a new
top layer of soft resin or softe ned and
am algam ated the top layer of exist ing
fini shes.
PatinaThe appli ed fini sh, wh atever its makeup, is
only a sma ll part of t he patin a of an or iginalpiece. Th e fini sh th at was applied as a last
ste p by the maker was only th e sta rtingpoint for two or three centur ies of use.
During th at t ime, the inevitable marks of
use and th e effects of age were added to theoriginal fini sh. These additions were far
lon ger in th e making th an th e piece itself,
and t hey cont ribute greatly to th e appearance and characte r of th e furniture. Th ey
are part of th e history of th e piece and
point to a legacy of care and use th at newfurni ture does not possess. The qua lit ies of
the acquired pat ina fall into th ree categories :
luster, wear and grime. For anyone inte rested
in preserving or replicati ng th e characte r ofthe aged su rface th ey are worth examining
in closer detail.
LUST ERThrough accounts of procedures andformulae for fini shing, period pieces are
known to have had lustrous finishes when
they were new. Tim e and the environ ment
eventua lly took t heir toll on t he finish, and,
if it escaped being refini shed or recoated , ithas survived in what is probably a degradedstate from th e or iginal. As th ey appeartoday, early finishes retain very littl e of th eiroriginal luster. Whil e th e sur face is notmatt e, neither is it glossy enough to bedescribed as satinlike. Th ese surfaces defyeasy description because th ey have becometextural from cracking or beadin g of th efinish or from th e marks of use.
WEARCentur ies of use cause a variety of effects,
from th e worn st retcher of a turned chair,to th e well-rubbed smoothness of an oftenpolished sur face. Recreating this wearrequir es conside ring how a piece was valuedand used, and what kind of marks wouldhave likely been left on its surface. Goodfurniture was expensive in its day, and itwas treated with care. Th e furnishin gs ofa house were among its owners' mostprized possessions, so th ey would show
subtle signs of use. More utilitarian pieceswere meant to be used with less regardto damage.
Different parts of a piece of furniture aresubject to different kinds of wear.Th e feet
and legs of any piece are subject to din gsand dents from shoes and boots, and, morerecently,vacuum cleaners. Th e tops of balland claw or pad feet are subject to beingste pped on and having things dropped onth em. Drawer lips and drawer dividersshow both dents and scratches from thingsbeing taken in and out of th em . The edgesof tops see dents from objects falling againstth em, from having been moved and from
having been bumped by passersby. Tops fareth e worst, and are likely to have beenscratched, dented and stained. Even th e
sides of cases are likely to show marks fromhandling and movin g. Fingernails, rings,belt buckles, pets and falling objects all leavetheir distinctive marks in th e surface.
GRIMEWear marks, along with th e crevices of
original details, are usually accentuated byan accumulat ion of grime. Thi s isunderstand able conside ring how hom eswere heated in previous centuries. Duringth e 17th and 18th centu ries, open fires forcooking and heating burned contin ually.During th e 19th century, wood and coalburning stoves served th e same purposes.
Furniture of th e period was consta ntlyexposed to black sooty grime in th e air.
When pieces were polished, waxed orrecoated with a new finish, th e black grime
became permanentl y sealed int o pores,pit s, scratches and crevices. As grime wasrubbed int o recessed details, th e fin ish wasrubbed off th e raised details, and a contrastin color and texture began to emerge.Raised details became lighter, smoother andmore polished, whil e crevices becameincreasingly black and crusty. Th e processenhanced th e three-dimensional effect of
det ails like moldings and carvings by addingdifferen ces in luster and tone. As with signsof wear, th e exte nt of thi s effect variesamong examples of furniture. Pieces th atreceived frequ ent polishing show a morepron ounced cont rast in color, whil e piecesth at were literally untouched do not.
Th e decision to add th e effects of tim e,use and grime to a replica (or to a repair toan original) is up to th e discretion of th emaker and client. Some owners ofrepl icated pieces want th em to beindi sti nguishable from an aged original,with all th e features of an old surface.Others want th eir pieces to appear as th ey
The patina of a candlestand from the third quarterof the 18th century shows themarks of useand an accumulationof grimein themarks and details.
A black-pigmented oil stain maybeappl iedto a surface to enhance themarks of ageand replicate the accumulation of grime.
F IN IS H ING MATER IALS & TE C IIN IQUE S 193
did when they were delivered to th eirorigina l owners so th ey can add th eir ownfamily's signs of use over time. Because earlyoriginals are nearly always well worn, signsof use seem to be a necessary and integralpart of pieces from th e first part of th e18th century, and replicas look incompletewithout them. Examples from later in thecentury show fewer signs of age, andreplicati ng an aged patina is less importantto th e overall appearance of th e piece.
If th e marks of ageand use are to bereplicated, th e key to doing so successfullyis to put th e appropriate wear in th e correc tplaces.The on ly guideline is to considerhow a piece would have been lived with ;th at is, how it was used, moved and where itwould have been handl ed. Th e marks of useare not dist ributed rando mly across th esurface of a piece; they are concentra ted inthe areas of use. Any black-pigmented oilbased sta in can simulate th e grimeaccumulated over th e centu ries. Since itwas acquired after th e original fini sh wasapp lied, so should it be applied to th ereplica, or perhaps between successive coatsof finish. To give a newly fin ished piece anauthentic pat ina takes a long time; you aretr ying to replicate two or three hundredyears of use in a few days. An authenticlooking t reatm ent requires patience,experime nta tion and caut ion. Th e marks ofage are more easily added th an removed.
EbonizingEbonizing is a treatment used to blackenwood and give it th e appearance of ebony, adense, hard t ropical wood th at is black withst reaks of brown. While ebony was rarelyused in 18th-eentury America n furni tu re(except as decorative inlay), it was used inEuropea n cou rt furniture of the 17thcentury. Th e cont rast of light and darkwood in a single piece of fu rn itu re was animportant par t of the Jacobean aesthet ic.In orde r to achieve th e same cont rastwithout actua l ebony, America n makers ofth e 17th century had to settle for a paintedsimulation. Ebonized part s, like bosses,split spindles and turnings, are an
194 C H A I' T E R T w E LV E
important part of th e design of AmericanJacobean furn iture, and ebonizingcont inued to be used into th e William andMary period for chairs and turned legs. Th eprocess fell out of favor for th e rest of th ecentury as rich woods and lighter colorscame into vogue. Veneer was dyed black tosimulate ebony for st ringing and inlay in th eFederal period, but that process differedfrom earlier ebonizing.
In ebonizing, th e quality of th e su rfacewas as important as th e color. Ebonizedparts were intend ed to be smooth andlust rous, with th e appea rance of havingbeen well polished. To achieve th is effect, adense close-grained wood like maple waspreferred. Th e process is no more involvedthan applying a heavily pigment ed blacksta in or paint. Th ere are a few knownancient methods, and all call for blackpigments, like lamp black or bone black, tobe suspended in a carr ier and binder andapplied to th e part. Th e most commonmeth od of ebonizing would includ e th emost readily available materials such asblack pigment added to linseed oil withdryers. This mixture makes a th ick, black
paint/stain th at penet rates th e surface ofbare wood. Th e excess may be wiped off,leaving pigment in th e wood and a niceluster from th e oil. Two or moreapp licat ions, with dr ying tim e between,build a nice ebonized surface. Th is surfacecan be buffed , with or witho ut wax, or topcoated with varn ish with th e rest of th epiece for a higher gloss. Modern solid-eoloroil stains are nearly equivalent to th epigment and oil mixture.
A later meth od of ebonizi ng calls forone of th e black pigmen ts to be mixed witha spir it varnish ( I heaping tablespoon per8 fl .oz. shellac varnish). Up to seven coatsare applied with light sanding between, andth e final su rface is rubbed with pumi ceand oil.
Strong black dyes were used for th e vatdyeing of veneer intended for strin ging andinlay in the Federal period . These colorantswere made from dyestuff rath er th anpigment to penetrate clear th rough theveneer. Of th e several known formulae,most sta rt with logwood chips or sawdustboiled in water to make a dark red stain (seeAppendix V on pp. 298-299). That color is
Ebonizing is theapplication of a heavilypigmented black oilpaint/ stain to simulateebony. It is brushed onand theexcess is rubbedoff, leavinga soft lusteron thewood. Theprocess is repeatedasneeded to reach thedesired opacity.
humidity is amo ng th e lowest of all thecabinet woods-less th an half th at of mostAm erican or Eu ropean hardwoods. As aresult, Ori ental lacquer was less apt to crackand deteri orat e.
THE JAPANNING PROCESSIt was th e goal of th e Western japann er to
tr y to equal th e work of Eastern decoratorswith th e materials th at were readilyavailable. Furn iture was built specifica lly tobe japanned, and could be bu ilt fromsomething ot her th an th e most desirable
then turned black with th e addition oftannic acid (from oak galls or bark) andcopper compounds, or iron filings in
vinegar. Because of th e more complexnature of thi s formula, it is unl ikely that itwas ever used for th e early Jacobean orWilliam and Mary ebonizing.
JapanningTh e exotic allure of things Oriental, orchinoiserie, has fascinated Europeans forcenturies, but none so mu ch as Ori ental
lacquer. Throughout th e European historyof finishing and varnish-making, th e qualityof Oriental lacquer has stood as th ebenchmark by which all other finishes arejudged. Th e many formulae and arcaneprocesses for making varn ish were largelyintended to rival th e brilliance of authent iclacquer finishes. Trade brought decoratedCh inese lacquer boxes to Europe where
local cabinetmakers were often called uponto build stands for th em . Before long,
cabinetmakers began to replicate th e boxesand th e lacquer decoration th emselves. Thedecoration featured figures and scenes ingold, displayed on a black or mottl edbackground. Th e Ori ental process wascomplex, tim e-consuming and requiredfairly exotic materials and resins, but th e
Europeans sought to replicate th e lacquerwith th e materials and methods that wereavailable and familiar to th em . Stalker andParker's Treatiseof Japanningand Varnishingof 1688 helped disseminate both th emethod of and int erest in japanning. (For
more on th e history of japanning inAmer ica, see p. 57.)
Real Orienta l lacquers are made from
th e resin of th e lac tr ee Rhus vernicijera.Lacquer is not related to th e lac resin ofinsect origin used to make shellac, thoughmany ISth-century "lacquers" were littl emore than shellac spirit varni sh . Chineseand Japanese lacquers are mad e from th esame resin but with different additives.Chinese lacquer conta ins additives to give itmore body, while Japanese lacquer, wh ichwas considered harder and more durable,contains only camphor to thin it. Burm eseblack lacquer is similar, but comes from adifferent tr ee (Me/mlOrrhea usitata]. Like oil
varn ishes, real lacquer cure s by oxidation,not evaporat ion. It is clear wh en firstapplied, and th en turns red, and finallyblack as it hard ens. Proper hardening occur sonly under humid condit ions; th e resinremains soft and gummy under warm anddr y condit ions. Modern lacquers are mad ewith nitrocellulose and synthet ic resins incomplex solvents and dry by evaporation.Some of th e credit for th e du rability andlongevity of Ori ental lacquer should begiven to th e wood to wh ich it was applied.Many lacquer finishes were applied to teak,and teak's expan sion and cont ractio n with
Japanning begins bydrawing the designdirectly on the woodsurface and building upthe figures with gesso.
A red-pigmented oilpaint/stain is appliedover the gesso andallowed to dry. This isfollowed byblackpaintstain. A mottled orstreaked effect can beobtained by wipingthrough the layer ofblack.
F IN I S H ING MATER IAL S & T E C H N I Q UE S 195
The raised figures and designs are painted or gilded and smaller details are added inblack paint.
Several coats of a spirit varnish are applied to seal thework.
wood . Most japanned pieces were builtfrom a variety of woods, including maple,
pine and oak.Th e designs for th e figures and scenes
were copied or traced from patterns.Evidence for th ese patt ern s includes notonly th eir menti on in inventories, but alsoth e similarity of decorative designs on manydifferent pieces of furniture. (Stalker andParker's Treatiseof Japanningand Va rnishingincluded many engraved plates with
suggested scenes for japanned decoration, aswell as directions for tracing th em onto thesurface of th e furnlture.) Like the cabinetmakers' pattern s, japanning patt ern s madethe work go faste r and left designs th at areind icat ive of certai n craftsmen. Th e designsfor th e figures and scenery were tracedonto th e surface and built up with gesso(see th e top photo on p. 19 5). Gesso is ath ick-bodied, paintl ike substa nce mad e ofwhit ing, hide glue and a plasticizing
material like gum arabic.Some references cite th e drawing of th e
figures and th e applicat ion of gesso ashaving been done on th e bare wood, andothers refer to its having been don efollowing th e coats of red and black paint.Since both references are based on actual
196 C HAP T E R T W E LV E
japanned pieces, the method must havebeen up to th e discretion of th e japann er.While it would have been easier to draw th efigures on th e prepared background (ratherth an painting over th em and having to redraw th em), th e gesso would adhere betterto bare wood .
Th e base coat of color was a red
pigmented paint/stain that sealed th e woodand prepared a ground. Over thi s, a blackpigmented oil paint/stain was applied (see
th e bottom photo on p. 195). The blackcoat was left thi ck on som e pieces, and onothers it was daubed through with a brushor cloth to reveal some of th e red beneath.This caused th e mottled effect thatsimu lated th e patterning of tortoiseshell.On other pieces th e patterning is more of adeliberate streaking, showing a sharpcont rast between th e red and black.
Th e raised figures and oth er decorativeelements were covered with silver or goldleaf, powder or paint (see th e photo at leftabove). The leaf or powder was adhered toth e figure with sizing, or powd er could bemixed with a varni sh to create paint. Manyareas on japanned pieces, such as bordersand small decorative det ails, were painted
in gold without having been raised withgesso. Fine details of th e figures and scenery
were added in black paint over th e goldusing a fine pointed bru sh. Th e ent ire piecewas th en given several coats of either a spiritor oil varn ish to protect th e japanning andimpart a smooth and glossy luster (photo atright above).
From th e trial-and-error nature of periodformulae and th e un cert ain composition of
raw materials, th e durabilit y of japannedpieces mu st have varied widely.Th e processof japanning builds up many layers ofdissimilar mat erials, each with varyingdegrees of adh erence to one another.Additionally, the process was applied toexpanding and cont racting wood subject toth e ext remes of humidity of th e NewEngland climate. Japann ed decoration issubject to deteriorati on as gesso and paintlayers either flake off or crumble. In spite of
th e japanners' obvious skill, the fact thatsome pieces have lasted for close to three
centur ies while others have deteriorated islargely th e result of th e right combinationof mat erials, formulae, technique and care.Based on th e number of known japann ersand the duration of its popul arit y, th e threedozen surviving Boston pieces mu st be onlya tiny fraction of th e number of pieces th at
were made originally.
13MEASUREMENTS
DRAWINGS
AND
W en making any piece of furniture,it's important to esta blish clearly th e designand details of th e work. With th e very firstcuts, th e possibilit y of alter ing th e designbegins to diminish. This is especially true inth e making of ISth-eentury designs, wh ereth e cabinetmaker is further const rained byperiod designs and methods and is less able
to exercise arti stic license. With so mu ch ofth e essence of lSth-eentury Am erican
furniture designed into th e piece rath erthan add ed on, proper planning from th estart is important. Wh eth er th e piece isinspired by one original or is an amalgamation of several examples, the aestheticsuccess of th e finish ed piece dep ends on itsproper design and planning. If you areundertaking an exact ing replica of an
original, accurate dim ensional informationis th e corne rsto ne of its authenticity.
Reliable and accu rate dimensions arebest taken from original pieces, but th eymay also be determined from photographs.Unknown dim ensions and peculi arconstr uct ion details may be worked out by
making full-scale drawings. All of th esecontribute to gathering a reliable set ofdim ensions and details from whi ch to workand aid in making accurate and precisepatt ern s and component parts.
Measuring OriginalsUnless you are fort unate enough to have afine or iginal in your care or possession, it 'smost likely that you' ll have only one chanceto measure an important original piece indetail. Unfortunately, th e opportunity tomeasure a piece in a mu seum or privat e
collect ion does not exte nd to th e luxury ofbeing able to draft full -scale drawings onlocation at your leisure. You can only hopeto come a}Vay with a complete set of not es,sketches and dimensions. As a cabinetmaker, you need to know what is importantto measure and what you will need to knowto build th e piece. It is important to beth orough and complete without overstayingyour welcome .
To ensure the safety of th e or iginal andth e peace of mind of its owners, you shouldassemble a set of non-m arring measuringtools, including a fabric tape measur e, longand sho rt wooden rulers, and a set ofwooden or plastic calipers (see th e photoon p. 198). Anyone wh o has been aroundfine fu rn itu re is naturally careful andrespectful of it and could certainly measurea piece with everyday shop tools withoutinfli cting damage, but a set of non-m arringmeasuring tool s instills confide nce in th e
owners, shows consi de ratio n on your par t
and can prevent accidenta l marks fromoccurring.
An added cour tesy is to wear whitefabric gloves while exami ning th e piece .G ranted, origina ls have been handled andused daily for two or th ree hu nd red years,but out of respect for th e original and its
owners, gloves prevent your handling of th epiece from addi ng to its pat ina. Thisprecaution really is important on th e bareand unfinished su rfaces of dr awer and caseint eriors and undersides. Th ese areas areun sealed and unprotected and have th epotentia l to absor b d irt and oil. We wouldall like future generat ions to be able toexamine th ese pieces and find th em in th esame condition that we did .
TAKING MEASUREMENTSTh e task of measuring a com plicated piecemay at first seem overw helming, andknowin g where to begin is part of th epro blem. Measuring it as it would be bui ltoffe rs a logical and systemat ic way tomeasu re all th e components and note how
th ey are int erconnected . Sta rt with th efundamentals of its st ructure and th en
proceed to its attachme nts and ado rn men ts.
197
Non-marring tools formeasuringoriginalpieces include a fabrictape measure, longandshort wooden rulers,wooden or plasticcalipers, andgloves.
Using th e example of a case piece suchas a chest of drawers, conside r first thebare case itself without drawers, feet ormold ings. Note th e dimensions of th e top,
botto m and sides of th e case and th e layoutof th e case joinery. From th ere, measurethe location of th e drawer dividers, th eirjoinery and any int ernal const ruct iondeta ils like drawer runners, guides orkickers. To thi s information on th e emptycase add details of th e attachments likemoldin gs and feet. With th e measurementof th e drawer components and their joineryth e task is complete. The same methodology applies to all case pieces, no mat ter
how complex they are. In the case of chairs,th e st ructure of the back is one subset ofth e piece, the fron t, sides and st retchers areanother, and the arms are last to be added.
Wh en measuring a piece on locat ion itis very helpful to have a sketch of th e pieceprepared ahead of time, or some photocopies of a photograph of th e piece.Worki ng thi s way allows you to mark th edimensions directly onto th e copy or sketchas they are measured, and you can spendyour tim e studying th e piece and its det ailsrat her than t rying to draw a reasonablelikeness of th e original.
T here are some aspects of fin e fu rn itureth at are difficult to measure, such as th esweepi ng curves of aprons or cabriole legs.Without tracing th e cur ves, which wou ld
198 C II A l' T E R T II I R TEE N
probably be frown ed upon , th e next bestway to record th em is to note th e positionand depth of th eir features. Thi s is why tworulers are called for in th e measuring kit .
Use one to record th e horizontal features ofth e curve and th e other for th e vertica lfeatures. For any curve, th e relevant pointsth at define it are where its features sta rtand stop, th eir maximum and minimumpoints, and th e position of inflec t ion point s(those points wh ere th e direction changes).Th e defining features of cabriole legs areenumerated in th e sect ion on th eir layoutand making (see p. 149) . In keepin g withthe idea of measuring the piece as you
wou ld build it, conside r all th e informationyou wou ld need to make a pattern as youare measuring.
Some deta ils like carving or elaboratefretwork cannot be adequately defin ed bymeasurement alone. These areas really needto be photograph ed . Som e mu seums willallow photography, others will not . If th emu seum does not allow photography, th eremay be stoc k mu seum photograph savailable for purchase or you may have toresort to sketching. Som e places object toflash photography on ly, in which casephotos can be taken with high-speed filmor using a tripod . If you are able to photograph details, take th e photos from anglesthat will be th e most beneficial to th e
rep lication. Get st raight-on views ofcarvings and fretwork , and st raight-on
profil e views of ap ron curves or cabriolelegs. Ball and claw feet require profile viewsas well as 45° views from th e front (center
talon) and side to capture th eir detail fully.In each case, take some oblique photos tocapture th e three-dimensional natu re of thedetail, and supplement th e photos withmeasurements of major features and th edepth of th e carving.
Scaling from PhotographsWhen it is not possible to gain access to anoriginal, or in cases where its whereabouts
are unknown, it is oft en necessary to workfrom photographs and what is known of thepiece's major dimensions. Scaling from
photos is quite simp le if the photos aretaken directly from th e front and side of th epiece (orthograph ic views) and th ere is litt ledistortion evident in th e photos. However,furn iture photograph s are rarely publi shedin st raight-on views, and photographs arefull of both obvious and subtle disto rtions.
DISTORTIO N I NPHOTOGR APHSIn viewing a scene, th e mind natu rally takesinto account th e effects of perspect ive, th atis th e character ist ic of more distant objectsto appear to be smaller. In an obvious
example, we know that a road has aconstant width even th ough it appears tonar row toward a point on a distant horizon.
In a more subtle case, we can judge wheth erth e legs of a ta ble are parallel from anelevated point of view, even thoughperspective makes th em appear to taperinward. Photographs, however, present aliteral image of what the eye sees, with outth e cor rect ive judgment of th e mind, sodifferences in distance and th e effects ofperspective become part of th e image. Inaddit ion, th ere is an inh erent distort ionin th e photographi c image based on theangle of view of th e lens and th e foreshorten ing of objects away from th e centerof th e image.
Wide-angle lenses of short focal lengthyield th e most distortion in photographs.Thi s effect is seen clearly in photos takenwith wid e-angle "fisheye" lenses, whichillustrate th e effect of lens distortion in th e
SCALING F ROM ANORTHOG RAPH IC VIEWScaling from photograph s is simply tak ingvery accurate measurements from a smallphotograph and multiplying th em to fu llscale. A small inaccura cy in th e initial
measurement will be amplified greatlywh en it is multiplied to full scale. If you arescaling a 3-ft . wid e dressing table from a4-in . wid e photo, th e photo measurementsare multiplied by nin e, making an erro rof 1/1 6 in. translate to an enlarged error of9/16 in . The smaller th e photo and th e larger
th e actual piece, th e larger th e magnificat ion of errors will be. Thus it is necessaryto measure th e photo as precisely aspossible, and to compare th e scaled-updimensions to those of other known pieces.A machinist's caliper is th e most accuratetool for th e precise measurement of photos.This tool is equipped with either dial orvernier scale, and measures inside andoutside length s to 1/ 1000 in. This kind of
precision in th e photo measurementsensures th e accuracy of scaled dimensions.
Accurately determining th e dimensions
of an original this way requires a clear, sharpphotograph . It is best to have as large aphoto as possible, but makin g an enlarged
th e less th e angular distortion du e toperspective and foreshortening. If th e
came ra is kept 4 ft . from th e subject forevery I ft . of subject height, th e total ofth ese distortions is kept under 2%. If th atrati o is increased to 5 ft . for every I ft . ofsubject height , dist ortion is held to 1%.
Given th at all photograph s exhibit somedegree of distortion but its extent andcompensat ion are unknown , th e best adviceis to be aware of it, anticipate it and nevertrust a photograph to be th e final autho rity.When scaling up measurements from a
ph oto, take th em from as near th e cente r aspossible, since that is th e most reliable partof the im age. Som etimes th ere are enoughclues in th e photo to estimate fro m how faraway th e photo was taken, whi ch offers anidea of the inherent distortion . Thedrawing on p. 200 shows how to use th elocat ion of feet , corn ice moldings and otherdetails to const ruct a scale drawing of th e
subject and determine its distance fromth e camera.
Centerof image(perpend icularto centerofsubject)
Two factors cont ribute to distortion inphotographs , even in photos of flat su bjectsdirectly in front of th e camera andperpend icular to th e cente r of its line ofsight. O ne of th ese factors is perspective:Away from th e cente r of th e image, th esubject is at a greater distance from th e lens,thus it appears slightly smaller. The otherfactor is foreshortening: Away from th ecente r of th e image, th e subject is seen at aslight angle, and foresho rtening causes it to
appear even smaller. Th e farther th e lens isfrom th e subject, th e smaller th e angle fromth e top to th e bottom of th e subject, and
j( Distance to camera
PERCENTAGE OF DISTORTION
Units distance from centerof image
0 2 3 4
Units10 0 1.0 3.9 8.4 13.9
distance to 20 0 0.3 1.0 2.2 3.9camera
30 0 0.2 0.4 1.0 1.8
Camern Su~ect
Distortion is present even in photographs offlat-fronted subjects taken from directlyahead. Away from the center of the image,thesubject is at an increased distance fromthe lens and seen at an increased angle,makingthose areas appearsmallerthan they Distance from centeractuallyare.
Photographic Distortion
extre me. Th e very wide angle of view(180°) of th e lens result s in an increasinglycompressed image away from th e cente r,giving the image its distin ctive "bu lging"quality. Th e oppos ite effect is given bylenses with ext remely long focal length s, ortelephoto lenses. Th ese lenses have a nar rowangle of view (less th an 8°) and minimize
th e effect of distance, and th ereforeperspective. Camera lenses for everyday useare somewhere between th e two extre mes,with angles of view of about 45°, whi chmakes th em wide enough to encompass ascene without not iceable distortion .
MEA SUR E MEN T S & 0 RAW I N G S 199
Depth ofcase drawnto scale offront
These lines intersectat camera position.
Front and rearfeatures extended
If thereare detailsof the backof a piecevisible in a photo, like rear feetor moldings,a scaleddrawingcan be madeto estimatethe camera distance and height.
Width
Height
-------
Photo of piece (majordimensions known)
-----------...- ------------r--~:=======i l
Centerof imagebisectsangle.
Camera position (
~iE-------~
Determ in ing Camera Position
Camera height (to scale)
~-------------- Distance to camera (to scale)
copy usually sacrifices sharpness for a largersize, so littl e is gained . A small originalphotograph can be used for scaling, but th emeasurement of it mu st be very precise andany lines th at are const ructed on it must bevery fine. If th e photo seems sharp enoughto enlarge without losing detail , it is worth
doing. Thi s can be done in a number ofways, but an enlarged color copy, even of ablack and wh ite print , is the quickest andeasiest way to get a high-quality, highresolution enlargement. (Co lor copiers canmake quick prints from 35 mm and 2 1!4-in.transparencies.) Co py photos can also be
made by photographing th e small photo(using a copy sta nd) and mak ing largerprints of it, or by scanning th e image andmaking an enlarged, high-resolution print.
Wh en scaling dimensions from th ephoto, draw one hori zontal and one vertica lreference line along wh ich to take th emeasurements (see th e photo on th e facingpage). Chances are th at th e top and bottomand left and right of th e piece in th e photoare different sizes, and th e vertical scale is
probably different from th e hori zontal
scale. Along th ose lines, measurements arescaled up from known dimensions with asimple proportion :
known major dimensionmeasured major dimension
unknown detail dimens ionmeasured detai l dimension
The left side of th is equat ion is aconstant along the line of measurement.Th e known major di mension, such as aknown case width, is divided by the casewidth measured from th e photo, and thatnumber is a constant . The measureddimension of any detail along that line,multiplied by that constant, is th e actualsize of th e detail. Most original pieces weremeasured off in '/R-in. increments, sorounding to th e nearest '/Rin. is appropriate.In another part of th e photo th e scale maybe different, and you need to det ermine anew constant from th e measurement of aknown major dimension. Similarly, adifferent constant mu st be det ermined forthe vertical scale as well. It is best to
measure th e individual sizes of each detai land check th at th ey all add up to the majordimension, since that forces you to make
min or correc t ions. Referencing all thedimensions from one point, such as th edistance from th e ground, takes th ephotograph literally with out th e benefit of
making necessary adjustm ents.In referring to publi shed dim ensions for
pieces, be careful to determine what th eyinclude . Some references, especially olderones, give overall dim ensions for pieces,which include moldings and feet. Th ere areno strict convent ions for presentingmeasurements, but most sources mentionth e guidelines th ey follow. Some publi cation s give overall dim ensions-except for
case pieces, where case width and depth arespecified- and note wheth er th e heightlisted includes finials. In th e case of chairs,note whether th e depth is an overall depth,
or th e depth at the seat . Newer and morescholarly references are more specific andcomplete in presenting all th e import antdim ensions.
To double-check all th e scaledmeasurements along th e reference line, addall th e measurements to ensure th ey equalthe known major dimension. Because of th esmall inaccuracies in measuring th at are
200 C II A I' T E R T II I RTEE N
Scal ing Measurementsfrom an Orthograph ic View
magnified in scaling up , th ey are usuallyclose but rarely equal on th e first try. Atthi s point, the dim ensions of th e detailshave to be adjusted somewhat to add up toth e known major dim ension. Some of th edetails that could have been rounded eitherup or down to th e nearest I/ S in. may beadjusted th e other way to favor th e total.Most original makers would have had aconsistent meth od of graduating drawersizes, with each one being a given amounttaller th an th e one above it. Remember, too,that lipped drawers overlap th e case sides
and drawer dividers by a fraction of an inch.Considering the inherent distortion du e toth e camera's view of the subject, it is best to
Height of chest is known to be 710 in.;measures 4.730 in. on photo.
Height of drawerYmeasures 0.320 in.
Y/ 0.320 = 71.5/4.730Y = 4.85 = 41;8 in.
Width of lower case isknown to be 37% in.;measures 2.475 in. onphoto.
X measures 0.895X/0.895 = 37.625/2.475X = 13.61 = 13% in.
If this process is repeatedfor all the vertical orhorizontal elements, theyshould add up to theknownmajor dimension.
add fract ional d imensions in areas wellabove or below th e camera's height, orsubt ract th em at or near its level. After afew iterations the measurements of all thedetail s shou ld add up to the known majordimension.
SCA LI N G F ROM ANAN GU L A R V IEWIt is rare to have a photograph with a good
orthographic view to work from whenscaling th e dimensions for a piece of furniture. Most pu blished photos show th e pieceat an angle so both th e fron t and side maybe seen and to give a better suggest ion of th edepth of th e case and the deta ils. W hile thi s
is a more natural way to view th e piece. itpresents a problem for anyone hoping tomake scale measurem ents, especiallyhorizontal measurements, from th e photo.Both th e front and side recede towardvanishing points on th e horizon line. so alinear scaling of th eir det ails is impossible.As th ey recede into th e distance, equal unitsof measurement appear to dimi nish in size.If one could "rotate" th e piece toward th e
viewer, thi s effect wou ld be eliminated andaccu rately scaled measurements couldeasily be taken . This can be done graphicallyby taking the ste ps used by draft smen tocreate perspective drawings fromorthographic views and app lying th em inreverse order. Thi s process adh eres to th ebasic ru les of perspect ive and involvesfind ing the vanishing points, esta blishing ahor izon line, and then const ruct ing a plan
or elevation of th e piece from whi chdim ensions may be accu rately scaled.
Th e first ste p in const ruct ing th e scalable view is to establish th e two vanishingpoints on either side of th e image. Sta rt byaffixing th e photo to a large sheet of paperor a drawing board . Working carefully andaccurately, extend th e lines of th e top andbottom of th e piece. on both th e front andside, to th e points wh ere th ey int ersect (seethe top drawing on p. 202). For more accu
racy, extend as many clear hor izontal detailsas possible toward th e vanishing points toconfirm their locat ions. In th e event th atth ey do not all intersect in exactly th e samepoint on eith er side, choose a point wheremost do meet to be th e vanishin g point . .The lines fro m the ext reme top and bott omof the piece are going to be the most accurate determinants of the vanishing points.Those tha t are nearly hori zontal converge ata smaller angle and are less accu rate. Draw aline through th e vanishin g point s (V P(,VPz) to establish th e hori zon line.
Th e cente r of vision (CV) line is th evertical reference line from whi ch th e planand elevat ion views will be drawn . Th eirdimensions will be in th e same proport ion
as measurements along thi s line. In anangular view of furniture, thi s line is chosento be along th e front corne r of th e piece,neglectin g moldin gs and feet. Draw th e CVline well beyond the top and bottom of th e
ME A SUR E MEN T S & DR A W IN G S 201
Scaling Vert ical Measurements from an Angular View
Height of caseprojected onto CV line
---1--Vanishing point (VP\)
Knowing the overall height,vertical features may bescaled from CVline. ~
I Center of vision (CV) line
Vanishing point (VP2)
piece. Thi s line should be perpend icular toth e horizon line.
At th is poin t in the process, th ere arethree opti ons depending on what information needs to be scaled: verti cal dim ensionsmay be taken directly from th e CV linewithout mu ch further const ruction;another meth od will produ ce a plan view toscale; th e third will produ ce elevations ofth e front and side to scale.
If vertical dim ensions are all that areneed ed, they can be scaled from th e CVline. An example wou ld be a piece like achest of drawers or a chest on chest, whereth e case width is known, but th e height ofth e feet and th e drawer sizes have to scaled.Details th at do not extend to th e CV linemay be extended from th e vanishing point s(see th e drawing at left) . Extending thesepoint s allows you to determine accuratelythe vertical dimensions of pieces like slantfront desks, desk bookcases or any pieceth at has a stepped front . By extending thelines of th e case and its attached moldingsand feet to th e vanishin g point s, th e tru ecorne rs of th e piece with out attachmentsmay be const ructed.
To const ruct a plan view by th e projection meth od, follow th ese steps (and th edrawin g on th e facing page):
Front corner
Frontof case
Attached feet and moldings extend beyondthe edges of the case and obscure theposition of the case corners. By extendingthe edges of the caseand attachments,the true positionof the case corners maybe determined.
CV line
.:»: To vanishingpoint
Side
Hidden frontcornerof case
Scale heightfrom here.
Account ing for ProtrudingFeet and Moldings
To vanishingpoint
Moldingflush withback ofcase
To vanishingpoint
Hidden backcorner of case
202 C II A P T E R T H I R TEE N
Constructing a Plan View:Projection Method
D
L , ~
Parallel to SV2
VI V2-parallel to horizon line
Horizon line
/ True width (AB)~--
/
S (station point)
\
\
CV line -"""""'''''-1
True depth (AC)
Parallel to SV1
l. Draw a line parallel to th e hori zon linejust above th e photo image. Extend verti callines from th e vanishing points to th is newline. Th eir points of intersection will be
called V I and V2.
2. Using a squa re, dr aw lines from V Iand V2 th at meet at right angles at th e C Vline. This point on CV is called th e sta t ionpoint (S).
3. From the poin t where line V IV2
intersects CV (point A), exten d two linesparallel to SVI and SV2. Th ese lines willmeet at a right angle at point A.
4. From the left and right sides of th e
piece in the photo, extend vert ical lines to
line VIV2·
5. From point S, d raw lines th rou gh th e
intersections of th e verticals and V ,V2 toth e points where th ey intersect th e linesfrom A. Th ese points are labeled B and C.
Lines AB and AC are th e tr ue width anddepth of the piece, proportiona l to heightalong the CV line.
6. Th e othe r two sides of th e plan viewmay be drawn parallel to AB and AC toestablish point 0, th e back corne r.
Any point X on th e front or side of th ephoto image may be exte nded vertica lly to
line V IVzand projected onto th e plan viewby a line dr awn from S. If only th e height ofth e piece is know n, th e width and depthmay be scaled from th e height along th e CVline. If th e width is known , use its knownmeasurem ent to scale details projected onto
th e plan.To const ruct elevat ions of th e front and
sides usin g th e two-point, or measuring
point, method , follow th ese ste ps (and thedrawing on p. 204):
l. Using a squa re, dr aw two lines fromth e vanishing points (VP " VP2) th at meetat right angles at line Cv. That point is th esta t ion point S for th is const ruct ion.
2. Strike an arc or measure to esta blish apoint on th e hor izon line th e same distancefrom each vanishing point as point S. Th esetwo points on th e hori zon are th e measur ingpoints M I and Mz.
3. Draw two hori zont al lines th at crossline CV at th e top and bottom cornersof th e piece . Th ese lines represent th e tr ueheight.
4. From th e measuring point s M) and
Mb exte nd lines th rou gh th e upper andlower corne rs of th e piece (A, B, C, D) to
th eir inte rsect ions with th e upper andlower hori zontals. Th ese int ersect ion poin ts(A I' BI , C I, 0 ,) mark th e corne rs of th e
tvl E A SUR E MEN T S & 0 RAW I N G S 203
Constructing Front and Side Elevations :Measur ing-Point Method
Measuring point M1 Measuring point M2~
I/--"
I·---r-----;-
Horizon line
--'
true size elevations and are connected by
vert ical lines.S. Hori zontal detail s may be extended
vert ically to th e top or bottom of theangular case and projected on the elevationby a line d rawn from the appropriatemeasur ing point M.
Th e posit ion of any point X on th e frontof th e piece may be projected on to the elevat ion as follows: Extend its vert ical posit ion to line CV from its van ishing point,
and th en exte nd a hori zontal from th eint ersect ion with CV across th e elevat ion.Project th e position of X by a line dr awnfrom th e measuring point M I to its int ersection with th e horizontal line across th eelevatio n. Using th is meth od , th e major details of ped ime nt tops may be projected onto th e or thogonal view of th e elevat ion (asshown in th e drawing on th e facing page).Note that in angular per spective, pediment
tops have th eir own vanishin g pointsequid ista nt directly above and below th eirrespective vanishin g point on th e hor izon .
204 C II A I' T E R T il ' RTEE N
S (station point)
O NE-POINT P ERSPE CTI VEMany shorter pieces of furniture arephotographed from stra ight ahead but froman elevated came ra angle, especially if th efeatures of th e top are noteworthy. Theexamples in th ese pho tographs illustratesingle-poin t perspect ive, where a singlevanishi ng poi nt lies behi nd th e subject . It istempti ng to use th e rules of on e-point perspect ive to dete rmine th e depth of the pieceand to construct a plan view of the top, but
with too many unknown s, including thecame ra angle, it is impossible to determineboth. If, however, th e depth of th e piece isknown, th e shape of th e top may be constructed as follows:
I. Begin by extend ing th e sides and frontedge of th e top to find th e vanishing pointand the outline of th e top (A, B, C, D) (seethe dr awing on p. 20 6) .
2. Draw a vertical line CV, perpen
dicu lar to th e front edge of th e top, throughthe vanishing point.
3. Co nstruct a plan view of the outl ineof th e top by drawing two verti cal lines upfrom th e fron t corne rs of th e top . Connectthese wit h a hor izontal line to establish thescale depth of th e piece based on the knownwidth and depth .
4. Draw a line from th e back corne rs ofthe plan view D, and C 1, through th e backcorne rs of th e perspect ive view D and C, toth e point where it int ersects the CV line.The point where these lines intersect CV isthe sta tion point S.
S. From point S, any point on th e edge ofth e perspect ive view (E) may be projectedonto th e plan view (E I ) . Any other point Xon th e perspective view may be projected toth e plan view by first exte nd ing its vert icalposition horizontally to th e edge of th eperspective view and projecting th at ontoth e plan view, and th en project ing itshori zontal positi on to th e front edge from
th e vanishing point . These two projectedpoints on th e edge of th e plan view markth e projected position of th e X.
Constru cting Elevations with Pediment:Measuring-Point Method
~ VP~
pediment
Vanishingpoints forpediment areequidistantfrom VPz
Horizon line
In angular perspective, a pedimenthas its own vanishingpointsequidistant above and below thehorizon line,
II
True width
D ] /
t- dePt~ I<
<,\ " ,
\
\
'- ! 90° ,/\ I r .~'
\~\, S (station point)
I
t1 VP
pediment
HI ST ORI C A L R E F ER E N C E STh e use of angular and one-po intperspective is nothing new to th e field of
fu rniture design. Thom as Chippe ndale's
TheGentleman and Cabinet-Maker'sDirectorof 1754 presented drawin gs of pieces in
orthogra phic projection , wherein the front
face of th e piece is shown orthographically
and th e third dimension recedes toward s avanishing point. Thom as Sheraton's TheCabinet-Makerand Upholsterer's DrawingBook of 1793 illustr ated and explained in
great detail two-point perspective usingmeasu ring points and one-po int perspec
tive. In both cases th e aut hor s were
st ressing th e importa nce of being able to
communicate designs to custome rs and
th e meth ods by whi ch t he cabinet ma ker
could prod uce hand som e persp ective
d rawin gs. In thi s way, they were illustr ating
how to make perspective views from shopd rawin gs, rat he r then the opposite approach
taken here.
Working Drawingsand Patterns
Once measurem ents have been taken from
th e original or derived from photographs,working drawin gs can be made. The exte nt
of th ese d rawin gs depends on th ecomplexity of the design and th e personal
methods of the builder. They can range
from qui ck sketc hes wit h whi ch to esta blish
dim ension s to full-scale working drawings
to show every aspect of detail.
Simple rectilinear pieces rarely requ irecomplete drawin gs. For somet hing like a
chest of drawers or a tea tab le, a sketch with
imp ortant dimension s is usually enough to
convey the design. For pieces th at inclu desome cur ved det ails, suc h as bracket feet, a
curved apron or cabriole legs, a few full-size
patt erns are needed to supplement t he
sketch and dimen sions.Co mp lex pieces do require mo re
sophist icated dr awings, and if the piece is
especia lly scul ptural, it is advisable to makefu ll-size drawings. A fu ll-size d rawing is t he
only way to work out th e int erpl ay of
components wit h confide nce before
bui ldin g th e piece. The d rawing need not
include every detail, only th e par t icu larly
vexin g areas of const ruct ion. Sometimesma king a fu ll-size drawing allows the
MEA S UR E MEN T S &; D RAW I N G S 205
Constructing a Plan View of aTop Using One-Point Perspect ive
VP
\
CV line
\ ILines through
\ I corners establish
\station point.
\ I/
\ I\
\ I\
\ I\
\
\
" I\\1
S (station point)11\
206 C I I APT E R T II I R TEE N
Depth(to scaleof width)
builder to work out some dim ensionsgraphically th at could not be determinedwhen th e piece was measured or scaled.
MA K ING PATT ER N STh e one shortco ming of full-size draw ingsis th at th e profiles of curved par ts mus t betransferred on to somethi ng more rigid foruse as a patte rn. Whether this is done withcarbon pape r or a tooth ed pou nce wheel,th e process is time-consuming and addspotential inaccuracies. In building a piece offurniture, th e quality of th e patt ern is ofprime importance. An elegant solution to
thi s is to dr aw th e full-scale dr awing onposterboard or sim ilar heavy stock to beginwith . Th is dr awing can th en be cut to serveas pattern s. In th is way, th e drawing literallycomes apart to becom e separate patt ern s forcomponent parts and reassembl es to showth e piece in its ent irety. Th e shapes ofcomponents are transferred directly to th ewood without losing sub tle detai ls of shape .If you are willin g to cut th em apart, existingpaper dr awings can be glued to heavy stockOM spray adhesive works well for th is).
Rigid materials like posterboard ormatb oard are more th an sufficient forpatterns th at will be used a few tim es, butwith exte nded use th eir edges become softand th eir crispness degrades. Patt ern s th at
are to see a lot of use require a hard ermater ial th at will withstand th e ravages oftime and use. Thin patt ern s of solid woodare fine, but th ey can be fragile andadversely affected by humidit y.On e of thebest permanent pat tern-making materia ls isIk in. birch plywood. It is ind estructibl eas a patt ern , easily cut and shaped, anddim ensionally sta bile. A sta nda rd sheet willyield many pattern s and pay for itself inconvenience and accuracy in th e long run .
Original MethodsMost 18th-eentury cabinetmakersapproached drawing and patt ern making inmu ch th e same way as present ed here. Theywere not likely to waste time making fullscale dr awin gs when a descriptive sketchand some wooden pattern s would do. Asfull-t ime professional cabinetmakers, they
Cabinetmakers of the 18th century used wooden patternsto lay out theshapes ofpieces quickly, accurately and repeatably. These patterns for the legs of tripod tablesare from theworkshop of the Dominy family of East Hampton, New York.(COURTESY WINTERTHUR MUSEUM)
and more th an one original has back board sthat show th ese cons truct ions.
Pattern s and th eir shapes play animp ortant role in tracing or igins and
evolut ions of period pieces and theirdesigns. Eighteenth-cen tur y makers reliedprimarily upon wooden patt ern s, many ofwhi ch have survived to th e present day andlink existing pieces to a know n maker 'sshop. These patterns were used repeated ly,and componen ts for new pieces were likelyada pted from the patt ern s of exist ing ones,so certain shapes became ind icative of
certain makers. As appren tices learn edth eir trade in a shop, th ey would adopt thestyling and make similar patt ern shapes inth eir own practi ce. As with other aspects ofcabinetma king, regional styles and shapesdeveloped, evolved and became morepronounced . Th e shapes of componentpar ts becam e distinct features th at giveinsight into th e regional preferences,evolut ion of design, and travel and tradepatte rns of styles and makers.
shape , like a pediment, would be designedin th e building process and worked out on
th e piece of wood from which it would becut . Someti mes th ese shapes would bedeveloped on a piece of secondary wood ,
_ I
did not need to know all th e detail s ofconstruct ion as presented in a formalworking drawing; as cabinetma kers th eyhad an inn ate sense for th ose. Th ey didneed to record important dimensions andshapes so th ey would not have to work th emout from scratch again, and so th ey couldrepeat designs for other customers. As th emanufacturers of th eir day, th ey were likelyto repeat th eir designs more th an a custo mfurniture maker of th e present day,so th eir
reliance on patt ern s for speed, cons istencyand quantity was great . With good pattern s,even th e less-skilled apprentices couldproduce furn iture part s. Th ere is clearevidence th at patt ern s were also used forth e finer details, like carved orna ment . Th edistinctive knee carvings of John Godd ardand Joh n Townsend are consiste nt enoughfrom knee to knee and piece to piece over along period of time to have obviously been
t raced onto th e knee from a pattern .Th e only really formal dr awings known
from the period are th ose from th e topdesigners and bu ilders th at were used toconvey th e designs to clients or oth erworkmen. Th at is not to say th at cabinetmakers did not use detail ed drawings todevelop th eir designs. A New port block andshell desk-bureau is inscribed "DanielGodd ard-his draugh," implying th at he haddrawn and developed th e design ahead oftim e. Often th e details of an import ant
A full-size drawing onposterboard can becutapart to doubleaspatterns.
ME A SU R E MEN T S & [) RAW I N G S 207
Part ThreeEXAMP LE S O F STYLE A ND
208
STRUCTURE
In studyi ngAmerican[urniture of the 18th century, there'snosubstitute for n close
examination ofan original piece. The volume of literature on thesubject is enorlllous
and continually growing, but nothing is as directas learning jrom thesource. Those who
hand le original piecesagree that there are very few pieces[rom which they have not
learned something. ellen if the piece only confi rms what they already know. A [irstltand
[amiliarity with the originalpiecesmakesdesign elements, construction details and
regional similaritiesand variationsclearlyevident and recognizable. Furthermore,
discoveringthe nature of ISth-century [urn iture[rom original examples seems to nialee
the lessons learned more memorableand permanent.
The purpose of thissection is tospotlightsOllieexamples of American[urniture that
are important to the study of thef ield. In American[urnitu re history, the lSth century
encompassed a wide variety of [onus, methodsof tuorl: and design philosophies. The
nation, itspeople and their tasteswere verydiffere1lt at the end of the century than they
had been at the beginning. Thesepieces refl ect those changes by tracing the evolution of
[urniture design through theera.
For each example, this suriley begiliSwith the objective injonnation regard iIIg a gilJell
piece:a description, the materials, dateand place of origiII , the identity of the maker(if
knoum) and allY other related historical injormation that may beavailable. Next
followsa moresubjectiveevaluation, ill which the attributes of thedesign are discussed
ill theCOlitext of theprevailingdesign philosophies of the period. III other words, if the
example is ill the \Villiam and Mary style, what attributes make it so, and how
effectively does it uphold thedesign principles that prevailed during the period when it
was made?With a world ofevents, cultureand commerce contributing to each of the
majordesign trends of thecentury,examining how wella piece embodiesthose trends is a
measure of thesophistication of its design.
By study ing a w ry goodexamplef rom a certain period, other examplesmay be
compared and evaluated for their success ill capturing thespirit of the era. Thereare
mallY examples of QueellA lllle tea tables ill existence, but ollly a few capturethe essence
of theperiod and are everything a QueellA II lie pieceshould be. III comparison, other
piecesshow a weakness ill design or all aspect of incompletedevelopment that makes
them seem less impressive. This is not to imply that the others are not noteurortliy, since
every original lias its story to impart, but Oil a relative scale of sophistication (//1(1
execution, they may not represent as high a level of achieuenient.
It is alsovaluable toconsider regional uariations of thesame type ofpiece; that is, how
other makers who worked at thesame time but ill a dijjerent region were varying the
style ill aceordalice with local customs and tastes and theirestablished methods of work.
Weshall alsoexamineeach piece ill relation to others that came before and aft er. It is
important to note whereallexamplef its ill relation to thedevelopment of theform.
Knowing the priorand laterdevelopment of thefO r/II places it ill a more meaningjul
historical COlitext.
209
210
Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the structureand construction details of each
piece will be presented. This is not intended to bea section on how to build a specificpiece
ofperiod f urniture, but ratheron how these pieces were built. Thestructural details and
construction methods are important to the collectoras a means of verifying theorigin
and authenticity ofa piece. For the maker, the construction methods used in a particular
piece can be applied to any similardesign, and thosesameprinciples can beapplied to
almost any stylisticor regional variation. The[un da mentals of theformsare primary,
and how the[orms were interpreted and executed by local craftsmen is secondary. One
could even use these basicsofstructure to createpurely original variations in the
historically accurate mannerof original maleers. Regardless of the aim, theconstruction
details of l Sth-century American pieces are ingenious and intriguing and should be of
interest toanyone interested in the[u rniture of the period.
__~l
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WILLIAM & MARY
CHEST with DRAWERS2 12
DRESSING TABLE2 15
HIGH CHES T of DRAWERS2 18
D ROP- L EAF G ATE LE G TABL E22 1
ARMCHAIR224
211
C HE ST urit h DRAW ER S
NEW ENGLAND , 1700-17 5 0
Soft maple; white pine, chestnut
H3SY. in. W38Y2 in. D18%in.
caseW36%in. D17¥4 in.
COll rr esy
Yale University Art Galll'rY
212 \V ILL I AM '" M AR Y
CH EST w ith DRAW ERS
I •
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HI STORICAL N OTES
Th ere is no known early historyfor th is chest with drawers, but
it is similar in design to manyNew England chests of th eperiod . The use of chestnut in
addition to soft maple and whitepine suggests a western RhodeIsland or eastern Co nnecticutorigin. Th e high quality of th ecraftsma nship seems to rule outa more rural point of origin. Th edrawer construct ion is similar tometh ods used in, but not
limit ed to, Rhode Island , and th ecase const ruction is not unlikethat of Boston pieces.
Thi s chest is one of many thatsimulate a case of drawers,though only th e two bottomdrawers actua lly slide out. Th etwo upper drawers are th e falsefronts of a lift-top chest. Thisfamily of chests combined th etraditi onal lift-top chest, withits large sto rage capacity, withth e practicality of drawers in asingle case.
ANALYSIS
O ne of th e most notable aspects
of thi s chest is its nearly squareproportions. With these
proportions it is similar to th e
upper cases of th e high chestsand chests-on-frame of the sam eera, and falls squarely betweenth e hori zontal format of th eJacobean-era designs and th emore vert ical aspects ofQuee n Anne-period ideals.In its imitation of th e mostfashionable four-drawer chests ,th e top false drawer front islarger th an th e second falsefront. This un even graduat ionof drawers is reminiscent ofearlier Boston chests with a
similar layout. In this logic ofdesign, th e size of the top draweris mad e to repeat that of th ebottom drawer.
Th e figured map le is notintended to be ornamenta l,since th is piece was probablypainted originally.Th eorna me nt is limited to theapplied double-arch moldin gsand th e base and lid moldings.Th e mass of th e case is raised byth e ball feet on tapered discs,whi ch th rou gh th eir oblateshape emphasize th eir weightbearing role. Th e feet are insetfrom th e corne rs, and th e casewas given a bold base mold ing tomake th e lift of th e case, small asit is, evide nt .
RELATED FOR M S
Chests of th is type br idge a gapbetween rural and t raditionalmeth ods of design andconst ruct ion and th e fash ion sand methods of moresophist icated urban cente rs.Cases of all dr awers werecommo n in urban areas by th eturn of th e centu ry, and thisdesign captures th eir app earanceand some of th eir functionwithout abandoning th etraditiona l lift-top design .
Less-refin ed examples featureball feet in th e front only, withextended case sides cut to formth e rear feet . Among thesechests, th e drawers vary fromun iform size on more ruralexamples to a carefu l anddeliberate graduation of sizes onmore refin ed versions. Th eplacem ent of th e brasses, whi ch
do not divid e th e drawer frontsevenly, reflects th e relaxation ofst rict orde r in th e second andthird decades of th e 18thcentury.
STRUC TURAL NOTES
Th e upper half of th e front andthe case back are nailed intorabbets in the case sides, whi leth e case bottom is dovetail ed to
th e case sides with relativelyrefin ed through dovet ails. Th ebottom of th e up per chestcompartme nt is let int o dadoesin th e case sides. Th e drawerdivider is dovet ailed to th e casesides, and th e runners are nailedin place. Th e bottom drawerslides dir ectly on the bottom ofth e case.
In th e Boston mann er, th ebase molding extends below the
bottom of th e case and gluedbase blocks are added to th ebottom . Th e feet have turnedtenons th at fit int o holes drill edthrough th e base blocks and casebott om . Th e top is cut with anoverhanging thu mb nail moldin gon th e front and sides. It ishin ged with iron snipe-billhin ges. Two battens are nailed toth e underside of th e top .
Th e chestnut drawer sides
and back are joined with finedovetails. Th e dr awer bottomis nailed to th e sides and backand int o a rabbet in th e d rawerfront. Run ning str ips are nailedto th e bottom on eithe r side ofth e d rawer.
W I L l. I A M & MAR Y 213
214 W I L L IAM & M AR Y
CH E ST w ith D RAW ERS
Filler blocks fillfront dado
Drawer divider J
DRESSING TABLE
HI STORICAL NOTES
Th e Yale dressing tabl e (seepp. 216-217) is similar in design
to at least three oth er examplesof Philadelphia or igin. One ofth ese is inlaid with th e date1724 , and th e other is th ought tohave been made shortly beforeth e 172 6 marri age of Cathe rineJohnson of Germantown ,Pennsylvania . This tabl e has ahistory of ownership in th eFrankenfield family ofPhiladelph ia, and it was part ofthe Reifsnyder Co llect ion beforebeing added to th e Ga rvanCollect ion in 192 9.
ANALYSIS
Thi s dressing table exemplifieswell th e attributes of Williamand Mary-period designs. Th ecase is held aloft by four well
developed, crisply detailed,turned legs. Th e legs arefountainlike in th eir flaredshape. Th e pointed arches of th esides and arcaded front and th efin ial at th e intersection of th ecross stretchers add to th everti cal emphasis of th e design.Th e tu rned feet , flatt ened inth eir profile, are a reminde r ofth e raised mass, and if four arenot enough, a fifth cente r footreinforces th e idea. Th e legs, feet
and drop and cente r fini als havedeep turned profil es and are th eprimary means of orna ment .
Th e overall design is logicaland ord erly. Th e cyma-basedpoint ed arches repeat in th eprofil es of th e sides and frontapron and are echoed in th eshape of the cross-st retc hers.Th e cente r foot and its finialprovide a focal center for th esymmet ry of th e design. Thesingle, upward-pointing finial
offers an int eresting cou nterpoint to th e pair of drop finial sextending from th e case. Th edr awers, th e openings of whi chare framed in double-archmoldings, are positioned directlyabove th e three arches. Thespaces between th e dr awersbalance th e spaces at th e sides ofth e case, th e latter being
necessitated by th e internalstructure. The large covemolding under th e top echoesth e flar e of th e legs and eases th etr ansition to th e overhangingtop, wh ich, in turn, caps offth e design .
RELATED FORM S
Th e basic structure of thi s pieceis representative of mostdressing tables of th e Williamand Mary era. A similar typ e of
const ruct ion was usedth roughout th e colonies, and itcont inued to be used in
Newp ort until near the end ofth e centur y. Besides regionalvariati ons in th e shapes ofturnings and aprons, NewEngland examples typically donot have spaces between th edrawers greater than the widthof th e applied double-archmolding, nor do th ey use amolding on th e case below th etop. Most New England
examples have th e case dovetailson th e front of th e case, wh ereth ey are concealed under a thinvertical st rip of wood or veneer.
STRUC TURAL NOTES
Th e case is of half-blinddovetailed const ruct ion, withth e exposed dovetails visible onth e case back and the front ofth e case sides . Interior cornerblocks exte nd th e full height ofth e case and are pegged in placethrough th e exterior (they arenailed from th e case back) . Th efront of th e case is one board,with th e three drawer openingscut from th e solid. Two verticalblocks are glued to th e insid e ofthe case front between th edrawer openings. Th ey exte ndth e full height of th e case, with
th e drop fini als tenoned int oth em . (New England versionsdiffer in th at th ey do not use th e
cente r vertical glue blocks andth e case front is built up ofseparate pieces rath er th an cutfro m one board .) Th e drawerrunners are nailed to th esevert ical glue blocks and th einterior corner blocks and letint o mortises in th e case back.
The legs have turned tenonsth at fit int o holes dr illed in th einterior corner blocks. Tenons
exte nd th rou gh th e st retchers tojoin th e leg and foot . It isassu med th at th e tenon exte ndsfrom th e leg int o a drill ed holein th e foot , since th at is th etraditional meth od ofconst ruction. Th e top isattached with pin s through thetop surface and glue blocks toth e fram e on th e underside.The double-arch moldingssurrounding th e d rawers and th ecockbead ing along th e bottom ofth e case are glued and nailed inplace. Th e dr awers are finelydovetailed, and th e dr awerbottoms are nailed to th ebottom sides and back and intorabb ets in th e d rawer front.
W I L L I A M & MAR Y 215
D R E S SI N G T ABL E
PHILADELPHIA ,1 700 _ 1730
Black walnut; yellowpine
H29 in. w33~ in. D20!.1l in.
caseW28Ys in. D18!.1l in.
CourtesyYale UllilJersity A rt Galle ry
216 W 11. L 1/\ M 11< M /\ R Y
DRES S ING TABLE
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I L I A M & MARYW I . 217
HIGH CH EST ojDRAWER S
HISTORICAL NOTES
AND ANALYSIS
This high chest of drawersexemplifies all th e skills requiredof the cabinetmaker in th e firstquar ter of th e century, includingturning, dovetail joinery of th ecase and drawers, venee ring and
finish ing. In addi tion, th e designis a complex combination of
elements and shapes requiringa sophisticated sense ofpro port ion to execute well. Thedesign marks a rad ical shift fromthe earlier Jacobean aesthet icstoward the loftier goals of I8thcentury design .
High chests of th is caliberare a marvel of organizat ionand design. Its overall designexemplifies th e vertica l proport ions and appearance of raisedmass tha t were essentia l to th edesign goals of th e period . Th evertical thrust of th e six powerful legs is capped by th e st ronghorizontal mold ings and drawerbandings. T he design shows anorderly division of space in th ecareful gradua tio n of d rawersizes. The shape of th e lowercase apro n is reflected in th eshape of th e st retchers. All th edrawer fronts are divided int o
equa l sections by bookmatchedvenee r and an even spacing ofthe brass pu lls and escutcheo ns.
218 WI L L I A M & MAR Y
The design and its componentpar ts show a near obsession withsymmet ry and th e logicald ivision of space. The turnedlegs and feet are exceptionallybold, with a deep profi le thatemphasizes the raised mass ofth e case. Th e burl ed veneerprovides a surface of intensevisual int erest . A completeanalysis of th e design of thi spiece is presented in Chapte r 2.
RELATED FORMS
The level of development offu rni ture designs shows a closecorrelatio n with a region 's
prosperity as reflected by itsgrowt h rate. The popu lat ion ofBoston nearly doubled duringth e period when the Williamand Mary styles were in vogue,and this high chest is an exampleof th e high development of th estyle during th at period . The
sophist icat ion of design andquality of workmanship ind icateth at thi s piece originated in one
of th e better urban shops andwas bu ilt for a client of means.Pieces of more rural origin werefrequ entl y mad e of ind igenou swoods and rarely achieve th elevel of venee ring and fine senseof vertica lly formatted proportion of this example. A variat ionon th e inverted cup tu rnings are
flared trumpet turnings, whichwere seen later in th e period .Many New York examp les haveth ree drawers across th e topinstead of th e two seen here.
STRUCTURAL NOTES
The lower case shows a rare
comb inat ion of const ructio nmeth ods. The front and sides aretenoned into front corne r posts,a method th at came int o widespread use in th e later Qu eenAnne era, but th e sides and backare dovetailed together in th emore prevalent William andMary-period method . Th e legsare tenoned int o th e frontcorne r posts and int o glue blocksinside th e rear of th e case. Th elower part of th e legs is tenonedth rough th e st retcher into theball feet . Th e stre tchers are halflapped at th e corne rs, and th eirinn er profiles are glued onto th einside edge. (On some examples,th e shape cut fro m th e frontof th e st retcher was glued ontoth e inside.)
Th e vertica l d rawer dividersare nailed to the sides of th efront apron on either side of th ecente r drawer opening in atypically New England meth od
and attached with a slidingdovetail to th e back of the case.Drawer runners are nailed to
either side of th ese dividers. Th etop of th e lower case has featheredged dustboa rds let into dadoeson th e inside edge of the waistmoldin g.Th at waist moldingconsists of a lower half attachedto th e base and an upper halfattached to th e upper case.
Th e upper case is doveta iledtogeth er with half-blind dovetails at th e top and throughdovetails at th e bott om . Th e casesides are th e tail pieces of th ejoints. Th e center drawer divideris dovetailed th rough th e case,but th e upper and lower dividersare let into dadoes. The upper
divider is a dustboard of nearlyfull depth let into dadoes in th ecase side on wh ich th e topdrawers slide.
Th e second- and third-leveldrawers ride on ru nners let intodadoes, and the lower drawerru ns on the case bott om. Like
th e distin guishin g feature oflater Boston case pieces, th elower molding of th e upper caseextends below th e case bottomand is reinforced by a series ofglue blocks under th e case. Thedrawers, with nailed-onbottoms, are th rough-dovetailedwith wide tails at th e front andback. Th e veneer on th e drawerfronts concea ls th e exposed endsof th e dovetai l joinery.
W ILL IAM & MAR Y 219
......
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HI G H C H ES T o/ D R AWE RS
MASSACHUSETTS , 1700-1725
Maple; pine, burled maple andwalnut veneer
H65\1;0 in. w40 in. 021% in.
lower case
W37Y2in. 020 in.
upper case
W35Y2in. 0 19Ys in.
CourtesyMuseulIIof Fine Arts, Basta"
220 W ILL I A M & MAR Y
DR O P-L EA F G AT EL EG T ABL E
~ C:'. ',.". ~I ~.~.i, .1.t/ j~\~- '1"""'-;1~ ' . J
T J 'v 'J:l J
HISTORICAL NOTES
Historic Deerfield 's magnificentdrop-leaf gateleg table was origi
nallyowned by Ruel Williamsof Maine and has a historyof owners hip in th e Bowdoinfamily. James Bowdoin III(1752- 1811) founded Bowdo inCollegeand was ambassado r toSpain under President Th omasJefferson. Drop-leaf tables hadproven to be a practica l solutionto th e need for a large din ingsurface th at could be folded andstored when not needed. Th eyhad come into widespread useth roughout th e colonies by th eend of th e 17th centur y andwere made in a wide range ofsizes. Whil e other New Englandgateleg tables may have beenmade of maple, th e outstandingBoston examples were made of
walnut. Like th e turned chairs ofth e period, th ese tables wereprimarily th e product of th eturner's shop.
ANAL YSIS
The bold tu rni ngs are cer ta inlyth e major decorat ive elemen t inth is example, as th ey are in mostgateleg tables of th e era. Th estructure of William and Marygateleg tables is limit ed to aframework of st raight elementsconsisting of legs, rails and
st retchers. Because th ey areturned, th e legs and st retchersare stra ight and square in crosssectio n. Th e design of thi s typeof drop-leaf table shows th eresult of applying th e decorativefeatures of th e day to purelyutil itarian form: Th e str uctura lparts are tu rned, but th ere areno purely decorat ive elements.In keeping with th e period 'semphasis on showing a raisedmass, th e legs and stre tchers are
emphasized by th eir turneddetail , and th e st ructure andcomplexity of th e base becom eth e focus of th e design.
Like other turned elementsin furniture of the per iod, th eturnings are deep and bold,resulting in a rich and int erestinglydetailed overall app earance.Th e turned ring-and-baluster
shape, a design from antiquity,is a common profile used in
gateleg tables and chairs of th eperiod. In New England tables,th e profile is used in a symmetrical mirror image and repeated ineach turned element, giving th ebase an orde rly arrangement and
logical division of space.
RELATED FORMS
Th e gateleg drop-leaf table wasth e predominant form of tablefor dining during th e first
quart er of the 18th cen tury.Since th ese tables were numerousand in wid espread use, a greatmany regional variations of th eform evolved, most differing inturned detail. New York tablesoften employed urn-and-balustershaped turnings, more of anEnglish style, rath er th an th esymmet rical baluster designshown here.
Throughout th e colonies, th e
variations from stylish urbandesigns to less-refin ed ruralinterpretation s were reflected inth e shape of th e turnings, whi chranged from deep and robu st tothin and tim id. The same formwas made in a range of sizesfrom 3 ft. to over 5 ft . in length .Th e frame often incorporated adrawer in one or bot h ends. Th isexample features a drawer th at is
nearly as long as th e frame.Turned ball feet are mostcommon, but a few exampleshave Spanish feet . They aremade with and with out feetbelow th e pivot ing posts.
STRUCTURAL NOTES
Thi s table is of pegged mortiseand-tenon const ruct ionth roughout. Th e turnedelements are from 2-in. squarestock. Th e mortises and tenonsare % in. wide with a %-in. wid e
front shoulder. Th e joint s areblind-pegged, with single pegs atth e st retchers and doubl e pegs atth e rails. Th e gates swing onpivot posts with turned tenonslet into drill ed holes in th e toprail and st retcher. Th e outer legsof th e gates meet the rails andst retchers in half-lap joints .
Th e full-length drawer slideson a cente r runner that is letinto th e rail below th e drawer
and nailed to th e und erside ofth e back rail. To sup por t the top,a cross brace is let int o th e top ofth e rails behind th e draweropening. Th e top and each leafare made of two butted boards.Th e top is pinned to th e frame,and th e leaves are hin ged withiron hinges. Wh en th ey areraised, th e leaves meet th e top ina tongue-and -groove join t. (Rule
joints with concealed hingeswere not used unt il the adventof th e Quee n An ne style.) Thelong drawer has a pine back andsides, joined with two large butcarefully made doveta ils at eachcorner. Th e pine drawer bottomis nailed int o a rabbet in thebotto m of th e drawer fron t andto th e sides and back.
W I L L I A tv! s: tv! A RY 221
DROP- L EAF GATELEG T A B L E
BOSTON, 1695 -1720
Walnut; white pine
H28% in. w50% in.D(open) 60 Y4 in. D(closed) 20 in.
framew39YBin. D17YBin.
Co urresy H istoric Deerfi eld
222 W IL L I A tv! & tv! A R Y
D RO P- L E A F GA TELEG TABLE
W I L L I A M & MAR Y 223
22 4 WI L L I A Iv! & Iv! A R Y
ARM CHAIR
HISTORICAL NOTES
Banister-back chairs of thi s typeillustrate the movement away
from th e severe rectilinear formsof Jacobean-era designs. Th eperiod term for a chair witharms was "elbow chair."Chairs
of a similar design but withregional variat ions were made allalong th e New England and lew
York coast. Th e Ga ines familiesof Essex Coun ty, Massachusetts,and nearby New Hamp shiremade exemplary chairs of thi s
style, as well as related articles offurniture, and their name hascome to be synonymous withthi s school of design. Thi s chairwas repainted black in 1963since its original black paint hadbeen removed sometime prior to192 8, wh en it was first lent tothe mu seum. It has not been cutdown or built up and retains itsoriginal dim ensions.
ANALYSIS
Th e most st riking feature of th ischair is its tall, vertical format ,especially in comparison to th ejoined frame-and-p anel chairs of
th e previous century. Besides itsproporti ons, a number ofelement s cont ribute to its
upward sweep, includ ing ta llSpanish feet , upwardly taperedturnings, up swept arms and a
fountain-like crest-rail design .Unlike case pieces, th ere is nosolid mass, and th e design seemsto revel in its absence, putting allits emphasis in unboundedvert ical th rust .
Th e chair exhibits th esym metry and well-orde reddivision of space that ischaracte rist ic of th e period. Th est retc hers are placed halfwaybetween th e seat and th e floorand, in an unusual style, are allat nearly the same level. Th e fivebanisters extend upward fromth e mid-point of the back andare evenly spaced, so th edistance between th em is nearlyequal to th eir own width. Th eshape of th e bani sters echoesth at of th e turned upper stilesth at flank th em , and th e sametapered profil e is used on th etop of th e front legs to supportth e arms.
Th e crowning eleme nt, th ecarved crest rail with C-scrollsand plumage, shows th e
influence of Flemi sh design andth e Gibbons manner of deepand airy carving. This carving,
along with th e bold turnings andSpanish feet , creates a rich and
interest ing sur face. In case piecesof th e period, this sameint ention of bringing focus toth e su rface was achievedth rough th e use of burl edveneers. Th e design, with itspierced carving and open spaces,
foreshadows th e more fullydeveloped balance of solid andvoid employed in th e subs equentphase of furniture design.
RELATED FORMS
Given that banister-back chairswere turned chairs, th e turneddecorative eleme nts cou ld bevaried without altering th estructure. But throughout therange of chairs th e balustershape and flared taper repeat asfavorite tu rned designs , as doesthe ball-and-ring design of frontst retche rs. Similar chairs were
made with turned ball feet ,which were a less expensivealternative to carved Spanishfeet . Flared Spanish feet requireth at th e leg be sawn to sha pefrom a larger piece of stoc kbefore it is turned . Ball feet maybe turned from a strai ght pieceof sma ller stock. Regionalvariat ions are most pronouncedin th e design of th e crest rail,
with most areas having preferredstyles. Few, however, are aselaborate or sophist icated as thi s
example.
STRUCTURAL NOTES
Th e armc hair is of mortise-and tenon const ructio n th roughout.Th e arm supports, seat rails andfront st retcher have turnedtenons fitting into drill edmortises. Th e side and med ialst retche rs end in squa re blocksand are tenoned int o rectangularmortises 3/R in. wide. Th e medialst retche r is th rou gh-tenonedint o horizonta l mortises in th eblocks of th e side st retche rs. Th ecrest rail, lower ban ister rail andback of th e arm s are joined withconvent ional mortise-and-tenonjoints, all of which are pegged.
W IL L I A M sc MAR Y 225
226 W ILL I A M & M AR Y
COASTAL NEW ENGLAND(PROBABLY MASSACHUSETTS). 1700 -1720
Maple andash
H 47!12 in. w23 in. 018 in.
COurtesy
Museum of Fille Arts, Bostoll
QUEEN ANNE
CHEST of DRAWERS228
FLAT-TOP HIGH CHEST231
BONNET-TOP HIGH CHEST234
DRESSING TABLE238
TEA TABLE241
SIDE CHAIR244
CARD TABLE247
EASY CHAIR250
227
C H E ST oj D RAW E RS
"'::::~
.~/
HISTORICA L NOTES
This five-drawer chest has manyconst ruct ion features that allow
it to be att ributed to JohnTown send (1732-1 809) .
Town send served his seven-year
apprent iceship in his fath er
Christo pher Town send 's sho p
sta rt ing at about age thirteen.
The proportion s of th e drawers
are sim ilar to th ose of th e uppercase of a high chest made by
Christo phe r Townsend in 1748.Late r chests had a more even
graduation of drawer sizes. The
earliest piece signed and dated
by John Town send is a
mah ogany dining tabl e dated
175 6. From th e design and
execution of this chest, it isreasonable to assume it was
made late in his apprent icesh ip
or sho rtly after he becam e ajou rney man. Traces of th e
original fini sh show that thi s was
a deep red color, simulat ing
mahogany. The feet and brasses
have been replaced.
ANA LYSIS
This Newp ort chest is a rare
exa mple of a Queen Anne chestbuilt whil e th e sty le was in
fashion in a major coasta l city.
Apart from th e brasses, applied
228 QUE E NAN N E
case moldings and ogee bracket
feet, th ere are no orna me nta lembellishme nts . Th e shape of
th e feet , like those of ot her
Newport pieces of the period ,
offers a spring and lift to an
ot he rwise boxlike case. The
grad uation of th e drawers aids in
giving the appearance of height.
The grad uat ion of th eir sizes is
not even, but the two sma llerdrawers at the top balance th e
tall bottom drawer. The delicat ecase moldings fini sh off th e top
and bottom effect ively without
bein g st rong hori zontal
eleme nts that wou ld othe rwise
make th e case appear heavy or
low. On a piece that is essent ially
a solid and square box, th egrad uation of the drawers, th e
mold ings and the feet combine
to give the design th e subtle
grace, lift and restrained
orname nt essent ial to th e Q ueen
Anne style.
RELATED FOR MS
Chests of drawers of thi ssimplicity were made th rough
out th e middle to later part of
th e 18th cent ury in th e colonies.
Suc h pieces were built to befun cti on al, and, as a result, th eir
simplicity oft en makes th em
difficult to dat e. It is onlythrough the attribution giventhi s chest that it may be dated to
mid -centu ry, Many exa mples of
com mo n chests were made with
plain bracket feet , rat her th an
th e ogee bracket feet shown in
thi s piece. While maple wascommo nly used as a pr imary
wood in ru ral areas , its use in
urban areas is largely overlooked.Price books of the period show
th at mapl e pieces were pri ced
one-t hird less th an identical
mah ogany pieces. Many of th e
fin est hous es were furni shed
with the best mah ogany
furniture on th e first floor and
in th e largest bedroom s, butwith mapl e furniture elsewhere.
The rarity of higher-style
chests of drawers from thi s
period is attributable to
custo me rs opt ing for chests-on
fram e or high chests for greate r
visua l imp act. Blocked and ot he r
shaped fronts on chests did not
come into use u nt il th e adve ntof th e Chippenda le-era's Rococo
aest hetics.
STRUC TURA L NO TES
This chest is join ed by th rou gh
dovetails th at are visible on th e
top and bottom of th e case. The
drawer divid ers are joined to th e
case sides with sho ulde reddovetails. Th e drawer runners
are nailed to th e inside of th e
case but not let int o dadoes as
th e shouldered doveta ils suggest.
The cente r d rawer runner half
laps th e top drawer divider and a
simi lar horizontal support let
int o grooves at th e back of th e
case. The back is nailed intorabbe ts provided in th e top and
sides. Th e case mold ings areglued and nailed in place. The
feet are joined to th e case with
mit ered glue blocks.
The drawers are built in th e
Newp ort mann er, with th e
bottoms extending through th edrawer sides and running st rips
appli ed along th e bott om sides.
The top drawers were originallyequipped with spring locks on
their undersides, whi ch are now
missing. The d rawer const ruc
t ion, proportion s and mold ings
are indi cati ve of Newpo rt . Th e
mitered glue blocks at th e feet
and the letters A th rough E in
grap hite on th e back of thedrawer fronts and backs indicate
th e hand ofJohn Townsend.
C H E ST 01 D RAWE RS
NEWPORT. RHODE ISLAND . c . 1750
Softmaple; white pine
H41% in. W37% in. D20Yain.
caseW35% in. D19 in.
Priva te collect ion
QU E E NAN N E 229
C HEST of DRAWERS
230 QUE E N AN N E
FL AT-TOP HIGH C HE S T
HISTORICAL NOTES
Flat-top highboys, or highchests, in th e Queen Anne stylewere th e next evolution of th emulti-legged William and Marydesigns. Th e proport ions andapro n detail ind icate th at th ehigh chest shown on p. 232was made in th e Hartford orWeth ersfield area. Two existinghigh chests with archedpedimen t tops are similarenough in detail and constr uction to have been made by th e
same maker.Th is indicates abusy, professional shop wit h
consistent and repeated designsand well-established methodsof work.
ANALYS IS
Thi s remarkable high chest is astriking example of th e QueenAnne style as it was practiced ata distance from th e furniture
making centers of Boston andNewport. Th e arrangement andgraduation of th e drawersillustrates how th eir size andnum ber were used to give th epiece th e appeara nce of height .
Even without an archedpediment, th e eye is drawnupward th rough a progression ofincreasingly smaller drawers.
The effect of th e vertica lformat is augmented by th esense of lightness offered by th ehigh, gently curved apron andslender legs. Th e legs th em selvesare exceptionally well shapedand support th e case with grace.Th e length of th e legs and th eshape of th e apron give th epiece th e spirited lift th at ischarac te rist ic of th e finestdesigns of th e period . Given th atlift , t he space below th e case
becomes as mu ch a par t of th edesign as the case itself. Thesolid facade of th e drawer frontsis punctu ated by th e up per andlower carvings, in keeping withth e rest rained use of ornamentfavored in th e Queen Ann e era.
RELATED FORMS
Flat-top high chests, whileevolving fro m earlier designs,
cont inued to be madeconc ur rently with moreelabora te (and expensive)bonn et-top designs. Earlyversions cont inued th e wide rproportions, apron designs andmolding details of earlier
examples. As th e formdeveloped, th e ethereal goals ofth e Q ueen Anne style led tomore delicate proportions,
increased lift and th e archedpediment or bonnet top .
This design, with four small
drawers flanking a top cente rdrawer and cent ral upper andlower carved drawer fronts, wasa favorite among Co nnect icutmakers. Rhode Island highb oystend to have aprons with moredramat ic scrolling, rarely havemore th an two drawers acrossth e top, and are of slightlystouter propor tions. The apro nsof Rhode Island examples are
more cente r-oriented, withreversing small-radius scrolls
rising to a cente r drop finial.Boston and other Massachu settsmakers opted for tallerpropor t ions, flat-topp ed apronarches and a pair of drop finial s,th e latter being vestigialremnants of William and Mary
designs.
STRUCTURAL NOTES
Th e apron, sides and back of th ebase are tenoned into th e postsof th e four legs and secu red withtwo or three pegs in each tenon .Th e sides and back are each
joined to th e legs with two largedoubl e-pegged tenons at eachjoint. Th e top front rail of th ebase is dovetail ed to th e top ofth e fro nt legs. Th e drawerdivid ers th roughout the piece
are joined with shouldereddovetails, th ough th e dovetailsare only about 3/4 in. deep. Th edrawer runners in th e base are314in. th ick and taper to 3fs in. at
either end. They are morti sedinto th e case back and let intorabbets in th e front apro n.
In th e upper case, th e top,sides and bottom are th roughdovetailed, with th e top andbottom as th e tail pieces. A rail islet into rabbets in th e back ofth e case sides to support runnersfor th e top bank of drawers.T hese runners are mortised intoth e top drawer divid er and backrail. Th e boards that form thevertical dividers for th e topdrawers are let into grooves inth e cente r drawer run ners anddadoes in th e case top . Th e
drawer runners on th e case sidesand vertical dividers are nailedin place. Th e top molding is acomposite of two moldedshapes, glued and nailed to th ecase. Th e waist moldi ng is gluedand nailed to th e base. Thedrawers have thi ck (Sfs in.) sides,
backs and bott om s and arejoined with large dovetails. Thedrawer bott om s are let intogrooves in th e drawer sides andfron t and nailed to th e underside of th e back.
QUE E NAN N E 231
FL AT-T OP HI G H C H ES T
232 QU E E N AN N E
FL A T-T OP HI GH C H E ST
CONNECTICUT,1750-1780
Cherry; white pine
H71 V2in,
uppercase
W35 in. D187/s in.
lower case
W37% in. D20Vs in.
Privat e collection(Photo courtesy Israel Sack, III C , N. Y.c. )
~ :
~ :
Q UE E NAN N E 233
BONNET-TOP HIGH CHEST
HIS TORICAL NOTES
Th e high arching apron, slipperfeet and arched pediment showthis chest to be unmistakably ofNewport origin. Pages from a1765 Marblehead account bookare pasted on th e back of th eupper case, covering gaps in th eback boards. The three finialsand plinths were added early inthe histo ry of th e piece, sinceth ey are quite old. Their profileis not unlike th at of other fin ialsfrom th e Boston and North
Sho re area. With Quakercommu nit ies in both Newportand northern Massachu setts, a
history in th e Marb lehead areaseems likely.
A very similar high chestwith a flat top is inscrib ed"Christopher Townsend mad e1748," and is one of th e fewNewport pieces th at is signed
and dated. Th e signed pieceserves as a reference by whichpieces of similar des ign andconst ruction, like thi s one,may be compared. Based onth ose similarit ies and knownTownsend meth ods, this highchest is att ributa ble toChris topher Townsend( 1701- 1773) as well.
234 QU E E N A N N E
ANALYSIS
All th e definitive elem ents ofth e Queen Anne style areembodied in this piece. Th eapron features reverse scrollsth at give th e base a high liftabove th e floor. This shape isidentical to th at of other early
Newport high chests, and is seenon some dressing tables as well.Th e well-curved cabriole legsterminate in slipper feet . Incombinat ion, th e feet , legs andapro n give th e piece a stable butlight stance. T hey suggest aspring in its carriage and a greatlift in its base. The upper casehas evenly graduated drawerheights and is crowned with apediment of academicallyperfect proportions. Origi nally,th e central openi ng would haveheld one finial. Even withoutth e add ed plinths and finials,th e open pediment and archedmoldings give th e upper case asophisticated loft iness.
This high chest is a virtualchecklist of th e Queen Ann eera ideals of furn iture design.T he lift of th e base and th esoaring pediment extend th evert ical format of th e designwhile belying the mass of such a
piece. Th e balance of solid andvoid is used effect ively in the top
as well as in th e base, as bothareas invite th e viewer toexamine the spaces left by th esolid. Finally, th e period 's idealof smooth, uninterruptedsur faces is evident in the solidfacade of plain drawer fronts.
RELATED FORMS
Th e design of thi s high chesttypifies the form and prop ortions of Newport high chests ofthe era, but regional variati onsabound in th e design of majorpieces such as this. The differences are most obvious in theshape of th e apron, legs and
pedi men t, and in the proportionsof th e case and its divisions ofspace. For example, Bostonmakers often used an aprondesign of flat-topped archeswith a pair of drop finials. Th eWethersfield area had anidentifiable apron designdistin guished by a double halfround shape in th e cente r, asseen in the example of a flat-topQu een Ann e high chest . Th eshape of th e arched pedim entand its openings is characteristicof th e Newport schoo l, andother areas used distinctly
different proportions. Th e useof slipper feet was largelyconfined to th e Newport area,with Dutch or pad feet th enorm elsewhere.
STRUCTURAL NOTES
In th e Newport mann er, thefront and back of th e lower caseare dovetailed to th e sides. Thin
vert ical st rips on th e frontoutside edges conceal th e frontdovetails from view, but th eback dovetails are visible fromth e rear. Th e blocks of th e legsextend about 6 in. into th einside corners of th e case and areposit ioned there with glueblocks. These legs are glued inposition, but those of similarhigh chests (and dressing tables)were frequ ently left un glued soth ey could be slipped out forease of shipment .
Within th e lower case, thedrawer dividers are pine, frontedwith l!4-in. mahogany strips. Th e
horizontal divider is dovetailedinto th e front of th e case sides.Th e top rail is nailed intorabbets in th e top of the casesides . Th e vertical dividers arenailed int o a rabbet in the apronrail on eith er side of th e center
drawer, secured with glue blocksbehind th e apron, and let into
QUE E NAN N E 235
dadoes in th e hori zontal divider.
Th e three lower drawers rid e onru nners in th e cente r of th e
d rawer openings, whi ch are letinto rabbets in the fro nt rail and
mo rt ises in th e case back .
G uides are nailed to the case
sides and ten on ed into th e
ver t ical di viders and case back.
Runners for th e upp er drawer
are ha lf-lapped to th e dr awerd ivider an d let int o mortises in
th e back. G uides for the upperdrawer are nailed to th e runners.
Kickers for th e u pper d rawer are
na iled to th e underside of the
upper case.
In th e upper case, th e top and
bot tom are dovet ailed to th esides. T he d rawer div iders are
pine , fro nted wit h mahogany,
and joined to th e case sides wit hshou ldered dovet ails. To note
their assembly posit ion they are
marked in graphite A, B and C,
from top to bottom , in arecognizable Town send family
script. T he drawer ru nn er s are
nai led to the case sides . Behind
236 QU E E N A N N E
the upper drawer divider, a rear
rail is let into dadoes in th e backside s of the case. A cen te r
runner for the top two dr awers ishalf-lapped to the fro nt divid er
and tenon ed into the rear rail.
The vert ical divid er is let into
dadoes in the top divider and
case top .The fro nt pediment board is
nailed to the front of the casetop. The bookmatched panel s
were app lied afte r install ati on ofth e board , since they cover th e
nail holes. The rear pediment
board is attached to the top of
the case. Two st ringers connec t
th e pediment boards at the top
and bottom of the curve on eachside . The thin pine covering
boards are nail ed to th e pedi
ment board s and st ringers. Thepediment moldings are glued
and nailed to the case sides,
front pediment board and upper
st ringers. The waist molding isglued and nail ed to th e upper
case, extend ing below th e
bottom by abo ut l/ q in . to cover
any gap bet ween the two halves.
B O N N ET- T OP HI GH C HEST
NEWPORT,1745-1765
Mahogany; white pine, maple, chestnut
H81V2 in. (notincluding finial)W39V4in. D21 V2 in.
uppercaseW36Vain. D18% in.
lower caseW37% in. D19% in.
COli rtesy H istoric Deerfield
The drawers are mad e in the
typical Newport manner, withfin e dovet ails and the drawer
bottom nailed to th e sides andback and let into a dado in the
fro nt. Running st rips are app lied
along th e lower sides of the
bottom. The lower three
drawers, wh ich rid e on cente rrunners, are flu sh-bottom ed ,
with th e bottom nailed into arabbet in the drawer front and
onto th e sides and back. Th e twotop drawers have spring locks
that are ingeniou sly dovet ailed
into the d rawer bottoms. The
drawers in each case are lettered
in graphite A th rou gh E and A
through D. Th e script is uprighton the inside of the drawer back,
indicating th at it was written
before th e bottom was attac hed.This is the same struc ture used
on Newport dr essing tables, and
a cont inuat ion of th e high chest
st ruc ture of th e Willi am and
Mary period .
rf;
, '""
QUE E N AN N E 237
DR E S SIN G TA B LE
HISTORICAL NOTES
Littl e is known of th e history ofthis dressing table but a greatdeal may be inferred from itsstyle and st ructure. Its styling isth at of a Boston piece, and itreveals th e work of an urbanshop in its details. String inlay,alt hough usua lly associat ed withth e Federal era, was used tooutl ine th e dr awer fronts andothe r significant features ofsome Boston pieces. Th e inlaidfan is a detail more commonlyseen on English case pieces, butit was a detail ado pted by someBoston cabinetmakers.
ANALYSIS
Albert Sack has called thislowboy "a littl e th orou ghbred"
because of its perfectproportio ns, crisp detailin g,acade mic cabriole legs and nutbrow n walnut color. As an
example of th e American QueenAn ne aesthet ic in lowboys, th ispiece has few equa ls. As if in a
reaction to th e bu sy design ofWilliam and Mary lowboys, th eQuee n Anne design exudes aqui et calm. Rep lacing th efrenzied assemblage ofstretc hers and elaborate lytu rned feet and legs are four
238 QUE E NAN N E
smo oth, gracefu l and refin edcabriole legs. The legs end in th edel icate wafers of thin pad feet .Th e flat-top arches span th estance of th e piece with a calmrepetit ion, punctuated by a pairof drop fini als.
The ease with whi ch th e caseis borne testifi es to th e per iod 'saim of diminishing th e apparentweight of th e piece. The spacebelow the case, as outl ined byth e ap ron shape and legs,becom es important in showingth e lift of th e design. Th esur face is smooth throughout,with a warm glow from th ewalnut. The lone sur faceorname nt is th e concave inlaidfan, wh ich cont inues th esmooth surface across whatwou ld otherwise be a carved fanor shell. The thin top caps offth e design, and its large overhang
makes th e case appear smaller.
RELATED FORMS
Simi lar aesthet ics are shown inothe r dr essing tables of th e era,though they are expressed bydifferent means. Most exampleshave a carved fan or shell cent ralto th eir design . Those th at donot usually have a cent ral focal
point in th eir apron shape ordrop fini als. In each case, th e
shape of th e legs and th e profileof th e apron are importantdesign elem ents and are key toachieving th e grace and lift thatcha racte rize th e period . Dressingtables were ofte n made en suitewith high chests so th ey shareth e same regional variations inst ructure, proportion , designand detailing, but at about 809-6
th e size of th e base of a highchest . Since th ey also share akinship with tables, dressingtables can exhibit featuresassociated with tabletops. Th emost striking top feature is th escalloped-to p treatment of th e
Co nnect icut River Valley, whi chwas app lied to tables, chests anddressing tables.
STRUCTURAL NOTES
Th e sides, back and front apro nrail are tenoned into th e legs.This is an important st ructura lchange from earlier William andMary designs, wh ere th e casewas dovetailed togeth er and th elegs were tenoned int o int eriorcorne r blocks. Here, th e sidesand back are join ed to th e legswith a series of th ree tenons ateach joint. Th e front and backtenons are pegged, th e sides are
not . The fronts of th e drawer
dividers are angled and rest inangled pockets in th e front rail,wh ich is a feature of urbanBoston shops. Th e center drawerrunners are tapered to % in. andfit int o mortises in th e back ofth e case. Th e backs of th e siderunners are nailed to th e rear
legs. Th e drawer divid ers arejoined with shouldered dovetails. Th e top rail is dovetailed toth e top of th e front legs. Th e topis pin ned to th e case sides withfour pins on each side. Th e knee
blocks overlap th e case sides andfront and are glued in place.
Th e drawers have thi n(5/ 16in.) sides, backs and
bottom s and are joined withdelicate dovetail s. Th e dr awerbottom is nailed into a rabbet inth e drawer front and nailed toth e sides and back. Runningstrips are applied along th e sidesof th e bottom in th e Newport
manner. Lest th e details andideals of Q ueen An ne- erafurniture construct ion seem too
serious, th e drawer sides andbacks have chalk drawings ofgeomet ric designs, chickens (ordu cks or geese) and a lobsterfrom early in th e history ofth e piece.
DR E S SI N G TABL E
BOSTON. 1735-1750
Walnut; pine
H29Y2 in. w34 in. D I9Ys in.
casew30 in. o l? in.
Private collection(Photo courtesy Israel Sa ck, lnc., N. Y C. )
QUE E N AN N E 239
D R ESSI N G TABLE
240 QUE E NAN N E
TEA TABLE
HIST ORI CAL NOTES
Histor ic Deerfield 's Q ueenAnn e- style tea table is similar to
a number of other rectangularNew England tea tables,especially two illustrated in TheMagazine A ntiques (December1970, inside front cover, andNovember 1930 , p. 446), one ofwhich was owned by Nath anielHawth orn e. All of th em havecharacterist ics th at point to aneastern Massachu setts or igin.Thi s table is in black paint, andthe use of paint as an or iginalfinish is suggested by th e use oftwo different hardwoods in th econst ruct ion. Th e styling of th etable is consistent with welldeveloped coasta l pieces, but theridges along th e top of th e feetindi cate an origin in other thanan urban shop.
ANALY SI S
It would be difficult to find anexample of 18th-eenturyAmerican fu rni ture th at betterembodies th e Queen Anne-eraideals of design th an thi s teatable. The slender cabr iole legs,which are on ly 5/s in. thi ck at th e
ankles, exude th e utmost ingrace, and flow smoothly
from th e feet int o th e apronof th e table. Th ese legs give th epiece an unusually high degreeof lift, yet th eir wide sta nceensures except ional stability.Th e cabriole legs th emselvesare rem arkable in th at th eirshape has enough of a cymacur ve to give th e piece a qua lityof bu oyancy. That shape,exceptionally well rend ered infigure d maple, is a carefulbalance between stra ighte rlegs that appear st iff and lifeless
and th ose which have anexaggerated curve.
Th e thin apron , with itsscrolled skirt and delicatelymolded top , reinforces a sense oflightness in th e piece. Th esu rfaces are smooth and withoutembellishment . Th e uncluttereddesign allows th e silhouette ofth e table to be as int eresting asth e table itself, whi ch exemplifies th e era's desire to balanceth e visual int erest of solid formswith th e voids th ey del ineate.
RELATED FORMS
Rectangular tea table designswere favored in th e NewEngland colonies. Am ong th em ,Massachusetts examples showed
some of th e highest levels of
sophist ication in overallproportions and th e integra t ionof th e design as a whole. Th e
high degree of aesthet icrefin em ent is one importantfacto r in attributing th is table toan easte rn Massachusetts origin.Newp ort makers made similartables, but usually with ast raight apro n rath er th an th escrolled design. Th ey also usedth e d istinctive Newport slippe rfoot in th eir tables, and continued th e design with ball and
claw feet into th e thi rd quarterof th e cen tury .
Co nnecticut tables in thisform usually feature a moreelaborate layering of mo ldings,whi ch give th e piece a decidedlydifferent appearance . T heConnect icut versions often lackth e sleek, etherea l qu alities ofwell-executed Massachusettsexamples. More formal versionsof New England tea tables include candle slides on eithe r end.
STRUCTUR AL NOTES
Just as th is is an example ofsimple elegance in design, so it isin construction. Th e rails of th eframe are tenoned int o mo rt ises
in th e legs. Each joint is doublepegged with pegs th at stop flushwith the inside surface. T hescro lled aprons are applied to th eoutside of the frame, and the
scrolled shape is cut into bothth e apron and rail. T he under
side of th is shaping is rough andshows th e marks of chisels andrasps. T he top is two bu tt edboards, about % in. t hick, whichare nailed to th e top of the fram esides . The surrounding mo ldingis one piece, na iled to theoutsi de edge of th e top andmite red at the corne rs.
From th e un derside, thetable looks qui te spartan; thereare no glue blocks, extendedpegs or cross braces , on ly thesecondary surfaces of the top,
rails and legs. Like any virtuoso,th e craftsman who bui lt thistable made it look easy. Oneinteresti ng note is th at the backof one side rail shows the marksof a water-powered reciprocatingsaw blade, indica ting a point ofor igin that was developedenough to support a hardwoodcut ti ng sawmi ll.
QUE E NAN N E 241
T EA TAB LE
EASTERN MASSACHUSETTS . 1730-176 0
Maple andcherry
H25% in. W28Y2in. D21 Y4 in.
Courtesy Hi storic Deerfi eld
242 Q UE E NAN N E
--
SIDE CHAIR
HISTORICAL NOTES
This side chair is attributed to amember of th e Proud family.John Proud (J7I4-1794),Joseph Proud (1711-1769) andWilliam Proud (1720-1 779)
were all chairmakers working inth e Newport and Providencearea. Th e cha ir was sta ined alight-brown color to simulatewalnut, one of th e moredesirable woods of th e period.Others are known to have beenpainted black to simulate th eebonized fini sh of English chairs
made of beech . This chair is oneof a pair from wh at was probablya larger set; it is identical to thosein a set in th e collection of th eSociety for th e Preservation ofNew England Antiquities andone belonging to th e NewportHistori cal Society.
ANALYSIS
Th is example embodies th e
eleme nts of th e Q uee n Annestyle with a simple sophistication . While th ere are moreelaborate examples with curve dcompass seats and carved shellson th e crest rails or knees, thi spiece relies on form and line
244 QUE E NAN N E
without undue orname nta tion.Th e solid shapes and voids arewell balanced, avoid ing eithe r achu nky or spindly app earance.
Th e carefully shaped profil es ofth e back and seat rails invitelookin g through as well as at th echair. The cu rves flow smoothlyfrom one component intoanothe r. Th e front legs areshaped fully round from justbelow th e knee to th e foot,avoid ing th e angular appearanceof squa re-sect ion cabrio le legs.Th e sha pe of th e roun ded kneeis carried up th rou gh th e legblock to th e edge of th e seat .Th e cur ve of th e cabriole leg isrestrained, in keepin g with th equi et refin em ent of th e overalldesign. Th e st retc he rs aredelicate, crisply detailed andvisually int eresting withoutdistracting from th ecomposition. The QueenAnne-era ideals of lightness,grace and balance of solid andvoid are well met.
RE LATED FORMS
Similar chairs made in Bostonat th e same time are nearly
identical, but a closer examination shows that th e RhodeIsland chair is more delicate in
th e splat, legs and turnedstre tc hers. Higher-style chairsfrom both areas added compassseats, carved shells on the crestrail and knees, more elabora telyshaped st iles and splats,voluptuous cabriole legs andsomet imes ball and claw feet .
Philadelphi a versions tend edtoward more elaborate backswith compass seats. Philadelphiacompass seats consist of siderails tenoned int o th e front rail,
with th e front legs joined toth e bottom of th e seat assemblywith a single turned tenon.New York, Newport and Bostonchairs with compass seats werebuilt with th e seat rails tenonedinto th e leg blocks, whi chexte nded to th e top of th e seatand were shaped to follow th e
compass cur ve. Th eir st ructurewas similar to thi s example inth at regard.
STR UCTURAL NOTE S
This chair is of pegged mort iseand-te non const ruct ionth rou ghout, with the exceptio nof th e medial and backst retche rs, which have turnedround tenons fitti ng intocorresponding dr illed holes. Th edr illed holes for the pegged
joints are blind, stopping shor tof exte nding through the rearof the joined pieces. Th e sidestre tc hers are joined to th e frontlegs by a tenon th at is th e fullheight of th e stock from whichit was turned, leaving the backof th e tenon exposed in themortise. Th is is a typical per iodmeth od of joining the stretcherto th e leg.
All th e tenons are cut so asto exten d stra ight from th eircomponen ts, and th ey fit intoangled mortises. The seat-rail
tenons are morti sed into th efront legs and shouldered at thetop so as not to be exposed whenth e seat rabb et is cut into th e topof th e leg block. Th e sma lltenons th at extend from thest iles into th e crest rail areshouldered on th e outside edge,makin g th em hidden from th eou tside, but th e joint is visiblefrom under th e crest rail. Thosejoints are pegged from th e back.Th e sides of the splat have asimp le bevel, and th e back edgesof th e st iles and crest rail featurea continuous chamfer.
QUE E NAN N E 245
Prillate collection
seat\117 V2in. o16V2in.
\141 in. wZW. in. oZOV. in.
RHODE ISLAND. 1735 -1760
Maple andbirch
CARD TABLE
f11fr5'[
b
HISTORICAL NOTES
Card tables are an intriguingblend of pract icality and period
design philosophy. Besides beinga piece intended for a specificpurpose, a card table, like a teatable, was furni ture centra l to asocial activity. As a result, th edesign was required to be functional while incorpora ting theattributes of the finest furnitureof th e day. The Boston card tableshown on pp. 248-249 is important not only for its folding-topform, but also for retainin g itsoriginal needlework top.
A similar example, in theBayou Bend Collectio n,belonged to Peter Faneu il( 1700- 1743),one of Boston's
most successful merchants. Hisownership of such a tabl etestifies to its age and th e social
status associated with a table ofthi s caliber.
ANALY SIS
Th e turreted corners are basedon English examp les of th eperiod and help the fun ction aswell as the aesthetics of thi sdesign. Th e tu rrets allow th efront cabriole legs to be spacedfarther apart, offering moreknee room below th e table(a persistent shor tcoming oflSth-century tables), and give
th e piece a wider and moresta ble appearance. The roundedtur ret shape is cont inued to th eshape of th e tabletop, andprovides ideal places for shallowcandlest ick wells in each of th efour corne rs. These wells, th escooped pockets for countersand th e inset needlework top areout lined by a checkered st ringinlay of alte rna ting black andwhite wood . Th e accordi on-likeactio n of th e side rails in extending th e rear legs gives th e appearance of full-length sides whenth e top is open, a point imp ortant to th e aesthetics of th e pieceand a featu re missing fro mtables with swin ging fly legs.
In total, thi s card tableexhibits th e high and loft ystance of Qu een Anne-eradesign. Th e slende r cabriole legsaccentuate th e vertical aspect ofth e form and support th e tablewith ease. Th e thin table framespans th e legs and minimizesany appeara nce of weight th atmay be associated with th est ructure. Th e shape of th e top,th e turrets, th e molded blocks
abutti ng th e turrets, and th erounded knees of th e legs are th esmooth curved surfaces th at
preclud e th e need for fur therorna mentatio n in Qu eenAnne-style furniture.
RELATED FORMS
Thi s form of card table, wit h afoldi ng top and a hin ged or
folded mechanism to support it,began a long tradition of similarly designed tables th at con t inuedwell int o th e 19th century.There were clear advantages in afun ctional and usefu l table, th etop of which was protected by itsfolding, that could double as anatt ractive side piece when not inuse. Th e form was givenC hippendale-era features in th e
second quarter of the 18thcentu ry, and was brought to ahigh level of development byNew York cabinetmakers, wh ooften added a fifth fly leg. Th etable reached a stylist ic crescendo in th e Federal period since itsform was well suited to th edesign ideals of th at period. Th isstyle of turreted corne r, wh ichwas also used by Philadelphi acabinetmakers, influenced teatabl e design, and a number ofrelated turreted tea tabl es haveBoston and Philadelphi a origins.Th e shape of th e tabletop isth ou ght to have been th e inspirat ion for th e family of RhodeIsland porringer-top tables.
STRUCTU RAL NOTES
Th e front turrets are an integra lpar t of the str ucture of th is piece.Th e front and side rails aretenoned into the tu rned turrets,as are th e cabr iole legs. The kneeblocks are glued to th e underside
of th e tur rets, and th e moldedblocks abutting th e tur rets areglued in place. A pine cross-braceis let into th e rear underside ofth e side rails, where it is nailedin place and dou bles as a backrail and a sup port for th e drawerrunners. The back rail is tenonedint o th e rear legs. The foldi ngside rails are hinged to the frontand back of th e table with a pairof iron hin ges at each joint.
Th e cente r joints, whic h foldinward , are hinged with brasscard-ta ble hinges let into th e topand bott om of th e rails. The top
folds on th e same type of hinge.A total of 14 hinges are used todeploy th e rear legs and un foldth e top . A rota ti ng cleat on theinside of th e back rail locks intoa shallow mortise on th e underside of th e tabletop to lock th est ructure closed. Th e front halfof th e top is attac hed by twoscrews exten ding from pocketsin th e front rail. Th e dovetaileddrawer uses chestn ut as asecondary wood, and th e drawerbottom is nailed in place.
Q UE E NAN N E 247
CARD TABLE
BOSTON,1730-1750
Mahogany; pine, chestnut
H27in. W35% in. o35Ysin.
Co ur tesy
Mu seu", of Fine A rts, Boston
248 QUE EN " NNE
CARD TABLE
II ! ~o
QUEEN ANNE 249
EAS Y C H A I R
HISTORICAL NOTES
Easy chairs came int o use earlyin th e 18th centu ry, and at firstexhibited many qualities ofWilliam and Mary designs. Bythe second quarter of th ecentury, they were imp roved forcomfort and appea rance and
made to incorporate Quee nAnne-era aesthet ics. Th eycon tin ued to be made in th esame mann er with on ly stylist icchanges th rough th e Neoclassicalperiod. Easy chairs were veryexpe nsive in th eir day; th e frameof th e chair represented onlyabout 20%of th e cost of suc h a
piece. Thi s example typifiessouthern New England easychair design and const ruction.A nearly identi cal chair thatretains its original padding andwool worsted upholstery is inth e Brooklyn Mu seum (see th ephoto on p. 25 2).
ANALYSIS
The functio nal requirements ofan easy chair limit its aestheticsqua lities, but th e ideals of th eera are evident nonet heless. The
250 QUE E NAN N E
flowin g cu rves that werefundamental to QueenAnne-period design are workedall th rough th e shape of thi schair. Every edge has a gracefulshape, and th e effect issculptura l. A well-designedQ uee n Anne easy chai r is to beadmired from every angle. Thi sexample includes a compass orballoon-shaped seat in addit ionto th e contours of th e arms,wings and crest rail. Whil e it isdiffi cult to incorporat e th e usua lQ uee n Anne-period ideals ofloft and lightness int o such apiece, th e cabriole legs andst retchers do emphasize acomfortable support of th efram e. In its complexity, th ebase offers an interesting play ofsolid and void that is offset byth e soft grace of th e upholsteredparts. Wh ereas Queen Annecase pieces exhibit a loft y grace,easy chairs exude a relaxed ease.In th eir own way, th ey show th esame elegance, tempered byrestr aint, as other pieces ofth e era.
RELATED FORMS
Easy chairs share manyst ructu ral and stylisticsimilarities with th e side (andarm) chairs of th e period, andare no less sophisticated. A
similar type of joinery and detailwas used on th e legs andst retchers of both chairs, and,given th e usu al regional
differences, th ey are an aid indetermining a probabl e place oforigin. This example has a front(m edial) st retcher with block
ends th at is tenoned into th eside st retchers, a method usedin, but not limited to, Newp ortand Boston. Most easy chairs ofth e period have a stretcher wit hturned tenons that fit intodr illed holes in th e sidest retchers. Such block ends onth e st retcher are usuallyassociated with later
C hippenda le-era chairs. Th oselater chairs, showing th esubdued New England int er
pretation of th e Rococo, arelikely to have st raight front andside seat rails tenoned into th efront leg posts, a serpent ine crestrail, ball and claw feet, and
perhap s carvings on th e knees.Th ese features give th e laterdesigns a crisp, detailed qualitythat is a change from th e relaxedease and invitin g shape of QueenAnne easy chairs.
STRUCTURAL NOTES
Th e frame of th is chair is map le,with th e exceptio n of the highlyvisible front legs and front andside st retchers, which arewalnut. Th e rear legs arecont inuous with th e st iles, andare maple, as is th e turned rearst retcher. Th e rear and side seatrails are tenoned into th e rearlegs. The side seat rails aretenoned into the front seat rail.Both the side and front seat railsare shaped on th e inside andoutside surfaces. Th e front legsare joined by a single largedovetail exte nding into th e frontseat rail. Th ey are reinforced by
large, glued knee blocks. Th eside stretchers are tenoned into
th e front and rear legs like th oseon Queen Ann e side chairs. Th efront stretcher is joined with
QUEEN ANNE 251
EA SY C HA I R
NEW ENGLAND , 1730-1760
Walnut; maple, whitepine
H47 in. W37 in. D25% in.
seatH 12% in. W30% in.(front), 23% in. (rear) D23% in.
Upholstered cha ir:Co urtesy The Brookly n Mu seulII
Frame only:
Co urtesy The M etropolit an Mu seum of A rt
horizontal tenons to th e siderails. Th e crest and lower backrails are tenoned int o th e st iles.(O n other chairs, th e stiles aresomet imes tenoned into th ecrest rail.)
The wing components and
arm supports are tenoned int oth e st iles and seat rails. (Onsome other chairs, th e top of th ewing joins th e st ile in a halflapped dovetail joint .) Th ehorizonta l arm rests are screwedto the vert ical wing st iles andnailed to th e top of th e conical
252 QUE E NAN N E
arm supports . Th e inn er half ofeach conical arm support ismaple, and th e outer half, nailedto th e inner, is white pin e. Allth e mortise-and -tenon joints are
pegged, with th e exception ofth e front and rear seat rails, th ecrest and lower back rails andth e front stretcher.
E A SY C H A I R
QUE ENAN N E 253
254
· -~" .
" I~
CHIPPENDA L E
R EV E R S E-S ERPENTI N ECHEST of DRAWERS
255
B O M B E CHEST of DRAWERS258
S LA N T- F RO N T DESK261
D E S K and BOOKCASE264
R E CTA NG U LA R TEA TABLE270
RO UN D TEA T A BLE2 73
D RO P- L EA F DINING TABLE2 76
A R M C H A I R2 79
REVE RS E-S ERPE NTIN ECHEST of DRAWERS
.i->">:»'~Q [~~
i _ A" '-'" ~
i • I>~~i
~.>~~1fP
HISTORICAL NOTE S
Historic Deerfield's statelyreverse-serpent ine-front chest of
drawers has th e att ributes th atsuggest it was mad e in one of th ebett er Boston cabinetmakingshops.Among the many chestsmade with shaped fronts as partof th e Chippendale aesthet ic,it ranks high in terms of development and sophisticat ion,indicating an urban origin. Italso shows several features ofdesign and construct ion th at are
typical of Boston case pieces.Th e chest has old brasses and a
pleasant , glowing patin a. Th eund erside of th e case has mid20th-eentury restoration work,which is not readily visible.
ANALYSIS
Th e serpentine front, like th ebombe and block-front shapes,was a treatm ent by wh ichcabinetmakers instilledChippendale-era aesthet ics int ocase pieces in th e fourth quarterof th e ]8th century. Stru cturally, thi s chest varies littl e fromth ose th at preceded it, but
aesthetically it is very different.By keepin g th e overhang of th e
top to a minimum, th e makermaintained a solid, rectilinearform and maximi zed th eappearance of th e case width.Overhanging tops tend to reduceth e apparent width and depth ofth e case and cap th e height . Toth is solid mass of th e case, th ereverse-serpent ine front adds aneleme nt of depth. Such curvedfront tr eatments imply mass andincrease th e presence of th e case.Th e cu rved front also yieldspatterning in th e grain of th emahogany th at wouldTIot beseen with a flat fron t. The resultis a rich, deep and visuallyint eresting surface.
Bold polished brasses, alignedalong th e highest and lowestpoints in th e profil e, highlightth e shape of th e front andcontrast with th e rich mahogany.The powerful Boston feet, withswept-back side talons andflattened balls, exude a commanding presence and radiateth e strength required to suppor tsuch a case. Th e combined effectis a powerful expression ofopulence and dignity th at doesnot need to be augmented withcarving or embellishments toachieve its design goals.
RELATED FORM S
Similar chests with serpentinefront s are shaped with th econcave curves at th e drawerpull s and th e convex curve at th ecenter. There is littl e differencebetween th e two, but th ereverse-serpentine shape, withtwo convex curves across thefront, offers a fuller appearanceto th e case and results in anobtuse rath er th an acu te angle atth e front corner. Som e find thi sto be more aesthetically pleasingand more in keepin g with th edesign goals of th e period. Blockfro nt cases br ing th e same focusto th e front su rface and addstro ng vertical lines and anintricacy of det ail to th e facade.
ST RUCTURAL NOTES
The top is joined to th e casesides with slid ing dovetails th atare barefaced on th e outside ofth e case and angled on the innerside . Th e bott om is dovetailed toth e sides with a series of th roughdovetails, th e bottom being thetail piece of th e joints. Themahogany-fronted drawer
dividers, with cockbeads cutfro m th e solid, are joined withshoulde red dovetails to th e case
sides. A thi n (1/ 4in. thick) strip
of wood, with th e vertica lcockbead cut from it, is app lied
to th e fron t edges of th e casesides to conceal th e dovetails.Th e drawer ru nners are nailed toth e case sides. The bottomdrawer slides directly on th ebottom of th e case in the typicalBoston mann er, and th e app liedbase mold ing extends below thecase bott om .
Filler blocks, which have
been replaced in th is piece, areglue d to th e bottom of the caseflu sh with th e bottom of th emold ing. Th e feet, knee blocks,and backing glue blocks areglued to th e base mold ing andunderside of th e filler blocks.Th e case back is nailed intorabbets in th e case sides. Th e
drawer fronts are shaped on theinside to follow th e curve of th eoutside. Th e sides and backshow typical Boston shopdovetailing, whic h is precise andfunct ional with out being overlydelicate or orna menta l. Thedrawer bott oms slide intogrooves in th e drawe r sides and
fron t and are nailed to th edrawer back.
C II I P PE N D ALE 255
R EV E R S E -S E RP E N T I N E
C HES T of D RA WE RS
BOSTON , 1775-1800
Mahogany; white pine
H 32%in. w35Y2 in. D21 in.
casew33Y2in. D19Y2in.
Courtesy Historic Deerfi eld
256 C H I P PE N 0 ALE
REVERSE -S E RPENT I N E
CHEST o!DRAWERS
C H I P PEN DA LE 257
BO MB E C HES T of DR AW ER S
- --_---7I
l
HISTORICAL NOTES
Th e Rhode Island School ofDesign's bornbe chest has a clearprovenance, having descended inthe Dexter family of Boston,Dedh am, and later Providenceuntil it was purchased for thePendleton Collect ion at anauction in 1887. Th e bombeform is un ique to th e Boston andSalem area and was used for deskcases, th e bases of deskbookcases and chests-on-chests,and chests of drawers. Th ematerials, level of skill andamount oflabor required tobuild a bornbe chest limitedth eir ownership to only thewealthiest members of Bostonsociety. Dated pieces span theyears from 1753 to 1782 , theearliest being a desk andbookcase by BenjaminFrothi ngham , Sr. (170 8-1765)now in th e Diplom aticReception Room s in theDepa rtment of State inWashington, D.C. Th eFroth ingham piece predatesChippendale's Director by a year,and th e inspirat ion for it isthought to be impo rted Englishor possibly Dutch pieces.
258 C H I P P E N 0 A LE
ANALYSIS
Though predating and differingfrom th e designs in th e Director,th e Boston bornbe forms expressthe aesthetics of th e era and arean important facet of th eAmerican Chippendal e style. Todescribe this piece as exhibitinga stately presence is an understa tement . The attentioncommanded by the chestexceeds its modest dim ensions.Th e shape of the bornbe sides isexceptionally well formed,flowing smoothly butdramatically from th e top to th ebase. The serpentine front,which is superimposed over th ebornb e shape, results in a richand undulating surface ofcompound cu rves that isamplifi ed by the patterningbrought out from the grain ofselect, luminescent mahogany.Th e shape of the piece and thequalities it draws from th emahogany are so rich andopulent as not to require furtherorna me ntation.
In oppositio n to the moreethereal Qu een Anne-eraaesthet ics, th e bornbe formrevels in its mass and th eexpanses of rich su rface. Th ebulging shape seems to beformed by its own mass. Th eball and claw feet and short
cabriole legs are made to exhibitproudly the mass th ey bear.In th e ultimate tribute toChippendal e-era aesth etics, th eviewer's eye is drawn downwardby thi s form-not upward as inlofti er Queen Anne-era designs.
RELATED FORMS
A bornbe case such as thi s piecewith a serpentine front represents th e highest developm entof th e form . Other bombe pieceswere made with th e swelledshape to th e front but withoutth e serpent ine curves. A few,including th e early Frothinghampiece, were mad e with th e endsof the drawers aligned verti cally,not following the shape of thesides. Like the block-front andserpent ine-fronted pieces of th esame era, the bornbe form was ameth od by whi ch to impartChippendale-era ideals of agrand presence to th e util itarianform of a case of drawers.
STRUC TURAL NOTES
Like other American bornbepieces, th e curved sides of th ischest are shaped from solid 3-in.stock. Th e sides of th e bombechest are dovetailed to th e basewith a series of th rough dovetails, th e sides being th e pinpieces. Th e top is secured to th e
sides with sliding dovetails th atare tapered on th e outer side andbarefaced on th e inner side. Theinterior of th e sides are flatsided between th e drawerdividers, with on ly th e fron tinch or so shaped to follow theouter curve of the side. Thedrawer dividers are dovetailed toth e case sides with miteredcockbeads, cut from th e solid,surrounding each draweropening. Th e drawer runne rs arenailed to th e inside of th e case.In typical Boston fashion, th ebottom drawer rides on th e casebottom, and th e base molding,which is glued and nailed on,extends below th e case. Pineblocks are glued to th e case flushwith th e bottom of th e molding.
Th e feet are tenoned withsquare tenons into mortises inth ese blocks and are reinforcedwith knee blocks andsupplementa l glue blocks. Thecase back is nailed into rabbetsin th e case sides. The drawers aredovetailed in a conventionalmanner with slanted, but notcurved, drawer sides. Because ofth e st raight drawer sides, th ecurved ends of th e drawer frontsoverhang th e sides. Th e drawerbottom slides into groovesin thesides and front and is securedwith glue blocks and nails.
BOSTON. 1760-1785
Mahogany; White pine
H32in. W38 in. 020 in.
COUrtesy A1useU1II ofArt,Rhode Isla nd School of Design
C H I P P E N D AL E 259
r===~-============--"/
SLANT-FRONT DESK
HISTORI CAL NOTES
Yale's slant-fron t desk has awritten record of its ownershipon the sides of th e documentdrawers, th e earliest inscriptionreading "Wm. Butler /September ye 10, 1768."Included are inscriptions byowners in 1830, 1838, 1861 and1874. Both th e first and lastrecorded owners are known tohavebeen residents ofNantucket . It is not th ought tohave been made on Nantucket,however, since th e island is notknown to have had cabinetmakers of thi s caliber.Differences from Boston caseconstruct ion methods may beindicative of a southeasternMassachu setts origin. Thebrasses and hinges have beenreplaced, and th ere are repairs tothe botto m edge of th e lid, topof th e case and drawer fronts.
ANALYSIS
This desk represent s a vernacu larversion of a Chippendale-styleslant-front desk. Th e vastmajority of desks built at thi st ime did not have th e moreexpensive blocked front andwere more like thi s mainstreamAmerican Chippendale example.The form was contin ued fromth e Queen Anne period but th e
Chippendale-era aesthetics wereachieved by ample case width,rich mahogany sur faces, boldbrasses and ball and claw feet .Th e size of th e case and itsstance on well-eurved cabriolelegs denotes mass and weight .Th e richn ess of th e exte rior islimited to its size, th e quality ofthe wood and its finish , and th euse ofla rge brasses.
Th e interior, however, is ofstro nger visual impact . Here, th eviewer is treated to the opulenceof expensive pieces on a smallscale. Th e upper tier of drawersfeatures blocked fronts with fancarvings on th e upper left andright interior drawers and th ecenter prospect door. Th edocument drawers are frontedwith applied half-turnings. Th eopen cente r section providesquick sto rage for often-usedpapers or a ledger book. Th einterior includes all the intricatedetails essential to achieve th eopulent appearance that wassought after at th e time. Inshort, th e overall design has astro ng, but not overpoweringpresence th at addresses th eprevailing aesth etics of th e erafrom th e main stream ofAmerican cabinetmaking.
RELATED FORM S
In th e range of Chippendaleslant-front desks, thi sMassachu setts example is a goodmeasure of th ose in th e center. Itis not an un sophi st icated desk,yet it does not exhibit th edevelopment of a contemporaryexampl e from an urban Bostonshop. It does not have a blockfront case th at would beindicative of th e next higherlevel in taste, skill and price. Theball and claw feet also lack thepower and refinement of urbanexamples. It is, however, moreadvanced than rural examples,wh ich would have eschewed balland claw feet for straight or ogeebracket feet and may have beenbuilt with a smaller case size.Given these points, a subur banorigin or an origin in a lesserurban shop seems likely.
STRUCTURAL NOTES
Th e case of th e desk isdovetailed with half-blinddovetails visible on the case topand th rough dovetails on th ecase bottom. Th e drawerdividers, whi ch are pine facedwith mah ogany, and writingsu rface are joined withshouldered dovetails to th e casesides. As on Boston case pieces, athi n st rip on th e front edge of
th e case sides covers th edovetails. Th e base molding is aprofile typical of Boston casefurniture; it is glued and nailedto th e case. As on Rhode Islandexamples, th e bottom of themolding is flu sh with th ebottom of th e case and th ebottom drawer rides on runnerson the inside of th e case. A fullwidth rail backs up th e basemolding within th e case. Th evertical backboards are nailed toth e case bottom and into rabbetsin the case top and sides. Th efeet are glued to th e case bottomand reinforced by th e kneeblocks and backing glue blocks.No tenon ing of th e feet into th ecase bottom is apparent.
Th e four case drawers haveSfs-in. thick sides and backs,wh ich are finely dovetailed. Th edrawer bottom s slide intogrooves in the sides and frontand are nailed to th e back. Th epartitions of th e desk interiorare let into dadoes in th e insideof th e case. Th e partitions arebutted mah ogany and pine (themahogany exte nds th e first 2 in.or 3 in. of th eir depth). Th edrawers in th e interior are finelydovetailed. Th eir bottom s are letinto rabbets in th e fronts andsides and flu sh with th e back.
C H I I' I' E ND ALE 261
S L A N T-FRO N T DES K
BOSTON AREA , C. 176 8
Mahogany; white pine
H44Y4in. W45 in. 0 22Y4in.
caseW4F1s in. D20Y4 in.
CourtesyYale University Art G allery
262 C H I I' I' E ND ALE
SLANT-FRONT DESK
C H I P PEN 0 ALE 263
HIST ORIC AL NO TE S
This desk and bookcase has ahistory of ownership in th ePotte r family of Kingston, RhodeIsland. It was acquired by Arthu rB. Lisle about 1915 and laterbequeathed to th e mu seum. Ofthe ten related Newport desk
bookcases, none are signed, butthi s one bears th e inscr iptio n"Made by Joh n Godd ard 1761and repaired by Thom asGoddard his son 1813." Th einscript ion was likely written byThomas Godd ard ( 1765- 1858)in 1813, and wh ile it aids in th eatt ribution of th e desk to JohnGoddard (1723- 1785), it alonecannot be conside red to beauthent icat ing. If th e inscriptio nis complete ly accura te, thi s is th eearliest dated piece of Newportblock-front furniture and itstands as an imp ortant referenceby which to measure relatedpieces. It was conserved andrefinished in 1986 at th e Societyfor th e Preservation of NewEngland Antiquities Co nservation Center in Walth am,Massachusett s.
ANALYSI S
To say th at the Newport desk
bookcases embody the aest heticsof the Chippendale era would be
264 C H I P PE N D AL E
a severe understatement. Theyclearly exceed most expressionsof grandeu r of th e period andare quite unlike anythingenvisioned by th e Georgiancabinetmakers of England. Th eblock front with int egrated
shells was inspired by Bostonpieces but was developed to anunparalleled level ofsophist icat ion by the Goddardand Townsend cabinetmakers.The arched pediment, wh ich isquite perfect in its Newportrendition, continues th e QueenAnne period' s tr end for loftyheight . The mass of the piece is
evident in its sheer size, but at97 in. thi s is among th e smallestof th e ten (the largest, now in aprivate collection, is a towerin g113 in. tall). The case depthshould be noted as well; at 26 in .it makes th e base substantial.
Th e su rface tr eatment of th eblocked front with curved-rayshells is integral to th e design ofth e facade. It unifies th e threeplanes of the front and extendsall th e way to th e scrolled volutesof th e feet . Like other shapedfront tr eatments, it confers massand substa nce on th e cases. Th esix shells, each remarkabl e featsof carving in th emselves, are th eepitome of th e rich, carved
sur face. Th e treatment of th efront is enhanced by th erichn ess of select West Indianmahogany.
The period designers usedmass, surface and form toachieve the aesth etic goals of th eperiod and th e Newport desk
bookcases meet and exceed eachpoint. While achieving animpressive dignit y and statelygrandeur through th eir size,design and richness of mat erialand detail, the true genius of th edesigners and builders of th eNewport desk bookcases is ingiving th e pieces th eir regalbearing without th em becomingpond erous .
RELATEO FORMS
The Newport design should benoted as th e apex of both goodtaste and the cabinetmaker's art
in Rhode Island . Other regionsused different designs to achieveth e same goals. Comparablyimpressive Boston and Salempieces featured block-front orbombe bases and upper caseswith panel ed doors andarchitectural elements . InPhiladelphia, th e desk bookcasefollowed more closely th eexamples illustrated in English
design books, especiallyChippendale's Director. Th ere,high chests seemed to be th eobject of choice in which todisplay th e full effect of th ecabinetmaker and carver's art.
STRUCTURAL NOTES
Th e base of th e desk featuressta ndard Newport caseconstruct ion details. Th e top ofth e desk is dovetailed to th e casesides with half-blind dovetailshidden by th e mid-m oldin g. The
case bott om is dovetailed to thesides with through-dovetails.Th e mahogany-fronted drawer
dividers and th e writing surfaceare dovetailed to th e case sideswith should ered dovetails. Th edrawer runners are nailed inplace. Th e cockbead on th ehorizontal elements is cut fromth e solid, but it is inset into arabbet in th e case sides and
mitered to th e cockbead of th edivid ers. Th e side base moldingsare glued and nailed flu sh to th ebottom of the case. Th e frontmoldin g is mit ered to th e sidemoldin gs and joined to th ebottom of th e case in a half-lapjoint. Th e cockbeaded rail belowth e bottom drawer is dovetailedto th e case sides and nailed toth e front base moldin g. Th e feet
D ESK a nd BOOK CASE
NEWPORT, 1761
Mahogany; white pine, redcedar, poplar
H97 in. W45Y. in. 026 in.
lowercase
H37% in. W 41 ~8 in. 023% in. (side)
uppercase
H39% in. (to topof sidemolding)W40 in. 012% in.
C ourtesy MuseulIJ of Art
Rhode Isla nd School of Design
C II I I' I' EN D A LE 265
D ESK a nd BO OK C A SE
are mitered and glued to the casewith glue blocks. Th e case backis nailed into rabbets in th e desktop and sides and overlaps thecase bottom.
The two lower d rawer front sare cut from solid l Vz-in , stock.A liz-in. thi ck panel has beenglued to the interior of th edrawer front behind th e centerconcave blocking to increase itsth ickness. Th e convex blockingof th e top drawer is applied. Th edrawers are dovetailed th roughout and th e drawer bott om isnailed to the sides and back andlet into a groove in th e drawerfront. Running strips are appliedto th e bott om edges. Th e sides ofthe top drawer are inset fromedges of the drawer front toaccommodate the sliding lopers.The drawer sides are let intodadoes or sliding dovetails in th eback of th e drawer front .
The shells of th e lid areapp lied. Th e shell and itsblocking are two separate piecesjoined in a st raight joint justbelow th e shell. Th e interior is astandard Goddardffownsenddesk interior with blockeddrawer fronts and three carvedshells. The drawers are markedwith chiseled Roman numeralson the top edge of th e drawerfronts to mark their position.Th e partitions and drawerdividers of th e interior are letinto dadoes in th e int erior of th ecase. Th e well slides open foraccess to th e top drawer, and ahorizontal rail inside the caseback supports th e memb ers th atframe the well.
266 C II I I' I' EN D ALE
In th e upper case, th e topand bott om panels are half-blind dovetailed to th e sides. Th epedim ent is built up from th etop of th e case with front andback pedim ent boards. Glueblocks support th e sidepedim ent moldings, whichoverlap th e top of th e case byonly 1/ 4 in., a substantialdifference from Townsendfamily const ruction where thetop of th e moldin g is flu sh withth e top of th e case. Th e frontpediment board is dovetailed toth e case sides, and the rearpediment board is glued to th etop of th e case. Th e quart ercolumns are glued to the frontof th e case sides and to an innerfram e from which are hun gth e doors.
Th e interior shelves are letinto th e case sides. Secret,removable panels are let intodadoes in the shelves flu sh withthe inner door frame. Th econvex blocked doors are fram edwith mortise-and-tenon joinery.Th e block and shell of th e doorare two separate pieces, joinedalong th e bott om profile of th eshell and applied to th e doorframe. Th e center door is carvedfrom th e solid. Th e vert icalbackboards are nailed intorabbets in the top and sides ofth e upper case and to th e back ofth e shelves. X-ray photographyhas revealed that the finials, longth ought to have been assembledwith th e urn sect ion upsidedown, were intend ed to look theway th ey do.
UPPER CASE
D ESK a nd BOOKCASE
C fill' I' EN D A LE 267
LOWER CASE
D ESK a nd BO O K C ASE
268 C I-I I P P EN D. ALE
D ESK a nd HO O K C A SE
UPPER·CASE DOOR
,IIIII'I;
III
C II I I' I' E ND i\ L E 269
R E CTANG UL AR T E A TABLE
HISTORICAL NOTES
Th ere are seven knownNewport tea tables of this sty le.Six, including thi s one, are in th estyle of John Godda rd (at leastfour of th ese are authentica tedto him). Th e seventh is in th e
mann er ofJohn Townsend.Th e same design was made withand with out open talon s on th eball and claw feet . Three of th eGodda rd tables and th e oneTownsend example have opentalons.
ANALYSIS
Alth ough thi s table is a veryhigh-style piece, enoughexamples of this form exist toconside r it in th e mainstream oftea-tabl e design in Newportduring th e third quarter of th e18th century . Th e formcontinues many of th e overallproportions of th e New Englandand New port recta ngular teatables of th e Q uee n Anneperiod, but th e designs havebeen upda ted to includeChippenda le-era aesthet ics.
270 C II I I' I' END A LE
Th e mass of the table ismad e more evide nt by th e cymashaped su rface and profil e of th eaprons, a shape that is carriedth rou gh th e top and its molding.Similarly, th e st rong ball and
claw feet appear to bear th eweight of th e piece. Th e carvingof th e feet and knees and th eshap ing of th e aprons and topcreate a rich sur face. Th e squa recorne rs and st raight apro n sideshint at th e increase in rectili nearforms supplant ing cur ved form s,giving thi s design an underlyingst rength and solidity. In total,th e effect is an opulent andstately design with the powerfu lpresence sought after in the eraof th e Chippendale style. Inth e characte rist ic New Englandmanner epito mized by th eNewp ort masters, this isachieved without undue orexcessive orna menta tion.
RELATED FORMS
This specific design is unique toth e Goddard and Town sendcraftsmen of Newport, whoused similar features in th edes ign of a number of relatedcard tables. Like card tables, teatables were cent ral to enter-
taining and socializing, so th eywere subject to a high level ofdevelopment and mad e toembody th e most fashionab letrend s in design . A similaraesthetic goal was expressed indifferent ways in other regions.A number of tu rret-top teatables were made in th e Bostonarea, patterned after a 14-tur rettable of Philadelphia origin.Portsmouth's highest development of th e Chippenda le teatable form is best representedby th e China tables associatedwith Robert Har rold . Th eCo nnect icut area followed th ePhiladelphia preference towardhigh-style, round tea tables, ledby th e stylist ic trend s of th eC hapin schoo l.
STRUCTURAL NOTES
Th e Newport tea table is ofmortise-and-tenon constr uction,with th e aprons tenoned intoth e leg blocks. No pins or pegsare visible from th e ou tside ofth e piece, and th eir presence isnot discernible from insidebecause of th e later add it ion oflarge corner blocks. T he need forth ese corne r blocks suggests th atth e mortise-and-tenon join ts
were originally glued but notpegged. Th e knee blocks areglued and nailed to the legs. Th ethin, half-round bead under thetabletop is a thi n piece ofmahogany applied to the top ofth e frame. The top is dishedfrom the solid and is fastene d inplace with 18 t riangular pineglue blocks. Shr inkage of the tophas resulted in a crack in oneend of the top and the failureof th e glue blocks along oneside. Th e underside of th e topand th e inside of th e apronswere planed with a tooth edplane to increase th e adherence
of glue blocks.
R EC T A N G U L A R TEA TAB LE
NEWPORT,1760 -1775
Mahogany; pine
H26% in. W33% in. (top) D19Y2in.
Co urtesy Rhode Island Historical Society
C H I P I' EN D AL E 271
R EC T A N G U LA R TEA TARLE
272 C I I I I' I' EN D ALE
R O UND T EA TABL E
HISTORICAL NOTES
Th e distin ct ive, downwardflaring turning, sculptura l legs
and characte ristica lly angularball and claw feet of HistoricDeerfield's round tea table are
indicative of th e Chapin schoo lof Connecticut furn iture. Th eChapin school was a smallgroup of shops working in th emanner of Eliphalet Chapin( 1741- 1807), who had trained
in Enfield, Connecticut, and inPhiladelphia. Chapin's Philadelphia tr aining and innate skillas a designer and buildercombined th e sophist ication ofurban design elements andst ructure with th e restra int ofNew England tastes. Th e resultwas a unique, regional school offurniture design with a highlevel of aesthetic and techn icaldevelopment.
Roun d tea tables such as th isDeerfield example first appea redin America durin g th e QueenAnne period in furniture designand were based on English"pillar and claw" or "snap tables"of th e 1730s. T he form reached
its peak of developm ent aftermid-eentu ry with Chippendaleera styling, and includedelaborately shaped pillars, balland claw feet, and dished andshaped tops.
ANALYSIS
This example shows th econt inuatio n of Q ueenAnne-era st ructure with th edetailing in th e Chippenda lestyle. Th e large diameter of th ebase of th e pillar and th e mass of
th e three legs th at radiat e fromit give th e base a solid ity and
st rength not seen in weakerexamples. Th e dramatic,downward tap er of the pillar andth e sta tely cyma-based cu rve ofth e legs draw th e eye downward.Th e legs th emselves, void ofcarving but fully sculptural inth eir shape, terminate inpower ful feet and exude a stro ngpresence. Thi s example hassubst ituted opulently shapedsurfaces for richly carved ones.
Th e bird cage, th e mechanism by which th e top tip s andturns, while intended to befunct ional, also offers a visualbalance to th e complexity of th ebase and serves as a tr ansition to
th e large tab letop. Th e topitself is dished with a delicatemolded edge. Its form is simp lebut its ample size counte rs th evisual complexity of th e base.A smaller top would need tobe more orna te to achieve th e
same balance.
RELATED FORMS
Th e Chapin-schoo l tablerepresents th e cente r of th erange of development for roundtea tables. Such tabl es were th e
predominant form of tea tablein Philadelphia, where, as
important focal pieces, th eywere subject to th e fullcomplement of Rococo carvingand ornament. New England ersopted for rectangular, four-leggedtables for th eir most importanttea tables, but round tea tab lesand related candlestands weresti ll nearly ubiquitou s. As onewould expect , th e New Englandforms are generally more relianton shape than orna men t forth eir appeal.
Th e bird -cage mechanismand th e dished top are significant
features by whi ch to judge bothth e sophist icat ion and price ofth ese tabl es. Th e inclusion of
th e bird cage add ed about 50%to th e price of a table, and th eaddit ion of a dished or tu rnedtop roughly doubl ed it .
STRUCTURA L NOTES
Th e three legs are attached toth e tu rned pillar with largeslidi ng dovetails. They arereinforced wit h a three-lobediron plate nailed to th e base.Th e bird cage consists of fourbaluster-shaped turnings wit hturned tenons con nect ing
upper and lower plates. T hebird cage, wh ich slides over th eshaft of th e pillar, is held inplace by a tap ered wedge th atpasses through th e pillar,holdin g a turned ring againstth e lower plate. Th e top t ilts ontwo pintl es, or pivot pins, th atextend from th e sides of th eupper bird-eage plate into thetwo battens screwed to th eunderside of the tabletop. Abrass catch locks th e top in thehorizontal position.
C III PI' END ALE 273
R O UN D TEA TAB LE
CONNECTICUT RIVER VALLEY, 1770-1800
Cherry
H29 in.
Top36% in. dia.
Co urtesy Historic Deerf ield
274 C H I P PE N D ALE
R O U N D TEA TABLE
.::«..~
C H I P P E N 0 A LE 275
D RO P- L EA F D INING TABLE
,'" ------J./
HI STORICAL NOTES
Drop-l eaf dining tables cameinto wid espread use with th eWilliam and Mary gateleg tabl eslate in th e 17th centu ry. Th eform proved practical inAm erican hom es because of its
ability to seat many people fordining and fold neatly to oneth ird its width wh en not in use.Th e table, made to conform toQu een Ann e-period ideals,d ropped th e frenzi ed base of th eWilliam and Mary designs forth e simple elegance of fourcabriole legs. Two were stationary and two were mad e to swingon a hin ged rail to support th eleaves. Period refinements inapron shapes, edge mo lding, andth e use of ru le joints to con cealth e leaf hin ges were part of th enew styling. The Chippenda leera continued most of th efeatures of th e Qu een Annetables with onlystylist ic changes.
276 C II I I' I' E ND A I. E
,.
ANALYSIS
Th e aestheti cs of dining tablesare severely limited by th eirfun ctional requirem ents, but,nonetheless, th e styling of th etimes is evide nt. Th e cont inuation of th e Qu een Anne style isclear in thi s example. With th eexcept ion of th e ball and clawfeet , th e cabriole legs appearmuch as th ey had previou sly,but with a curve d profile th atexudes more st rength.
The mass of th e piece is mademore evide nt by th e strongerlegs and th e ball and claw feet,both of whi ch com mand more
attention than demure Qu eenAnne legs with pad feet. The feeton thi s example show th e sweptback side talons indi cative ofMassachu setts origins. Th enature of th e frame of th e tablelimits th e amount of orna me ntth at can be included, and here it
is limited to th e aprons on th eend . This exa mple hasint erestingly scrolled kneeblocks, akin to th ose on Salempieces, and a cyrna-curved apro nprofile to enliven th e visibleportion of th e fram e.
RELATED FOR M S
Other drop-leaf tables of th eC hippendale era were built withsquare or rectangular tops, inkeeping with th e increase inrectilinear forms during thi speriod . A variety of st ructura l
details were emp loyed, th e mostrecognizable being th e Iewportmeth od of doveta iling crossbraces to th e fra me, with th reeon th e top and two undern eath .Screws th rough th e top braceswere used to attach th e tabletop .This tabl e is representative ofth e majorit y of tables of th e era,in th at th e top is attached withglue blocks and it has a simple,fun ctional hin ge design andfram e st ructu re.
ST RU CT U RAL NO TE S
Th e rails are join ed to th e legswith mortise-and-tenon joints,
each double-pegged . Th e inn errails are dovet ailed to th e endrails with half-blind dovetails.Th e inn er rails are spaced away
from the hin ged rails with pineblocks, an arrangement thatallows th e square ends of th ehinge to rota te freely. The innerrails arc nailed through th e pineblocks to th e outer rails. Th eknee blocks arc applied over theapron and arc separate from the
swinging legs. Th e top isattac hed to th e frame with glueblocks, and a single cross-braceis screwed to the underside ofth e top.
C II I P P E N 0 A LE 277
M~SS~CHUSETTS . 1750-17BO
MahOgany; maple. pine
1-\ 271/2\n.
ToP47lf2in.dia. 0161
/ 8 in. (closed)
CourtesY Museu'" of ArtRhode Is/;nd School of Design
-
278 c \-I \ \' \' E ND " L E
A R M C H A I R
HISTORICAL NOTE S
A Connect icut Chippendalestyle armchair of th e Chapinschool, the example on p. 280was purchased by FrancisP. Garvan in 1924 from HarryArons of Ansonia, Connect icut,one of the early wholesaledealers of American ant iquefurniture. The Chapin schoolwas a small group of shopsworking in th e manner ofEliphalet Chapin ( 1741- 1807).Chapin had trained as a cabinetmaker in Enfield, Connecticut ,and spent four years trainingin Philadelphia, as well. Heopened a shop in East Windsor,Connect icut, in Inl at th eth en-seasoned age of 30 years.His Philadelphia trainingbrought an infusion of highlevel, Chippendale-era development to th e cent ral Connect icutarea. The shops of th e Chapinschool were th ose of relatives,journeyman cabinetmakerswho had trained with familymembers, and even imit ator swho perpetu ated th e distinctiveChapin style.
ANALYSIS
American Chippendale-stylechairs followed English trend sand were markedly different
from th e earlier Queen Annedesigns. Th ey are one of th e fewChippendale forms thatrepresent ed a sharp departurefrom , rath er than a modifi edcont inuance of, earlier styles.Most noticeable is th e simplecurve in th e profil e of th e back,replacing th e cyma-based shapeof Queen Ann e designs.Also, th e rear stiles are splayedoutwa rd toward th e top, meetingth e crest rail in outward-facingears, rath er than arching inwardtoward th e splat .
Th e Chippendale style shed sth e restraint of th e Queen Annedesign. Whil e th e design cannotexude th e mass of the era's casepieces, it does display anopul ence in its carved features.Th e aesth etics of the periodcalled for bringing a focus to th edetails more than the outline.Th e ball and claw feet, carvedcrest-rail shell, and crest-rail earsare integral to th e design, notsimply added embellishments.Having shed its st retchers, th estance of th e piece is bold andconfident, giving th e chair acommanding presence. Curvedshapes are used exte nsively, butth e design includ es morerectilin ear elements than earlierchairs. Just as case pieces weremade to exude the Chippendale
aesthetic by stressing their massand rich surface, so doChippendale chairs throughth eir solid stance and intricatelycarved or shaped details.
RELA TED FORMS
American Chippendale chairsshow a wide variation in regionalpreferences for carved ornamentand splat design . Those of th eChapin school are among th eAmerican chairs least fett ered bycarved detail. In the Englishtradition, high-style Philadelphiachairs show a preponderance ofcarving on the knees , feet, seatrail, splat, stiles and crest rail.Boston chairs are generally moredelicate, giving more attentionto form than carving, but theytoo often show extensive,th ough restrained, carvin g onth e knees and back. Newportcabinetmakers diverged toexplore th e Chippendale designsof Chinese influence, whichwere of rectilinear form with aminimum of carved ornament.
STRUCTURAL NOTES
Th e seat rails are tenoned intomortises in the front and rearlegs. Th ey are double-pegged onth e back of th e chair on ly and
reinforced with large glue blocksin each corne r. Th e side rails aretenoned through th e rear legsand are flush with the rearsurface. Each through-tenon hasa small wedge at th e top andbottom to lock it into th emortise. Th e meth od ofattachment of th e crest rail toth e st iles is not apparent, butX-ray analysis has ind icated th euse of dowels in blind-drilledholes. Th e splat is curved tofollow the shape of th e stiles andis tenoned into th e crest rail andshoe. Th e shoe is nailed to th erear seat rail.
No pegs are visible, exceptthose on the back that secure th etenons of the rear seat rail. Th earm support is screwed to th efront leg post and side rail withtwo screws from inside th e seatrabbet and one screw from th eoutside of th e support . Th esupport is tenoned into amortise in th e underside of th earm. Th e rear of th e arm issecu red by a screw through th est ile. Th e screws on th e stile andoutside of th e arm support arecounte rsunk and plugged. Th efram e of th e loose seat is ofmortise-and-tenon const ruct ion.
C H I P P E N 0 A LE 279
ARM CHA IR
280 C II I I' I' END ALE
EASi 'NINDSOR. CONNECiICUi . C. 1780
Cherry: white pine
11 40V2in. 'N27\/2 in.
seat11 16V4in. 'N22314in. D18 in.
CourtesyYale University Art Gallery
J
II
C \I \ \' vEND" L E 281
282
HEPPLEWHITE SIDEBOARD283
SHERATON CARD TABLE286
SHIELD-BACK SIDE CHAIR289
HEPPLEWHITE SIDEBOARD
HISTORICAL NOTES
Th e sideboard shown on p. 284has a history of owne rship inMaine and th e Boston area. Itsdesign and details indi cate aneastern New England origin, butits simplicity rules out its havingbeen made in th e major urbanshops of Boston . Th e taperedfeet are often associated with th eNorth Shore or Salem, and giventhe high quality of craftsmanship, such an attribution ispossible. Sideboards were new toth e American furnitu re with th eNeoclassical period, duringwhich th ey combined th e rolesof side tables and bureaus tobecome an import ant piece ofdining-room furniture. As th efocus of attentio n in th e Federaldinin g room, sideboards weresubject to a high level of
developm ent in th eir design andornamenta tion.
ANALYSIS
As import ant case pieces,sideboards usually embody wellth e aesthetics of th e Federal era.Most notable is th e simple
geometric aspect of th e design.Like other case pieces, it isrectilinear in elevat ion, andcurved in plan . Th e piece has aspare and sophist icated appear-
ance unfettered by th e detail ofcarved orna ment or intricateshapes . Th e long, thin, taperedlegs lift th e mass of th e case farabove th e ground. Th e lengthand slimness of th e legs, andth eir resulting small footprint,
minim ize th e visual mass of th epiece. Th e orna me nt is limitedto str ing inlays and smallquart er fans, which highlightth e simple geometric lines ofth e piece. Th e smooth su rfacesare enlivened by a high grade of
mahogany and mahogany crotchveneers, bringing attent ion toth e surface material itself. Th enet result is a des ign of clean andrectilinear elegance with a lightand del icate stance .
RELATED FORM S
Curved-front sideboards of thi s
type are directly related to adesign presented in Hepplewhite's Guide of 1788. Fromthi s sta rt ing point, th e design ofAm erican sideboa rds divergedint o both simpler and moreelabora te designs. Providencecabinetmakers, Th oma s Howard( 1774- 1833) forem ost amo ngth em , developed sma ller, flatfronted sideboa rds with nocu rves except in th e apro npro file. Boston, New York andBalt imore, th e larger urban
cente rs of furniture makin g,produced side boards of imposing length s and complexity.Some of th ese were toursdeforce of Federal cabinetmaking,with great sweeping cur ves andexte nsive and elaborate veneer
ing and inlay.This example isrepresentative of th e mainst ream of very good design andcraftsma nship and is indicativeof an upper middle class client'stastes and price range.
ST RUCT URAL NOTES
The sides and back are join ed toth e legs with mortise-and-tenonjoints, a series of four alon g eachjoint. Th e vertica l int erior casedivid ers are similarly tenonedint o th e front cente r legs andthrough th e back. The tenonsthrough th e back are locked inplace with wedges driven int oth e mortises adjacent to th etenons. Th e tenon s and wedgesare trimmed flu sh with th e case.Th e bottom rails and drawerdivid ers are maple, faced withmah ogany veneer, and doubledtenoned to th e front legs. Th eveneered top rail is dovetail ed to
th e top of th e legs.Th e mortise-and-tenon joints
throughout are glued but notpegged . Th e case bottom is gluedto th e front rails and the joint is
reinforced with glue blocks. It isnailed to th e underside of th ecase back and to nailed-in guidesat th e sides. Th e drawer runnersand guides are nailed to th e casesides and rabbeted to receivedu stb oard s below th e two oute r
top dr awers. A longitudinalcross-piece is dovetailed betweenth e top of th e case back and th efront rail.
Th e top is thin (%-inJbook matched mah ogany, withpin e strips glued around th eperimeter to increase its edgethi ckn ess. Th e edge is veneeredwith a cross-banding and inlaidband . The top is att ached byscrews through th e front railsand from pockets in th e sidesand back. The dr awers and doorfronts are mah ogany veneer overpine with appli ed cockbeading.Th e drawer components arefinely dovetail ed with narrow,closely spaced pins. Th e dr awerbottom s slide into grooves in th efronts and sides and are nailed toth e dr awer backs. Th e lowerright drawer conta ins bottl epartitions let int o dad oes in th edr awer sides and back asillustrated in Hepplewhite'sGuide (see p. 84). Th e doors areveneered over cur ved pinepan els made with breadboardends to minimize warping.
FED ERA L 283
H EPI' L E WHI T E S I D E BO A R D
NORTH SHORE, MASSA CHUSETTS, 1790- 1800
Mahogany; pine, inlays of holly, maple, ebony and walnut
H39% in. W57% in. D24%
caseW56 in, D23Yz in. D(atside) 15Yz in.
Private collection
284 F E [) ER A L
Tenons on endof vertical casedivider are locked in place withopposing wedges.
HEPPLEWH ITE SIDEBOARD
FE D ERA L 285
S H ER AT O N CARD TABLE
HISTORICA L NOTES
This card tabl e is one of a pairon displa y at th e Rhode IslandHistorical Society's John BrownHouse, and bears th e label ofJoseph Rawson and Sons,Providence. Aft er th e
Revolutionary War, Providenceeme rged as a new center ofcomme rce and furnituremaking, since many residents ofNewport had fled during th eBritish occupat ion. JosephRawson and Sons becam e one ofth e leading cabinetmaking firmsin th e city, cate ring to th e needsof an increasingly prosperou s
merchant class and offeringpieces of th e most fashionableNeoclassical designs. Theirwork showed th e same amo u ntof sophist icat ion as th at fromother, more esta blishedfu rn iture-ma king cente rs of th eday, such as Baltim ore, NewYork and Boston .
A nearly identical tabl ebearing th e Rawson label, butmade some two decades later,features th e aprons venee red inbird 's-eye mapl e with paintedbord ers and cent ral floral
286 FED ERA L
designs, reflecting th e increasedpopularity of painted furniturein th e first half of th e 19thcentury.
ANALYSIS
This table illustrates th e use ofrelatively simple lines with boldveneering th at is such aprominent elem ent of th edesign and orname nt in th eFederal styles. Th e front apronand sides have flowingserpent ine shapes , which are
cont inued in th e shape of th etop . In elevation , however, th eshape of th e apron is not as
apparent. Th ere is no othe rshaping of th e apron to distra ctfrom th e purity of th e lines ofth e piece.
Th e Sheraton influence ismanifested in th e slende r turnedlegs, wh ich are reeded overmuch of th eir length , but fluted
for a short length near th e top .Th e legs form turrets on th efront corne rs, which areveneered to becom e an int egralpart of th e apro ns and wh oseshape is cont inued in th e ovolocorne rs of th e top. Th e legs taperdownward to terminate at th efloor with a light footprint. Bykeeping th e apro n long and thin,
and by using wide ly spacedbut delicate legs, th e desiredapp earance of delicacy andlightness with stability wasachieved . Th e level of sop histication is height ened by th e
refin ed detail of th e turned legsand th e ext raordinary effect ofth e veneered front .
RELATED FORMS
By th e end of th e 18th century,travel and comm unicationbetween cities, a proliferati on ofexplicit design books and anincrease in th e number ofmobil e journeyman cabinetmakers were tending to blur th ed istin ctions between th eregional styles of furn iturecente rs and hom ogeni ze mu chof Am erican furniture . Formssimilar to thi s table were madein every sizable city, with onlyminor differences in construction deta ils and decoration todifferentiate th em . With th eincreased specializatio n ofvarious aspects of th e t rade,some parts of th e veneer, likepattern ed st ringing, inlaidpatt ern s or highly figured
panels, were purchased fromlocal in lay makers. In th eabsence of labels or markings,th ese patterns of stringing andinlay are often th e best clues tothe or igin of a piece from thi speriod .
STRUCT URAL NOTES
Th e cu rved front and side
apro ns are veneered over solidpine and are tenoned into th elegs. Th ese joints are not pegged,but inst ead reinforced withlarge, angled pine glue blocks, ameth od commo nly used duringth e Federal period . Th e left rearleg swings on a hardwood rail,whi ch is hinged near th e centerto support th e tabletop when itis fully open. An inn er rail isdovetail ed to th e rear of th e leftside apro n and exte nds acrossth e back to th e right rear leg.Th e swinging fly leg is rabbetedto overlap th e side apron when itis closed, thus concealing anygap between th e leg and apron.Th e top is joined to th e base byscrews exte nd ing at an angleth rough pockets in th e apronsint o th e underside of th e top.Th e top leaf opens on brasshin ges let int o th e sides of th e
top and leaf.
SH ER AT O N C A R D TA B LE
PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND. 1795-1 810
Mahogany; cherry, pine, figured satinwood,holly, and mahogany veneers
H28Y2 in. W37 in. D18in. (closed)
Co urtesy Rhode Island Historical Society
F E D ERA L 287
SHERATON C A R D TABLE
288 FED ERA L
S HI ELD-B ACK S IDE C HA IR
HISTORICAL NOTES
One of a pair of shield-back sidechairs, Rhode Island School ofDesign's example shares manysimilarities in construct ion andornament with other chairsbearing th e label of th e firm ofJohn Carlile (1727- 1796) andSons. It is likely the work of JohnCarlile, Jr. ( 1762 - 1832), one of
six sons, who was act ive in th ebusiness from th e early 1780s.Similar chairs were made byother Providence makers as
well as by craftsmen in Boston ,Salem and Newport. Th e designof thi s chair derives from thos epresent ed in Hepplewhite'sGuide of 1788.
ANALYSIS
Shield-back chairs differ greatlyin appearance fromChippendale-era chairs andembody a different set of designideals. Wh ereas the earlier chairsexhibited a bold, masculin estance, th ose of th e Federalperiod are delicate and composedof thin elements throughout. Inaddition to using tapered legs,the rear legs converge sharply,redu cing th e overall footprint.With th e visual mass reduced to
a minimum, th e design appearstall and light .
Federal-era chairs have morecu rved elements th an otherforms of th e period , but th ey donot include th e cyma-basedreverse curves th at had form edth e basis for Queen Anne andearly Georgian shapes. Moreoften than not, th e cu rves arepart of Neoclassical designelements, in thi s case th e shieldshape of th e chair back. Withth e except ion of th e back, th edesign adh eres to th e Neoclassical scheme of using st raight
st ructu ral members and cur vedfronts. In cont rast to tables and
case pieces, most Federal-erachairs rely on delicate andshallow carved deta il to enhanceth e Neoclassical elements shownin silhouette, in thi s case th ekylix (a shallow bowl on apedestal), swag and plume of th esplat. Th e use of limited carvingstems from th e original designsshown in Heppl ewhite's Guideand Sheraton's Drawing Bookand the fact that veneerin g andinlay work is bett er suited to th eflat surfac es of case pieces.
RELATED FORMS
Thi s chair back is just one of
many popula rized by th e designbooks of th e Neoclassical period.Among th e many Englishdesigns that were published,
some saw wid espread acceptancein th e Am erican market whil eothers did not suit Am erican
tastes. In th e famil y of shieldback chairs, splat designs variedwidely in shape and detail andwere subject to regionalvariations and preferences.
A variation on the shieldback was th e urn back, a RhodeIsland and Connect icut favorit ethat dispensed with th e lowerback rail of th e shield and , likeearlier chairs, extended th ebottom of th e splat to a shoe onth e rear seat rail. Th e wheel backwas another variation of th eshield back, where a roundwheel shape with spokes wassubstituted for the shield.Square-back chairs, consist ingmostly of rectilinear elementsand more closely associated with
th e Sheraton designs, came int owidespread use later in th eNeoclassical period.
STRUCTURAL NOTES
Th e chair is of mortise-andtenon const ruct ion throughout,using thin '/4-in. wide tenons onth e delicate joints of th est retchers and back. Th e rearlegs and st iles are continuousfrom th e floor to th e undersideof th e crest rail. Th e rear
st retcher, rear seat rail, and lowerrail of th e shield are tenoned toth e leg and sti le. Th e top of thest ile is tenoned into the crest railwith a shou lde red tenon . T hesplat is tenoned to th e top andbottom rail of th e shield wit h acont inuous, thin tenon .
Th e side seat rails aretenoned through th e back legs.Co rne r glue blocks have beenadded to th e back inside cornersand are original to th e frontinside corners. The tenoned
joint of th e rear seat rail is theonly joint in th e chair th at is
pegged . Th e front joints areconcealed under uph olstery, butthe presence of large corne r glueblocks suggests th ey are notpegged. Th e st retchers aretenoned to th e legs and th emedial st retcher is tenoned toth e side st retchers. Th eupholstery is tacked over the railon th e front and sides but it isattached to th e top of th e rearseat rail, where th e tacks arecovered by a thin st rip of wood.Above th e seat, th e stiles andrails th at comprise th e shield aresemi-elliptical in cross section.
FED E R i\ l. 289
290 FED ERA L
SHIELD-BA CK SI DE C H A I R
SHI EL D- BAC K S IDE C H A I R
PROBABLY PROVIDEN CE, RHODE ISLAND , 1790-1 810
Mahogany; maple
H 39Yz in. W 21Yz in. D18 in.
seatH 17Yz in.
C ou rtesy M useu III of ArtRh ode lsla nd School of Desigll
FEDERAL 291
All wood, regard less of its age orhow well it has been dri ed in th e past,has a moistu re content th at is inequilibrium with th e humidity of th esurroun d ing air. As th e humiditychanges, th e wood expands orcont racts.
Th e moisture [()lI tent is defined asth e ratio of th e weight of waterpresent in a sample of wood to theweight of th e wood with no waterpresent . Th is can be determined withan electronic moisture meter or byweighin g th e sample before and afte rth orou ghly dr ying it in an oven . Th ecalculat ion is then :
moisture content(wet weight - dr y weight)
dr yweight
A ppe nd ix I
WOOD AND WOOD MOVEMENT
Grain Orientation
Longitudinaldimension
Annulargrowth rings onend grain
Tangentialdimension
WOOD SHRINKAGE
cracks or th e ou t-of-rounddimensions of tu rn ings or circulartops , may be measured and th eoriginal moisture content of th ewood may be determined. Given th espeed wit h which th e moisturecontent of wood reaches equilibriumwith th e su rroun d ing air, most largecracks on origina l pieces likelyoccurred within a year of theircomplet ion.
TANGENTIAL RADIAL
The ever-present moisture contentin wood should not be confused withgreen, or unseasoned , wood. Wh en atree is first cut and sawn into boards,it is fu ll of water in th e form of sap.Most of thi s water is held in th e cellsand pores of th e wood and is knownas f ree wliter. On ce th e tr ee has beencut, the free water begins to evaporate,and eventually the on ly water left inth e wood is that which satura tes th ecell walls. Thi s is known as the f ilJersaturatioll pointand averages 28%moisture content, t hough thi s figurevaries slightly am ong species. Anywood with free water present , andth erefore a moisture conte nt above28%,is conside red green.
Drying the wood is intended tofurther redu ce th e moisture content.As th e wood cont inues to dr y andleave th e cell walls, th e wood, like asponge, changes from damp and softto dr y and hard . As it dri es andhardens, it also shrinks considerably.Th e wood can be only as dryas thesurrounding air, so air-drying ,
outdoors but under cover, will allowth e moisture content to d rop to about14%. Kiln-drying or sto ring th e wood
indoors du ring th e heat ing seasoncan reduce the moisture content to6%o r less.
Even afte r having been thoroughlydried , wood continues to exp and andcontract with changes in humidity.T he amount of thi s movementdep ends on th e orienta tion of th egrain and growt h rings. T heexpansion or cont raction takes placeacross th e grain nearly tw ice as mu chin th e tan gential d irection of th egrowt h rings as in the rad ial dire ct ionacross them. Changes in length arenegligible. The amount of woodmovem ent may be calculated asfollows:
t. D = OS (t.MC / FSP)where t. D is th e change in
dim ension,D is t he origina l dim ension,S is the empirically der ivedshr inkage percentage,t. MC is t he change inmoisture conte nt , andFSP is th e fiber saturationpoint 28%(0 .28)
Due to th e seasonal extre mes ofhumid ity, bare wood can vary from5% to 14% mo isture content fromwin ter to summer, whi ch for hardmaple (S tangent ial = 9.9 %) can meanan annual expansion and cont ract ionof % in. for each foot of width in thetangenti al d irection . Sealing th e woodwith a protecti ve finish reduces th et ran sfer of moisture in and ou t of th ewood, and can reduce the variation ofmoisture conte nt to 7%to 10%,th ereby reducing seasonal movementto I/ S in . (For more detailedinformat ion on wood movemen t seeR. Bruce Hoadley, Understand ing11!r){)d, Th e Tau nto n Press, 1980 .)
T he primary point to rem ember isth at all wood cont inually expandsand contracts with changes in th ehumidity of the su rro unding air. Byknow ing the principles by which itbehaves, its fu ture moveme nt may beantic ipated and calculated withaccuracy. In add itio n, th e shrinkageof or iginal pieces, as evidenced by
WOOD
Ash, white
BirchCherry
Mahogany
Maple, hard
. Maple, soft
Oak, white
Pine, white
Poplar
Walnut
7.8%
9.27.1
5.1
9.9
8.210.5
6.1
8.2
7.8
4.9%
7.23.7
3.7
4.8
4.0
5.6
2.14.6
5.5
293
A ppend ix II
C H R O N O L O G Y OF ILL U STR A T E D P UBL I CAT ION S
(Published in Lond on unl essotherwise noted .)
1688
JO HN STA L KE R & GEORG E PA RK ER
A Treatiseof Japanning and Varnishing(Ox ford)
1711
JE A N LO U I S RER AI N
0 1'11 liredel. BeraillOellllrede1.Bemill colltellmlt desoma melltsd'arcliitectureOmamellts lnuente par1.Beraill (Paris)
1712
DAN IEL M AR O T
Oellllres du Siellr D. MaYOt, A rchitectede Gil ilia II me Ill, Roi de la Gm llgeBretaglleReceuil des Plances des Sieurs MaYOt,pere et f ils (Amsterda m)
1715ANDREA PALLA D IO
FourBooks of A rchiteaure, 4 volumestranslated from th e Ven et ian originalof 1570
1728
JA MES G I RRS
A Book of A rchitecture
1734
JU ST E A U RE LE M E I SSONN IER
Oellllredelus teA,mUe MeissOllllier(Paris)
1737 -1738
JA CQ UES FR A N C OI S RL O ND EL
De la Distribuuon desMaisollS dePlaisance (Paris)
294
1740~IATTH IAS LO CK &
H EN RY CO PELAN D
A NeurDrawing Book of Onltlm ems
1740
RATT Y L A N GLE Y
The City and C Olllltry Builder'sandWorknlllll's Treasury o] Designs,reissued in 1745, 1750, 1756 and1770
1742RAT T Y L A N G L EY
GothicArchitecture Improved by Rillesand Proportions
1742
RATTY & THO~IAS L A N G L EY
A llcielltA rchitecture
1744
JOHN VARDY
SOllie Designs of lnigi:l ones 1IIldWilliam Kent
1744
~IATTH IAS LO CK
Six Sconces
1746
H EN RY CO PELA N D
A NeillBook of Oma mellts, 2nded it ion issued c.1750
1746
MATT H I AS LO C K
A Book of Shields
1746
~IATTH IAS LO CK
Six Tables
1746
~tATTH IAS LO CK
The Principles of Omamellt, or theYouth's Guide to Drawingo] Foliage,reissued in 1768
1750-1752
W:"1. & JO HN HA LFPEi\:NY
NeillDesignsfor Chinese Temples,Garden Seats, etc., published in parts
1751
~IATT H I AS D AR LY
A NeillBookof Chinese, Gothic; andChineseChairs
1752
M ATT H I A S LO C K 8<H EN RY CO PELAND
A Nell' Book of Om{/mellts ioitl:Tuelie Leaves
1753
W IL LlA~1 H O G A RTH
A Il aIysis of Beauty
1754
~IATTHIAS DAR LY &
GEO RGE EDWARDS
A Nell' Book of ChineseDesigns
1754T H O ~I A S C H IP PENDALE
The Gentleman and Cabillel-Maker'sDirector
1755
T HO MAS C H I PPEN DA L E
The Gentleman and Cabillet-Maker'sDirector, 2nd ed ition
1755
T HO~IAS JO H N SO N
Tioelve Girandoles
1756 -1758
THO ~ I A S JO HN SON
0 111' Hundred and Fifly NeillDesigns,published in monthly parts and in1758 as a bound volum e
17 57SI R W I LL IA~I C H A ~I R E RS
Designsfor Chinese BlIildillgsandFurniture
1758
THO~IAS JOH N SO N
Designs for Picture Fra mes
1759-1763W I L L IA M I N C E 8< JO HN MAY H EW
The Universal System of HouseholdFurniture, published in shillingweekly installments
1759 -1762
THO~IAS C H I PPE:-ID A L E
The Gentleman and Cc lnnet-tvtaleer'«Director, pu blished in shilling weeklyinstallments
176 0
SOC I ET Y OF U PH O L ST ERERS A :-IDC A R INET- ~IAK ERS
Household Furniture ill Genteel Taste,Chippendale, [nee &Mayhew, andJoh nson contributed, reissued 1762
C. 1760
RORE RT SAYER
The Ladies'A mllsemelltor \11/10/1' Artof Iapaun ing. millieeasy
176 1
T H OM A S JO HNSON
0111' Hundred and Fifty Nell' Designs,2nd ed it ion
17 62
1'. RARETT I
A Nell' Book of Omamellts011 16Leavesfor the )'t-ar / 762, reissued in1766
176 2
THO~IAS C H H' PEI\ D A LE
TheGentleman WId Cabinet-Mateer'sDirector, 3rd edition
1762
TH OM AS JO HNSON
A New Book of Ornaments
1764
ROBERT ADAM
TheRuinsof the Palaceof the EmperorDiocletianat Spalatro in Dalmatia
1765
J. C RUN DEN
TheCarpenters CompmzionforChineseRailingsand Gates
1765
1. C RUNDEN
TheJoynerand Cabinet-MakersDarling
1765ROB ERT MAN WA RIN G
TheCabinet and Chair-Maker'sRealFriendand Companion
1766
ROBE RT MA NWARI NG
The Chair-Maker'sGuide
1768
MATTH IAS LOCK &
H EN RY CO PE LAN D
A NewBookof Ornaments, Consistingof Tables, Chimnies, Sconces, ClockCases, etc.
176 9
MATTH IAS LOCK &
HENRY COPE LAND
A New Book of Foliage
176 9MATT HIAS LOCK &
H ENRY CO PE LAN D
A New Bookof PierFrames
1773-1778
ROBERT ADA M & JA ~IES A DA ~I
The Works in A rchitecture, publi shedin parts
1777 -1791
MIC HE LE ANG ELO PERG O LESI
Original Designson VariousOrnaments
1779T HOM AS C H I PPENDA LE. J R.
Sketchesof Ornament
1788
A. H EPPLEWHI T E & CO .
The Cabinet-Makerand Upholsterer'sGuide
1788T HO MA S SH EARE R
Designsfor Househould Furniture
1788
THO~I AS SHEA RER .G EO . H EPP LEW HIT E. ET AL.
TheCabinet-Makers'London Book ofPricesand Designsof Cabinet Work
1789
A. H EPPL EWHI T E & CO.
TheCabinet-Makerand Upholsterer'sGuide, 2nd edition
17 9 1- 17 9 4
T HOM AS SH ERATON
The Cobinet-Makerand Upholsterer'sDraunngBook, publi shed in four part s
1793
T HO MAS SHEA RER .GEO . H EPPL EW HI T E. ET AL.
The Cabinet-Makers' London Book ofPricesand Designsof Cabinet VV<>rk,2nd edition
1794A. HEPPL EWHIT E & CO .
The Cabinet-Makerand Upholsterer'sGuide, 3rd edit ion
1800-1835
PIERRE D E LA MESANGE RE
Meubleset ObjetsdeGout, periodical(Paris)
1802T HO MAS SHE RATO N
The Cabinet-Makerand Upholsterer'sDrawing Book, expanded editi on
1802
TheLondon Chair-Makers'andCarvers' Bookof PricesforWorkmmlship, supplement add edin 1808
1803
T HOMA S SHE RATON
TheCabilzet Diaionary
1805TH OM AS SHE RATON
The Cabinet-Maker, UpholstererandGeneralA rtist'sEncyclopaedia,unfinished, part I
1807
TH OM AS H OP E
HouseholdFurniture and InteriorDecoration
1808
GEO RGE SM IT H
A Collection of Designsfor HouseholdFurnitureand InteriorDecoration
1809-1828RUD O LP H AC KE RMAN
Repository of Arts, Literature,Commerce, Manufactures, Fashionsand Politics, periodical
1812
PIERRE F. L. FO NTA IN E &
C HA RLES PER C IE R
RecueildeDecoratiollS Interieures,serialized since 1801, publi shed as abound volume in 1812 (Paris)
1812GEO RGE SM ITH
A Collectionof Ornamental Designsafter the Mannerof theAntique
1812
T HOM AS SHE RATON
Designs for Household Furniture...oneighty-four plates
1820
RIC HA RD BROW N
The Rudimentsof DrawingCabinetand Upholstery Furniture...after themannerof theantique
1826
GEO RG E SMIT H
The Cabinet-Makers'and Upholsterers'Guide, Drawing Bookand Repositoryof New and Original Designs forHousehold Furniture
1828
P, & M. N IC HO LSO N
The PracticalCabinet-Maker,Upholstererand Complete Decorator
A P PE N D I X I I 295
A ppend ix III
PE R I O D VA R N IS H R E SI N S
AMB ER
Any of many var iet ies of fossil resinof vegetabl e origin, min ed or gat he redfro m th e gro u nd. The Baltic region ispar tic u larly rich in ambe r. Amber is ayellow to red-brown fossil resin , very
hard like fossil copa ls. It is solu ble inhot oil aft er havin g been heat ed to high
temperatures to liquefy th e resin .
ANIME
Also called anime or animi . Resin sfro m th e tropical Am eric an tr eeHym en aea cou rbaril and possiblyZanziba r's Tradiylobiunimossambicense. Zanzibar anim i was arare fossilized resin used in dr yin g-oilvarn ishes, solu ble in hot oil only afterhaving been liqu efied. Soft resins by
thi s na me are solub le in alco ho l an dmay have been classified as a varietyof soft copal.
BENZOIN
Also called benjamin. Resin of tr eesof genus Sty rax, especially S. BCllZOill
of Sout heast Asia. A red-brownaro ma t ic balsami c resin wit h avanilla-like odor. Used as a primaryvarn ish resin in th e 17th and 18t hcentu ries and as an additive to reducebrittlen ess in varni shes wit h harderresins. Also mentioned in formulaefor some polishes to impart a highgloss. Soluble in alcoh ol.
296
CO PAL , HARD
Includes Hard Manila copal, Kaurico pal (N ew Zealand ), Belgian Co ngoco pal and Ben guela copal. Fossilresin s from a variety of tr ees ofAfri ca, Australia , New Zealand andSoutheast Asia. Hard copals include awide variety of fossil resins from tre esof d ifferent species. T hey are all veryhard and generally insoluble inalcoh ol or turpentine. They mu st beliqu efied by heating to about 500 ' 1'before becoming solu ble in hot oil.
COPAL , SOFT
Includes Manil a gu m copal, Braziliancopal. Resin s from Southeast Asian
tree Agathis dammara and Am ericansu mac Rhus copallinuniamo ng ot he rs.Soft copals include a number of softresins fro m variou s unrelated trees.As soft resins , th ey can be used inspirit varnishes and are oftenincluded in dr yin g-oil varnishes. Theyare gene rally solu ble in alcoho l andturpentine, th ou gh th e percentage ofsolubility varies am on g types.
DAM MAR
Resin of pin aceou s trees of genus
Dall/lluml and dipterocarpaccou stre es of Sou theast Asia, Au stra lia andNew Zealand. A copal-like resin,hard er th an rosin but softe r t hanmost copals. Very clear as a spiritvarnish . Soluble in spirits ofturpentine, but only 7 1% soluble inalco ho l.
ELEMI
Also called allerny. Resin of gu mbolimbo tr ee C m w riulI/ COll I/IIII/I e orAm eri can burseraceou s tree Bu rsem
siniaruba. Elemi includes soft resinsfrom severa l trees th at were added to
varni shes to counte r th e britt lecharacterist ics of harder resin s.Solub le in alco hol and turpentin e.
MASTIC
Also called pista chi a galls. Resin fromMediterran ean pistacia or lentix treeiPisuuia lentiscusl. Soft pale yellow tolight green, aro mat ic and astringentresin . Makes a clear varn ish and addselast icity and gloss to ot he r resins.Mixed with pigm ent an d boiledlinseed oil to add luster to pain ts.
C hewed as gu m by th e Turkish .Soluble in turpenti ne, 64%solublein alcohol.
ROSIN
Also called coloph ony or turpentine.Resin from th e sap of conifersinclud ing pin e, fir, balsam , spr uceand larch tr ees. Rosin is a translucentyellow to amber, brittle andfragm ented resin left afte r th edi st illation of spirits of turpen tin efrom conifer sap. It is a poor andinexpensive pr imary resin for varni sh ,but helps harder resin s to flow moresmoot hly. In modern usage it isheat ed with glycerin to mak esynt het ic este r resin s. Solubl e in bothalcoho l and turpentine. Differentvarieti es are mad e from variou s
spec ies of tr ee:• C h io turpentine: Mediterran ean
pin es
• Veni ce t urpentine: European larch• Stras bourg t ur pentine: German fir
(llbi/'s excelsa)
• French rosin : mar itime or cluste rpine (Pi ll us II/ari till/a or pi llaster)
SANDARAC
A resin from cypress or juniper-liketree of northwest Africa Tetraclini sart iculata (C,,//itris quadrivalvis), Abrittle, pale yellow aromati c resin;hard est of the soft , spirit-soluble
resins. Makes a colorless spirit varn ishgreatly favored during th e 18t hcentu ry. Also used for incen se.Soluble in alcoho l.
SHELLAC
Excret ion of Ind ian and SoutheastAsian insect s Coccus lacca, Lacciferlacca, Tacliardia lacca or Car ter i"
Iocca on ficus and ot her trees, afte ringestion of th e sap. As deposited onbranches, it conta ins 66% lac resin,th e rest being wax, gluten an d lac dye.
The grades of she llac depend on itslevel of refin em ent. Th e lac resin issolub le on ly in alcoho l.
• Stick lac is as fou nd on branches.• Seed-lac has been scraped fro m
bran ch es an d crushed, with watersoluble dye washed out.
• Button lac is th e least refin edshe llac and is brown in color. Ithas been melt ed and filt eredthrough fabric. Often 10%-20%
rosin has been add ed .• Garnet lac is a da rk amber color
and has had the she llac waxes,whi ch are insolub le in alcoh ol,removed . Som etimes also includes10%- 20% rosin .
• Oran ge she llac is a light ambercolor and has most impurities
rem oved . It is th e best of th eshe llac film fin ishes, as it is moresta ble and elast ic th an all ot hers.
• Blond e shellac has been bleachedto rem ove th e rem aini ng ambercolor.
A ppe nd ix I V
PERIOD C O L O R A N T S
ALKANET ROOT: red
Red dye from th e root of th eEuro pean and American plantAlkanna tinctoria and related plants.Used to color oil and turpentine.
BARBERRY ROOT : yellow
European and American shrub ofgenus Berberis, especially B. vulgnris.Harkand roots yield yellow dye whenboiled in wate r.
BRAZILWOOD : r ed and purpl e
Dyewood from variou s tropical tr eesof genus Caesalpinia, especiallyAmerican C. Echinata and Ind ianC. sappan. Th e sawdust of th eheartwood was an import ant dyestuffin the 17th and 18th centuries. Th ecolor is ext racted from th e du st byboiling in water.
DRAGON 'S BLOOD : re d
A dark red resin from various speciesof th e tropical plant Dracaell(l , orth e fruit of th e Malaysian and EastAfrican palm Daemonoropsdraco.T he resin is soluble in alcohol, butnot in water.
FRENCH BERRIES : yellow
Also called Avignon berr ies. Sma llberri es of prickly shrub of th ebu ckthorn family, Rhamnusinfeaoria, which grows along th enorthe rn Medit er ranean coast. Yielda yellow dye when boiled in water.
IRON LIQUOR: grey-brown to black
A grey-brown, water-based dye stainproduced by soaking rusted ironscraps in wate r with th e add it ion ofacet ic acid (vinegar) and tannic acid(nut galls). Co uld be used inconjunctio n with logwood dye toyield a black color.
LOGWOOD : red
Also called campeachy wood. Den sedyewood from t ropical Indi an andCent ral American tree Haematoxyloncampeachianum. Th e color isext racted from th e du st by boilin g inwater.T he addition of otherche micals can turn th e red to apurple, brown or black.
NUT GALLS : yellow-brown to brown
Nut galls are abnormal growt hs orexcresce nces on plant s caused byinsects, damage, disease or oth erinjuries. Th ey contain concent ratedsap and bark const itue nts. Mostreferences refer to oak nut galls,which are a source of ta nnic acid usedin conjunct ion with other colorants.
OCHRE : yellow to r ed-brown
Any of a class of natural earthpigments composed of silica or claywith hydr ated iron oxides. Usuallyground with linseed oil to producepaint or pigment ed sta in.
ORCHIL : red to purple
Also called archil and orseille. Awater-based dye derived from th eMedit erranean lichen, especially th especies Rocella. It is purpl e in itsnatu ral sta te, but can be turned morered or blu e with alkali tr eatment.
SIENNA : yellow-brown to r ed-brown
A class of natura l earth pigments likeochre with a yellow-brown color.Sienna may be roasted to produ ceburnt sienna and deepen its color to ared-brown . G round with linseed oilto produce paint or pigmented sta in.
TURMERI C: yellow
Aromatic, ground rootl ike ste m ofInd ian plant CurCl/ma longa. Alsoused as a cooking spice to make cu rry.Yields a yellow dye when boiledin water.
UMBER : red -brown to brown
Natural earth pigme nts like ochre andsienna but with ma nganese dioxide.Raw umber is brown , burnt umber isred-brown . Gro und with linseed oilfor paint or pigmented stai n.
VANDYKE BROWN :med ium to dark brow n
Also called Casse l ear th or Co logneearth. An organic brown pigmentder ived fro m peat. Substitutes usered iron oxide and lamp black toachieve th e same color. Usua llyground with linseed oil for paint orpigmented sta in but also used ascolorant for water-based dye.
WALNUT PEELINGS : br own-b lack
The peelings and she lls of walnu ts arecalled for in formulae for blackeboniz ing sta ins. Th ey are boiled inwater with logwood and vinegar,somet imes with a wash of an ironsulfate solut ion to deepen th e color.
297
A ppe ndix V
PERIOD FINISHING FORMULAE
O rigina l methods of making sta insand finishes are nearly as numerousas th e shops th at used th em. Manyhave been published repeatedly, withslight variat ions, since th e late 18thand early 19th centu ries, and th eirt rue orig ins are not clear. Som e of th emore representa tive formulae, usingmaterials th at are known to have beenavailable, are listed here. Specificsou rces are noted , but most of th eseform ulae are amo ng th ose th atap pea red in The Cabinet-Maker'sGuide (Londo n, 180 9), its manysubseque nt editions, and a host ofsimilar gu ide books th at proliferatedinto th e early 20th century. Theseare not int ended to be definitive18th-eentury recipes, since th erewere none th at cou ld be conside redt rue sta ndards, but th ey do representa gene ral description of fini shingfor mul ae th at were used duringth e period .
Ca ution: Any of th ese formulaeth at involve th e use of heat or acids
are excep t iona lly dangerou s to makeor use. Alco hol, spirits of turpentine,linseed oil and th eir vapors are allcom bus ti ble and should never beused near fire or flam e or wit houtadequate ventil ati on. Th e aut hors ofthe 1688 A Treatiseof Japanning andVamis hing warne d:
Some art ists ...scruple not tostra in...varni sh by fire or cand lelight : but ce rtainly day-light ismuc h more proper, and lessdangerous; for shou ld yourvarnish...take fire, valu e not thatloss, bu t rath er th ank your sta rsth at your self and work-hou se haveescape d ....It would almost exciteones pitty, to see [one J peri sh thusin t he beginning of his Ent erprise;...his beginning and his end are ofth e same date; his hopes van ish ,and his mischance sha ll beregistere d in doggre! Ballad, or befr ightfu lly represented in aPu ppet-show or on a Sign-post .
298
Th ese fini shing formulae arepresented for study and are notintended as recipes to be followed;most are quite inferior to th eir
modern counte rparts .
STAIN S
Bro wn Stain :
1 lb. Vandyke bro wn4 qt . water2 oz. potash
Boil th e Vandyke brown in th e wat eruntil th e volume is reduced to 22/ 3 qt.Add just eno ugh water to the pota shto dissolve it and add it to th e reducedliquid. Apply two or three coats with
a brush.
Aqu afortis (nitric acid) is credited
in many books as imp arting a nicebrown color to a variety of wood s.It is mentioned as being used in adilute solution of one part acid to tenparts water, and fu ll strengt h, th oughth at st rengt h in th e 18th cent u ryis un certain.
Red St ain:
2 oz. dra gon's blood1 qt. rectifi ed spirits of wine(alcoh ol)
Break the dr agon' s blood int o sma llpieces and mix with th e spirits ofwine. Allow th e bottle to stand in awarm place and shake occasionallyuntil th e colorant is di ssolved .
8 oz. logw ood ch ips
3 pt . wate r'/2 oz. salt of t artar (potassium
carbonate , a pot ash)Boil the logwood ch ips in water unti la very dark red is obtain ed . Add th esalt of tartar and appl y to th e woodwith a brush while bo iling hot . Twoor three coats wit h drying betweenmay be requ ired .
Bl ac k St ain :
1 lb. logwood ch ips4 qt . water2 handfuls walnut peelin gs1 pt . vinegar
Boil th e logwood in water; add
th e walnut peelin gs and boil it again .Strain ou t th e chips and add th evinegar. App ly th e sta in boilin g hot .Black stain is imp roved by a coat ofI oz. copperas (ferrous su lfate )d issolved in I qt . water, app lied hotafter the logw ood solu tion has dri ed.
I lb. logwood chips4 qt . water2 oz. iron filings1 pint vinegar
Boil the logwood in water, and applyt he liqui d to th e wood three or fourtimes, allowin g it to dr y in between .Dissolve th e iron filin gs in th e vinegar
and apply it to th e wood .
In add it ion to th ese met hods,linseed oil, made to dr y by boilin gand th e addition of lead-oxide dryers,cou ld be colored by adding pigmentssuch as burnt sienna, burnt umber
or Vand yke brown. It cou ld also betinted red with alkanet root. Spirits ofturpentine were add ed to thin the oil.
VARNI SHES
Sand ara c Spirit Varn ishes:
I lb . sandaracI oz. ma stic3 oz. Ven ice turpentine11/ 2 oz. copal
'/2 oz. elerni'/2 oz . benzoinl 'lz oz. animeliz oz. rosin
3 to 6 pt . spir its of wine (alcoh ol)
Th e an ime, benzoin, copal and rosinmust be crushed to a powd er.Dissolve in separate bott les: t he copaland rosin in liz pt . spirits; th e anime,benzoin and Venice turpentine in3/4 pt .; th e sanda rac and mastic in1'/ 2pt ; and th e elem i in 1/ 4 pt . Allow
to d issolve for two or three days,shakin g each occasionally.Strain th econte nts of each bottl e through linenint o a larger bottle. Stalker and Parker,A Treatiseof Japanningand Vamishillg(O xford, 1688)
5 oz. sandarac2 oz. mastic1 oz. elemi1 oz. oil of lavenderI or 2 lb. (pt.) spirits of wine
Dissolve th e ingredients in th e topof a double-boiler, not allowing th ealcohol to boil. Wh en cool, filterth rou gh cotton. Andre-JacquesRoubo, Cart du me11uisier ("The art ofth e joine r," 3 vols., Paris, 1769- 1774)
5 lb. sandaracI lb. mastic4 oz. anirne
2 gal. spirits of wineAdd th e resins to th e alcohol andkeep th e mixt ure in a warm place,shaking occasionally, until th e resinsare dissolved. St rain out anyrema inin g solids. The Cabinet-Maker'sGuide (London, 180 9; Co ncord,
N. H ., 1827l
Seed-Lac Varnish :
1'/2 lb. seed-lac (unrefined shellacresin granu les, wate r-soluble dyewashed out)I gal. spirits of wine
Add th e seed-lac to th e spirits and letsta nd for 24 hours or mor e. Shakeand st rain int o bott les throughflannel, squeez ing ou t all th e liquid.Allow to sta nd undisturbed for twoor th ree days. Pour off th e clear toppart of th e liquid int o anot her bottl e,allow th e rem ainder to sett le for a dayor two, and repeat . Thi s is said to haveclarity, but a "reddish tawny color."(A Treatiseof Japanningandvarnishing. 1688)
She ll -La c Va r n is h :
I '/ 2 lb. shell-lac (shellac resin flakes,which have been melted , filtered,stret ched into sheets, and brokeninto flakes)1gal. spirits of wine
St ir and shake th e ingredientstogether, allow to stand for 24 hours,and strain. T his has little sediment,but lacks clarity. It is described asbeing dull and foggy but commonlyused for varn ishing olive wood andwalnut. Th e authors state,' Whosoever designs a neat , glossypiece of work must banish thi s asunservicable for, and inconsistentwith th e rarit ies of our art: Thi sformu la is ident ical to th at of seed-lacvarn ish, but withou t th e moreelaborate filtering and decantingprocedure. (A Treat ise of Japanningand \'amishi,,1{, 1688)
Copal Sp ir it Va rn ish :
5 oz. copal3 oz. shellac flakesI qt . alcohol
G rind the resins to powder and mixwith alcohol. Bottl e the mixture andput it in a warm place, wit hoccasional shaking until the resins aredissolved .
Tu rpent in e Varnish :
20 oz. rosinI qt. spirits of turpentine
Boil the rosin in th e turpentine for30 minutes; allow to cool beforeusing. (This was also called commonbrown varnish. It was inexpensive,brittle and of poor quality.)
Oil Varnish :
I qt. linseed oil1/ 2 lb. rosin2 oz. spirits of turpentin e
Boil th e linseed oil for an hour andth en add th e rosin, st irring until it isd issolved . Then add th e turpentin e.Upon cooling, st rain the mixture andbott le it for use.
Vern is Martin
(Martin ' s Copal Varnish) :
8 oz. C hio turpentine8 oz. amber, crushed1 lb. copaI,crushed3 pt . 4 oz. spirits of turpentine2 oz. colophony24 oz. oil, linseed , poppy or nutoil, boiled with dr yers added
War m the melt ing pot and melt 4 oz.C hio turpenti ne. Add the 8 oz. ofamber, mix well and leave on th e heatfor 15 minutes. Remove from heat;add the I lb. copal, the remainin g4 oz. Chio turpentine, and 4 oz. ofwarm spirits of turpentin e. Returnth e mixture to the heat for about30 minutes, sti r well and add th e2 oz. colophony while st irring. Keepit on th e heat un til all the solid resinsare dissolved . Boil th e 24 oz. of oiland combine it with th e resins,st irring it with a long st ick. Return itto the heat and bring the who le to aboil again. Remove it from th e heatand add I qt . of hot spirits ofturpentine. Bring this to a boil,remove it from th e heat and add 1 pt .more of hot spirits of turpentin e.(This is the famous dr ying-oil varni shmade by th e Parisian varn ishmakingMartin family and was a mu chsought-afte r formula in its day. Itsounds exceptionally dangerous tomakc.] Genuine Receipt for making theFamous \'emis Martin ..(Paris andDublin, 1776)
True French Polish:
I pt . spirits of wine (alcohol)1/, oz. copal1/, oz. gu m arabic1oz. shellac flakes
C rush the resins and mix them withthe spirits of wine . Place th em in aclosed vessel and keep them near awarm stove, shake occasionally, and intwo or th ree days th e resins will havedissolved . Strain through muslin andkeep tightly corked for use.
Wax Finish :
1 part beeswaxI part spirits of tu rpentin eI part linseed oil
Mix th e ingredien ts with the aid ofheat until well dissolved . Two dram sofalkanet root infused int o th eturpentine will give th e fin ish a redcolor. App ly with a brush or cloth,allow to dr y and buff th e wax film .(Wax was also applied as a paste,shaved and just softened witht urpentine.)
POLISHES
Beeswax Polish :
4 oz. beeswax1 pt. spirits of turpent ine'/ , oz. rosin1 oz. alkanet root
Boil th e tu rpentine with th e alkanetroot to ext ract as mu ch of the color aspossible. Scra pe the beeswax int o apot and add just enough of th eturpentine to mo isten it . Add th erosin and mix. Cover and let stand forsix hours. Apply to the surface, letdr y and buff.
For Spir it ing-Off and Po lis h in g
French Polish :
1pt . alcohol1/, oz. benzoin
'/, oz. shellac4 tsp. poppy oil
Mix th e resins with th e alcohol. Keepthe mixtu re in a warm place, withoccasiona l shaking, unt il all th e resinsare dissolved . Upon cooling, add thepoppy oil, shake well, and it is readyfor use. Apply in a light and quickcircular motion with a cloth justslightly dampened with the polish .
Lins e ed -O il Polish :
'/ 2pt . spirits of turpentine'/ 2pt . boiled linseed oil1/ 2 pt. strong vinegarI to 3 oz. rott enstone (opt ional)
Co mbine th e turpentine, linseed oiland vinegar and shake well. Apply toth e surface, rub well and remove theexcess. Buff later to remove all tracesof oil. Add rotte nsto ne to the mixtureto cut th rough accumulated grimeand wax. Th e linseed oil in thi sform ula will darken wood, so thi spolish should on ly be used on th eintact surfaces of new furniture.
A P PEND IX V 299
GLOSSARY
ANTHEMION
An ornament of flowers or budsarranged in a linear st ring patt ern ;usua lly associated with th eNeoclassical style. Also a rad iat ingpat tern of G reek origin suggest ing ahoneysuckle bu d.
BANDING
SeeCross banding. Feath er banding.
BAND Y LEG
Short cabriole leg used on case piecessuch as chests or desks th at wouldot herwise have bracket feet.
BLOCK FRONT
A design treatm ent for case pieceswhere th e fron t surface is dividedinto three vertica l sect ions; th e oute rtwo are raised forward and th e centersectio n is recessed .
BOMB E:
A case shape in wh ich th e vertica llines of the case side and front areswelled outwa rd; from th e French for"bu lged" or "swelled ."
BOSS
A half tu rn ing, often oval in shape,app lied as a decorat ive surfaceornament; most ofte n used on casepieces of th e Jacobean style.
BOULLEWORK
Intricate marquetry of tort oiseshell,brass, silver, horn , ivory and motherof-pearl as practiced by AndreCharles Boulle (1642- 1732);sometimes buhlucrk,
300
BRACKET FOOT
A foot for case furniture, consist ing oftwo pieces shaped in profile andjoined at right angles, that is affixedto th e corner of th e case below th ebase moldin g.
CABOCHON
A smooth, convex panel , oval orround in shape.
CARTOUCHE
A smooth, flat or convex panelsur rounded by scrolled carving, aswould hold an inscription or init ials.
CARYATI D
A decorative support colum n in th eform of a female figure.
CHINOISERIE
Any of a number of Europ eandecorative techniques in imit ation ofChinese design and ornament.
COCKBEADING
Small ast ragal molding, half-round incross section, used to surrounddrawer fronts or drawer openings.
COMPASS SEAT
A chair seat th at is curve d in plan,with a convex shape at th e frontcorners and across th e front and aconcave shape at th e two sides;somet imes called a balloonorhorseshoeseat.
COVE MOLDING
A concave molding profile; also calleda calJetto molding.
CREST RAIL
Th e uppermost hori zontal rail,usually of a cha ir back; oft en carvedor shaped.
CROSSBANDING
A narrow band of veneer applied toth e edge of a drawer front or surfacein which th e grain of th e veneer isoriented perp endi cular to th e lengthof th e banding. SeealsoFeath erbanding.
CURULE
An ancient Roman chair design withan X-shap ed base, which in itsoriginal form could be folded .
CYMA CURVE
An S-shaped cur ve, sweeping in onedir ection and th en th e opposite.Ori ginally seen in th e moldin gprofiles of classical architecture butada pted as a basis of curved furnitureelements in th e late Baroqu e period .
DUSTBOARD
A horizontal panel built int o a case toseparate one drawer open ing fromth ose above and below it .
DUTCH FOOT
A flat , disclike foot, usually forcabriole legs, most of which is shapedon th e lathe to include a smalldiameter cylindrical pad at th e floor;also called a pad foot .
EBONIZING
Appl ication of black pigment towood to simulate th e appearance ofebony.
FEATHER BANDING
Two narrow band s of veneer appliedto th e edge of a drawer front orsu rface in which th e grain of eachst rip is or iented at 45" to the lengthof the banding and at 90" to eachother. Th e banding has th eappearance of th e structure of a bird'sfeath er. Seealso C rossbanding.
FEATHER EDGE
An edge tapered in thi ckness to apoint or to a thin dim ension .
FORM
A joined bench with rails, stretchersand a flat board for th e top. Anelongated version of s joint stool.
FRENCH FOOT
A thin, tapered foot for case pieces,character ized by a gent le outwa rdcur ve.
FRENCH POLISHING
A meth od for applying a finishwherein a ball of cloth , moistenedwith shellac spirit varnish, is rubbedlightly over th e wood sur face in eithera repeated series of quick passes or ina tight circular motion .
GIRANDO LE
An elaborately ornamented wallhun g mir ror frame, often withcandleholders ; frequen tly of Chineseor Rococo design.
HALLUX
Th e rear digit in the claws of raptorialbird s of prey and the claws of ball andclaw feet.
HUSK AND DROP
A linear inlay of flowers and bud sused in Neoclassical designs.
JAPANNING
An imit at ion of Orienta l lacquerconsist ing of raised gilded figures on ablack or mottl ed background.
JOINT STOOL
A small stool with tu rned legs joinedby rails and stretchers with a flatboard for th e top.
KICKER
A rail within a case positioned above adrawer to prevent the drawer fromtipping downward when opene d.
KLiSMOS
An ancient Greek chair designnotable for tapered curved legssweeping forward and backwardbelow th e seat .
LOPER
A sliding rail th at extends to supporta leaf or lid .
MARLBOROUGH LEG
A stra ight leg, some t imes with amolded shape along its length , oftenending in a square plinth of slightlygreater width .
OGEE FOOT
A bracket foot with a cyme-shape dsurface profi le.
ORMOLU
A gilded bronze decorative mount.
OVOLO
A convex molding profileapproximating a quar ter sect ion ofan ellipse.
PATE RAE
O rna ments in the shape of circles orovals, usually seen in Neoclassicaldesigns.
PATINA
The accumulation of marks,encrustations and grime and adegrada tion of the surface usuallyassociated with great age or use.
PEDIMENT
An arch itectura l term for a peakedfeature atop the cornice mold ing th atis either triangular in shape or bro kenat th e cen ter with st raight or cymashaped segme nts rising on either side .
PEMBROKE TABLE
Any of a number of small d rop-leaftables approx imate ly 3 ft. in lengt hand width whe n open; also called abreakfast table.
PIECRUST TOP
A decorative edge trea tmentpr ima rily used on pedestal tableswhere th e raised molded edge isshaped in a series of connected cymacu rves.
PINTLE
A cylind rical protrusion extendi ngfro m the top block or bird-cage of apedesta l table int o a hole in th ebatten on the unde rside of th e topabo ut which th e top pivots to tilt.
PLINTH
A square or rectangular block, usuallyserving as a base for a leg or a fin ial.
PULVINATED
A slightly convex molding profile,usually used in a frieze; from th eLatin pU/lJiIlUS, or cushio n.
PUMICE
A powdered form of volcanic glassused as a m ild abras ive for rub bingout a fin ish.
ROTTENSTONE
Decom posed siliceous limeston e,usually mo re finely powde red th anpumice, used for polishin g a fini shto a higher luster than that possiblewith pumice.
RULE JOINT
A joint used in d rop-leaf tables wherethe pro file of a qu art er-round andfillet in th e top fit into a cove andfillet in th e leaf, th ereby concea lingth e hin ge and eliminating a gap.
RUNNER
A rail within a case on which a drawerslides.
SERPENTINE FRONT
A shape for th e front of case piecesthat is reverse-eurved in plan, wit hconcave sect ions flanki ng a convexcente r. Reverse-serpentine fron ts haveconvex sectio ns flanking a concavecente r.
SHOE
A hori zontal eleme nt, often with aconcave profile on th e front and sides,th at join s th e vertical splat of a chairwith th e back seat rail.
SLIPPER FOOT
A foot for cabr iole legs that has ateard rop-shaped footprint, beingrou nded at th e heel and poi nted atth e fron t .
SPADE FOOT
A tapered plinth foot, smaller at t hebott om th an th e top , usually used toterminate a square-ta pered leg.
SPANISH FOOT
A brushlike, outward ly swep t footseen in post-Restora tio n fu rn itu rethrough th e William and Maryperiod.
SPLAT
Th e cent ral vertical elem ent of a chairback rising from th e seat or lowercross-rail to th e upper crest rail.
STRINGING
A narrow linea r in layof one or morestr ips of venee r.
TESTER
T he frame of a tall-post bed fromwh ich hangs th e canopy or bedhangings.
Tlp·TOP TABLE
A pedestal table on which the top ishin ged to t ip to th e verti cal position.
TORUS MOLDING
A large convex mo lding, nearlysemicircular in profile.
TR IFID FOOT
A foot of three connected lobes forcabriole legs; also called a drakefoot.
VASIFORM
A form resembling a classical vaseshape, simi lar to an inverted balustershape .
VOLUTE
A spira l or scroll-shaped ornament.
WHORL FOOT
A foot in a spira l, volute form .
G LOS S A RY 301
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B I H L l O G RAP H Y 303
I N D E X
AAb rasives: early, 114, 186Acke rman, Rud olph: Repository of Arts,
l.item ture, Co mmerce,Manu factures,Fashionsand Politics,cited, 105
Adam , Robert: IV,Jrks ill A rchitecture, cited,8 1
Adam (sty le):featu res of, 8 1-82su m ma rized, 109
Affl eck , Thomas: cit ed , 65Afr ica: influen ce of, o n William and Mary,
18Amerinm Furniture: The Federal Period
(Mo ntgo mery): cited, 100Allalysisof Beauty (H ogarth): cited, 35A llciellt An-hitecrure(Langley): cited, 6 1An thcrn ion:
as Adam moti fs, 8 1, 175Seealso In lay: bellfl ower.
An twerp: cabinet-on-sta nd, 17Appren tice system:
and regional varia t ions, 32rise of, 32
Aprons:cabriole, C-5cro lls for, 154cyme-cu rved. 276, 277knee blocks for, 154 -55scro lled, 241, 242shaping, 122 -23
Arch itectural des ign : infl ue nce of, onQueen Anne, 36, 55-57
A rt of Designing and Workillg theOnwlllelltal /\ms of Buildillgs, The:cited, 40
BBaltimore:
as fu rn i tu rL~mak ing cen te r, 87, 99side boa rds in , C hippendale, 28 3sofas, cabriole, Fed era l, 97
Baroq ue:in Chippen da le, 67, 7 1in fl uence of, 17
in chai rs, 24orga nizing prin ci ples of, ana lyzed,
30-32orna ment in, 16 2in Queen Anne, 34-35, 37relaxa tio n of, 34
Barrett, Thomas: in lay from, 99Beading: SeeMold ings.Beds:
Chippendale, 76-77in Chippenda le's Director, 7 1cornices of, Fed eral, 98Federal, 97-98field, She raton, 98[rume-and-pane l, 12Frenc h, 12pencil-post , origins of, 12Queen Anne, development of, 50
304
tall-post ,C hippe ndale, 76Federul. DfQ uee n Anne, 50
testers of, Fed eral, 98turned , early, 12
Ben ch es: See Window seats.Bits, drill : lSth-ccntury, 126Blin, Peter: work by, 14Block fronts: See separate furn iture type .Bornbe: See separate furniture type.Bookof Trades, The:cited, 115Book cases:
in C hippenda le's Director, 64Seealso Desk-bookcases.
Boston :cabriole legs, 154as cha ir-expo rt cente r, 25cha irs,
C hippendale, 279easy, Willi am and Mar y, 25Q uee n Anne, 48side, caned, 24side, leather-u ph olstered, 24-2 5
ches ts-o n-stand, Jacobe an, 18ches ts-of-d rawers,
bo mbt', 258bombe, C hippenda le, 79C h ippe ndale, 67reverse-serpentine, 255-57
C h ippe nda le style in , 65co uc h, William and Mar v, 25as design ce nter, 19 , 33 , 34desk-book cases, 264
block-fronted,7 8Queen Anne, 38
desks,slant-front , 26 1-6 3tambour, Federal, 89William and Mary, 2 1
Director sales in, 65high chests, 23 1
William and Mar y, japanned , 56knee blocks, 155molding, base, 2 13molding-attachment method s in, 146side boa rds,
C hippe nda le, 283Federal, 9 1
tab les,ca rd, Fed eral , 99ca rd, foldi ng-top, 247-49d in ing, d rop-leaf, Willi am an d
Mar y, 23, 221 -23dressin g, Queen Anne, 23 8-40game, 44-45game, fold ing, 47mi xin g, Queen Anne, 44ped estal , cand lesta nd . 9 1pier, Empire, 107
tabl es,tea, 270tea, Queen Anne, 44tea , turret-t op , 7 1work, Sheraton , 9 4
Boulle, Andre-Charles: caree r of, 35Boullework:dis cu ssed , 35Bradshaw, William : cited, 64Bross: in Empire, 105Bright, George: cited , 65Bureau-tables: C h ippenda le, Town send ,
78Bureau s: SeeC hests-of-d rawers,
cC-sc rolls: as transition s, 154Cabinet Dictiollary, The (Sheraton ): cited ,
8 5, 123, 187Cubinet-Maleerand Upholsterer's Guide,
The (Hepplewhite): cited, 80, 83, 87,90, 96, 97, 283, 289
Cab inet-Maleer and Upholsterer's DraunngBlHIk, The (She rato n):cited, 85, 95in fluence of, 88, 90pe rspec tive dra wi ngs in , 205
Cabillet-Maker'sGuide, 71,e: cited, 114,189
Cabillet-Maker, Upholsterer and GeneralArtist's Encyclopedia, The (Sherato n):cited.Bf
Ca bine tma kers:rise of, 32uni on s for, 101
Ca bine ts:in C hippendale's Director,63 , 66st retc he rs of, cross, 17
Cabinets-on-stands: Flem ish, 17C abriole legs: See Legs: cabriolc,Candlestands: See Table s: pedestal,
cand lestand .C aning: in William and Mary peri od , 24Ca rcascs: See Cases.Ca rlile, John, Jr .: sh ield-bac k cha ir by,
289-91C arolean :
defin ed, 18hi stor y of, 8
Ca rving:in Ada m sty le, 8 1applied, 14C-5cro lls, 154C hippenda le, 65, 279 , 278
o n cha irs, 75Dutch , infl ue nce of, 8Em pir e, 103- 104, 107, 108foliage, She rato n, 86Hadl ey, 14-15Jacob ean, 8 , 13, 14, 16 , 28lun ette, 9open work, Baroque-style, 28-29paint for, 15
Q uee n Anne, 38, 41, 43, 48, 49 ,231-32development of,S 5
relief, Jacobean , 28sequence for, 15Sheraton , 88on sofas, 97sunflo wer, 14on tables,
piecrust , 72side, 72
tul ip, 14of volutes, 28waterleaf, Empire, 106 , 107William and Mary, 16, 27, 28-29,
225-26Seealso C reatu res. Fans. Shells.
C aryat ids: See Co lumns.C ases:
for bombe chests, 258C hippenda le, 67crack preve n tion for, 141cu rved-front, 67development of, 137-39Federal, 100Jacobea n-William and Mary
t ransiti on al,21 3knee blocks for, 154-55Newport, 26 4-66Q ueen An ne, 41, 5 1, 67, 228-30,
231- 33,234-37development of, 43
swe ll-fron ted , 67, 77-79, 255-57Adam , 8 1Hepplewhite, 83
Wi lliam and Mar y, 215ana lyzed , 30doveta iled, 26
Seealso Drawers, Moldin gs. Top s.Cey lon: influence of, on William and
Mary, 18C hairs:
arm,bani ster-back, 24, 224-25C hippendale, 279-8 1Loui s XV, 60She rato n, 95shield-bac k, 95upholstered , Federa l, 95, 96
back slats in , 12back splats in , 39Baroque, 17Boston, 24-25cane-back, in print, 16chai r-ta bles, 9chaise, Directo ire, 103C hinese, 35in C hippendale's Director, 63, 66convert ib le, She rato n, 86crest rails of, 24 , 28
C-scroll, 22 4-26Queen Anne vs. C hippenda le, 74
easy, 25Federal, 96frame for, 25 1, 253Q ueen Anne, 49-50 , 250-53
Empire, 103Federal, 95-96in Hope , Household Furniture, 105joinery of, Q uee n Anne, 52ldismos, in flue nce of, 10 3, 106 , 107lollin g, 95Martha Washington, 9 5neoc lassical, 84pedes ta l, Empire, 105Q ueen An ne, 41
design of, 38 -40vs. C hippenda le, 74
with rails and turnings, II , 12roundabo ut , 148in Sherato n's Dmwillg Book, 96side ,
caned, 24C hippendale, 66 , 7 5leath er- up ho lstered, 24-25Qu een Anne, 39 , 48Qu een Ann e, carved, 40Q ueen Anne, development of
48-50Queen Anne, early, 48Q uee n Anne, region al variation s
in , 244scroll-back, Empire, 106shield- back ,288-91shield-bac k, in Heppl ewhite's
Guide, 84, 289splat-bac k, Q ueen An ne, 48-4 9 ,
244--46urn-back, 289
st retc hers for,ball, I2cross, 17turned , 29 , 244, 245, 251
st ruc ture of, Federal, 100turned, IIupholstered, 23-25
or igins of, IIwain scot , 10- 11William and Marv, 23-25
developmen t'of, 24-25wing (see easy)Xbase, Empire, 10 5See <IlsoSeats. Window seats .
C haises: Dircctoir e, 103C hambers, Sir William: Designsfor Chinese
Bllildillgs <IlUI F'lnliture, cited , 60C hamfers: to clean u p edges, 122C hapin, Eliph alet:
ball-and-claw teet, 156-57cited,65high chest by, 68schoo l of, chair fro m, 279-81
C ha rles II:Restorati on of, 7SeealsoCa rolean,
Charles Town (C harleston , SC ): as designcen ter, 34
Chelor, Cesa r: plane by, 11 7C hests :
Baroqu e, 17dovetail influen ce o n, 19frame-a nd-panel,
Hadley, 14-15Jacob ean, 14
C hests-of-d rawers:bases for, neoclassical, 84block-front, C hippendale, 67bornb e, C hippendale, 79, 258-60
bowed-front, Hepplewhite, 87cases for, 139dovet ail influen ce on, 19Fed eral, She rato n, 88hi stor y of, 19-20Q uee n Anne, 228-30
with bracket feet , 41development of, 41-42
serpent ine , 77-78ti me required for, 101See also High chests.
C hests-on-chests:C hippenda le, 68-69
Newpo rt, 69Fed eral, 89
C hes ts-o n-frame:C hippe nda le, 79di sappearan ce of, 69Q uee n Anne, development of, 41,
42 -4 3C hes ts-o n-sta nds:
Jacob ean , 18Seealso H igh ches ts .
C hes ts-over-drawers: wit h mo ldings, ba llteet , 19
C hes ts-wit h-d rawers:beginnings of, 8-9Jacob ean , 8 , 14, 15Jacob ean -William and Mar y
t ran siti on al, 2 12-14C hina :
boo k on, cited, 60cha irs, 35influence of,
on Chippenda le, 60-6 1, 63-64on Queen Anne, 35 , 36, 57on Willi am an d Mar y, 18
legs in , 36Chippenda le, Thomas, Jr. : and Regency,
105C hippendale, Th omas:
Gentleman allli Cabillet-Maker'sDirector,The, cited , 6 1, 6 2, 63 , 64,65,66,7 1,77
import difficulties of, 65Iife of, 6 1per spectiv e drawin gs in, 205sales of, 65workshop of , III
C hippendale (style):bed s, ta ll-post , 76chairs, 279, 279-8 1
arm, 279-81easy, 75side , 58 , 66, 75
chests-of-d rawers, 67block-front , 67bombe, 79, 258rever se-serpentine, 255-57
ches ts-o n-ches ts , 69ches ts-on-fra me , 79C hinese, 63-64 , 74, 76
in Ame rica, 65 , 66desk-bookcases, 69desks, slant-front, 261-63deve lop ment of, 59-66feet , ball-and-claw, 161forms in, rep resen ta t ive, 25 4-8 1French , in Ame rica, 6 5, 77fu rn itu re pieces in, ana lyzed, 66-77Go th ic, 64, 75
in Am erica, 65high ches ts, 68knee blocks, 155
o rna me nt in, 112, 16 2Rococo, 63, 68, 70side boa rds, 283, 283-85sofas, 76st ruc ture of, 77 -79su m ma rized, 109-10swe ll-fronted pieces in , 77-79tabl es,
card,73d ining, 69 -70di ni ng, d rop-l eaf, 73, 276-78d ress ing, 70pedes ta l, piecrust , 72Pembroke, 74side, 72side , pier, 72side, slab, 72tea , 70tea, C hina, 70-7 1turret-top, tea, 7 1
ven eer in, 166C ities: iso lation of, and furniture
development, IIICity mill COlllltry...Treasury of Designs, The
(Lan gley): cited, 57C lass syste m:
development of, 34 , 58-59and furniture tastes, III
C locks: Cases of, time required for, 101Cobb, Jo hn:
cited,64import di fficulties of, 65
Coi t, Job , Jr .: desk-bookcase by, 78Collectionsof Designs for Household
FUnliUITea mi Interior Decoration(Smit h): cited, lOS
Colorants : early, listed , 297Colu m ns:
with human moti fs, 104, 10 5qua rte r, and drawer-runner pro blems ,
144Com modes: in Hepplewhite 's Guide, 83Connect icu t :
ca rving in , Jacobean , 14chairs,
a rm, Jacob ean , IIHepplewhite, 289Queen Anne, 48side , Port er, 53
chest with drawer s, Jacobean-Williamand Mar y transi tio na l, 2 12- 14
chests, Jacobean, 8, 14ches ts-on-frame, C h ippe ndale, 79desk-bookcases, 2 1, 4 3high ches ts , 42
flat-t op , 231- 33Queen Anne, 37
inlay, icicle, 174knee block s, 155seats in , Q ueen Anne, 53tables,
d ining, d rop-l eaf, William andMary, 23
legs of, Willi am an d Mary, 29pedes ta l, bird-cage, 273-7 5tea , 270
Seealso East Windsor .Copela nd , Henry: New Book of a rna ll/eilt S,
A, cited , 59Cornices: high-chests, 123Couc hes :
Q uee n Anne, development of, 50Willi am and Mary, 23, 25
C racks: preventing, with precomprcssion ,14 1
C reatu res: fan ciful, Empire, 10 3-10 4
C ressent , C ha rles: di scu ssed, 35Cromwell, O liver: an d th e arts, 7Cromwe llian (style): cha irs, IICupboards :
o rigins of, 9press , Jacobean , 9
Cu rves:C-s haped scro ll, 29cabriole, Fed eral , 96cyma,
in Boston chai r, 24-25infl uence of, 54o rigin of, 60in ped iments, 43in Q uee n Anne, 34, 35vs. single, 74
Flemish scro ll, 29measuring, 198oval,
as Adam motifs, 8 1for tabletops, 9 1
shaping, 122single, in C hippe ndale chair, 279'
oDavis, Robert: as japanne r, 57Day bed s: See Couc hes.Denmark : tr ade with, 7Denni s, Thomas: carving by, 14Design :
books o n, c ited , 35 , 40,57,59,61importance of, 60, 62-63, 109
C hippendale, books on , 60wit h negat ive space, 34, 37, 38--40
"lift" fro m, 39Designs for ChilleseBuildingsand F'lnritllre,
(Chambers): cited, 60Designsof InigoJones, The (Ken t]: cited, 57Desk-boo kcases:
block-front ed , 78C hippenda le, 69cylinde r, 90Em pire, 108Federal, 89gentle ma n's, Fed eral, 89lad y's, Federal, 89Newport, st ruc tu re of, 264 -66Q uee n Anne, 38, 4 3with sec retary drawers, 89tambour, Federal, 89Wi lliam and Mar y, 2 1
Desks:bureau-cabinet.ZlCases for, 139C hippe nda le, 69neoclassical, 84Q uee n Anne, development of, 43slant-fron t, 21
C hippenda le, 261-63st ruc ture of, 26 1
ti me required for, 101See also Bur eau tables.
Directoire: development of, 10 2- 10 3Dovetails:
angles of, 131and cockbead ing, 142-4 3described, 127-30as desig n influence, 130half-blind , 128-30
ma king, 136-37histor y of, 18 , 19influen ce of, 26Q uee n Anne, 5 1sizes of, 130 , 131
I N [) EX 305
slidi ng, 141-42Federal, 100for top attachme nt, 144-45wed ged , 145
through, 128-29and Willi am and Mar y sty le, 112, lIS
Drawer s:backs of, 132, 133block-front, 79Boston , 238, 240 , 258bottoms of,
by peri od , 131-32Q uee n Anne, 52
bu ilding, 133-37C hippe ndale, 26 1cu rved, coc kbea d ing o n, 67development of, Jacob ean-William
and Mary transitional, 2 13d ivider s for, 141-4 2dove tai led, h istor y of, 18-19d ust boards for, 143-44 ,21 8,220fronts of, 131, 132Jaco bea n, 130lipp ed, 133
Queen An ne, 5 1-52New po rt , 228, 23 0 , 234- 37proportions of, William and Mar y,
30-32Q ueen Anne,
development of, 41, 42 , 43grad uated, 23 1-33
ru nne rs for, 142, 143sec reta ry, Fed eral, 89serpe nt ine, 78side-hu ng, 130
Jacob ean , 13in side boa rds, 85Willi am and Mary, 26-27, 2 15, 218,
220,22 1-23Dyes:
an iline, 188colora nts for, 297defin ed , 188early use of, 187, 188Seealso Stains.
EEast Wind sor (CT):
cha irs, C hippe nda le, 279-81high ches ts , C hippe nda le, 68ta bles, dr essing, C hippe ndale, 70
Ebo nizing : process of, 194 -9 5Em pire (sty le):
Am eri can , 10 5-10 6boo ks influen cin g, 104 , 10 5brass, in 10 5carving , 103- 104 , 107, 10 8
wate rleaf 106 , 107chairs, 10 3
ped estal, lOSside, scroll-bac k, 106X-base, 105
creat u res, fanciful, 103-104desk-book cases, 108developm ent of, 102- 108fabric in, 105gilt, 103-104, 107, 108inlay, b rass, 105Late, development of, 107-10 8mahogany, in 10 4, 108mo ld ings, 108ormo lu, 103, 107orna me nt, 10 3, 104-10 5panel s, fabric in , 105
306 I N D E X
rosewood, in 104 , 10 8sofas, 10 8su m marized , 109tables,
card , 107card, Lannuier, 107card, ped estal , 106pier, 107
ven eer, 108See alsoGreco-Roman Revival.
Regen cy.England:
Ca rolean per iod in , 8C hippe ndale in, 59-60C romwellian period in, 7h igh ches ts, William and Mary, 36influence of, 110Jacobean per iod in, 7-9legs in, Queen Anne, 36-37Queen Anne per iod in, 33, 34, 36-37,
39- 4 1Restoration in, 7, 16Wi lliam and Mary period in , 8 , 16- 17
FFabri c: in Empire, 105Fan s:
carving, 16 3-6 4in laid,238-40origin of, 16 2
Federal (style):bed s, 97-98, 98
corn ices of, 9 8ta ll-post, 98testers of, 98
cases , 100cha irs, 95 -96
arm, upholstered, 9 5, 96easy, 96st ruc t u re of, 100upholstered, 95
ches ts-o f-d rawers, She rato n, 88chests-on-chests , 89cur ves, cabriole, 96de sk-book cases, 89
gen tleman's, 89lad y's, 89tambour, 89
de sks,cylinder, 90tambour, 89
development of, 86 -87dovetai ls, slid ing, 100dra wer s, secreta ry, 89forms in, represen tative, 282 -9 1furniture forms in , 88-98in lay, 9 1, 98 - 100, 112legs,
cyma,9 1cyma-reversed, 9 1
mo ldings, cockbead ing, 100mortise and tenon, 100neocla ssicism in, 80- 8 1orn ame nt, 98- 100 , 162periods of, 87-88rosettes, 98she lls, inlaid , 98side boards , 9 1
development of, 91-92sofas,
cabriole, 97development of, 9 6-97
st ruc tur e in , 100-10 Isu m m arized, 10 9- 10
tabl es,card , 92-93 , 99, 100card , in laid, 99card , sha pes of, 9 2cham be r, 88, 88-89dining, 93-94ped esta l, cand lesta nd , 9 1ped esta l, sty lized, 9 1pede sta l, tip-top, Queen Anne, 46side , pier, 9 1-92work, 94- 95
upholster y, for chairs, 9 5, 96ven eer, 9 1, 100 , 112work shop s, cond it ions in, 100-101Seealso Adam.
Feet :at ta ching, 147
Boston method of, 147ball, 30, 41, 42, 22 1-23
attaching, 147history of, 8, 20
ball-and-claw, 36, 41, 42 , 72, 73 , 75,76Boston, 255 , 256car ving, 157-6 1C hapin, 273, 274d iscu ssed, 66 , 67Massachusetts, 276, 277Newport, 148variat ions in , 156
bra cket, 41, 42, 43 , 67Queen Anne, 51
of cabriole legs,turning, 151variat ion s in, 154
cloven , 36Dutch (see pad)Fren ch, 84, 87agee, 67agee bra cket , 228-3 0pad , 36, 41, 45 , 161, 231-33slippe r, 161, 235spade, 83Spanish , 24, 29 , 225- 26tr ifid , 16 1who rl,36
Festoon s: as Adam motifs, 8 1Files: cu tt ing acti on of, 121, 186Filler s:
applyin g, 187early, 186-87
Fini als:drop ,238,2 39,240, 239Queen Anne, 38 , 4 3, 55of table apron s, 22up side-d own, 266
Fini she s:co lorants for, 297Fren ch polish , 189
recip e for, 299importance of , 185ingred ien ts in , 185oil, early, 189old,
glossa ry for, 186rep licating, 185-86, 188
polishing, 192rubbi ng out , 191-92Wi lliam and Mary, 28
Waxes: usin g, 15Fin ish es:
See also Dyes. Ebon izing. Japanning.Lacqu er. Oi ls. Stain s. Varnish .Waxes.
Fland er s: SeeNetherlands.
Fluting:deri vat ion of, 100inlaid, 175
Fontaine, Pierr e Fran cois Leonard, andC harles Percier : Recueil de DecorationsInterieures, cit ed , 103
Fram e-and-panel:beginnings of, 7-8for ches ts, 139for desks, 139di scu ssed , 137-38Jacob ean, 115ori gins of, 12
France:bureau plat, 35Dir ectoir e, influen ce of, 102-10 3Empire, influence of, 102-104, 107influen ce of,
on C hippendale, 59-60, 79on Queen Anne, 35, 60in turning, 30on Willi am and Mar y, 17, 18
legs in , 36neoclassicism in , 8 2Qu een Anne style, development of,
34-35walnu t of, 40
Frothingham, Benjamin, Jr.: cited, 65Frothingham , Benjamin, Sr.:
bombe ches ts by, 258cited, 65, 79
GGaines famili es: cha irs of, cited, 225Gam es:
popular, 47and Pur itan eth ic, 46, 47
Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker'sDirector,The (Chippendale):crted ,6 1 ,6~6~64,65,6~7 1, 77
perspectiv e dra win gs in, 20 5sales of, 65
Georgian (style):development of, 64, 66Early,
chair in, 40in C hip pe nda le, 74development of , 40venee r in, 166
G ibbons, Grin ling: influen ce of, 16Gilt:
in C hippe ndale, 6 4Empire, 103 - 104, 107, 108
G oddard, John:ba ll-and-claw feet , 156-57cited,65desk by, 264- 69drop-leaf table by, 73tea tab le by, 70
turret-top, 270-72Goddard-Town send:
desk-and-bookcase, 69patterns of, assumed , 207shells, 78
carving, 164 -66Goodi son, Benjamin: cited , 64Gothic revival:
in America, 65influen ce of, on C hippenda le, 6 1, 64
Greco-Roman Revival:Am eri can, development of, 105-108development of, 102
Grendey, Gi les: cited, 64
HHadley UvIA):
carving in, 14Jacobean, 14, 15
chests, Jacobean , 14, 15Hallet , William : cited, 64Hardware:
Ch ippe nda le, vs. Q uee n Ann e, 79dat ing by, 79Eastern influence on, 18
Harrold, Robert:China tea tables by, 70 , 270
Hepplewhite, George: Cabinet·Makera ndUpholsterer'sGuide, The, cited, 80 , 83,87, 90, 96, 97, 283, 289
Hepp lewhit e (style):American , features of, 87chairs, 289
shield-back, 289-9 1side , shield-back, 289 -91
chests-of-drawers, 87bowed-fron t, 87
features of, 83inlay, 87, 172legs, square, 98sideboards,
New England, 28 3-85st ructure of, 283
sofas, cabr iole, 96-97sum marized, 109tables,
card,9 2-93dining, 94dinin g, exten dable, 94Pembroke, 90-9 1Pem broke, inlay on , 175
upholstery, 83veneer, 83, 87window seat , 97
Highboys: SeeHigh chests.High chests:
bo nnet-top, Q uee n Ann e, 234-37cases for, 14Q-41Chippe nda le, 68drawer runners for, 144end of, 88-89flat-top , Qu een Ann e, 23 1-33history of, 20-2 1legs of, turned, 29-3 0mo lding on, 123Queen Ann e, 31, 37, 41
architect ura l,55developm ent of, 42 -43with gilded shells, 54japanned, 56
William and Mary, 20 , 37, 218-20analyzed, 30-3 2Palladian -influ enced , 36veneered, 27
Hogarth , Th om as:A nalysisof Beaury, cited, 35praised cyma cu rve, 35
Holmes, Nathaniel: buys turnings, 177Hope, Th om as:
Household FlImitll ,..,and InteriorDesign, cited, 104, 105
influence of, 104Hosmer, Joseph : high chest by, 55Household FlImitllremid Interior Design
(Hope): cited, 104, 105Howard , Th om as: sideboard s of, 283
India: influence of, on William and Mar y,18
Inlay:in Adam style, 81-8 2banding, 166-67, 170 , 171bellfl ower, 175
distin guishing old from new, 17 5book on, cited, 100brass, Empire, 105development of, 166donk ey for, 174fan,
oval. 172-73quarter, 172round, 173
Federal, 9 1, 98- 100, 112flut es, 17 5Hepplewhit e, 87icicle, 174insert ing, 170, 174vs. ma rquet ry, 167Neoclassical, 86old, d istingui shing fro m new, 172paterae,
cost of, 170production of, 170-72
pric es of, 99production of , 170in Q uee n Anne style, 55sawn, from stac ked veneer, 173-74shading, 172Shera to n, 88str inging, 170 , 171SeealsoBoulleuore. O rmo lu.
JJacobean (style):
Am erican , beginnings of, 8beds, turned 12carving, 8, 13, 14, 15, 16,28
relief,28chairs,
arm, IIarm , Jacobean Brewster, I Iarm , Jacobean Ca rver, I IBrewster, I ICarver, II , 14side, I Iup holstered, 11-12, 12wainscot, 10- 11, 14
chests, 8, 14, 15fram e-and-panel, 14
chests-on-sta nd, 18chests-with-drawers.B, 14, 15
Jacobean-William and Mar yt ransit ional, 212-14
cu pboards, 9press vs. cour t, 9
drawers, 130side-hu ng, 13
ebonizing in, 194English , history of, 6-7fram e-and-panel in, 7-8, 115nails, use of, 13proportions of, 31sta ins, 15stoo ls, 10su mmarized, 110tab les, 9, 10
chamber, 10with drawer, 9
turnings, 9, 10, II , 12, 13
-William and Mar y transi tion , inchest, 2 12-14
Seealso individual furniture forms.Japanning:
book on, 57defined , 186makers of, 57patt erns for, 195, 196process of, 57, 19 5-96Q ueen Anne, 56, 57William and Mary, 57
Jensen , Gerr eit : influence of, 16Joh nson , Th om as: as japanne r, 57Join ers: Jacobean , 12Joints: See Dovetails. Mortise and ten on .
Rule joint.Jones, Inigo: influence of, on William and
Mar y, 36JOllmeylllan Cabinet and Chair Makers'
Nell' YorkBookof Prices:cited, 173
KKent, William:
Designsof /ni/(oJones, The, cited, 57influ en ce of , 40-4 1, 57, 59 , 16 2
Knee blocks:ma kin g, 154-55scrolled, 276, 277styles of, 155
l.an du lIlenuisierebeniste (Roubo): cited,166, 186, 187
LLacqu er: oriental, described, 19 5Lan gley, Batt y: City and COImtry...Treasllry
of Designs, The, cited, 57Langley, Batt y an d Th om as: A nciem
Architectllre, cited , 61Langley, Th om as: engraving by, 40Lannuier, C harles-Ho no re: influen ce of,
107Lath es: early, 177Legs:
ball, earliest Am er ican , 12Baroqu e, 17cabriole, 232, 235, 239 , 240 , 242,
245,248,25 1,252,27 1,277C-scrolls for, 154cases for, 140-4 1developme nt of, 35, 36 -37, 4 1, 4 3knee blocks for, 154-55lift fro m, 39mak ing, 45, 149-54Qu een An ne, 51sho rt, 25 8, 25 9turning, 182-83variat ions in, 154well-mad e, 148-49
cyma,35Federal. 9 1Q uee n Anne, 245
cyrna- reversed, Federal, 9 1flut ed , 81, 286, 287with human mot ifs, 10 4Marlborou gh, 76, 81off-cente r turned , 45ped estal, cyma , 273Q uee n An ne, 48, 49reeded , 286, 287removable, 23 4-37saber, 106-107scrolled, history of, 8Sherato n, 8 5, 86in Sheraton 's Drawing Book, 86square, Hepplewh ite, 98t ru mpet , 30
trumpet -and -cup, 17turned, 88
ball and vase, 30, 36bowl and cup, 30cases for, 140She raton , 98William and Mary, 26, 29-30,
221-2 3William and Mary, d rama of. 31,
37William and Mary, vs. Queen
An ne, 37Seealso Feet.
Lock , Matthias: Nell' Book of Omalllelltwith TueloeLeaves, A, cited, 60
London:populat ion of, 34tables,
Adam , 81Pallad ian, 40
London Bookof Prices: influence of, 87Lou is XV:
chairs, arm , 60in England, 35in France, 35
Lowboys: SeeTables: dr essing.Lumber:
cho ice of, and sawm ill develop men t,11 6
preparation of, Jacobean, 115-16Lyres: as Adam moti fs, 81
MMahogany:
in Ch ippen da le, 64in Empire, 104, 108simu lated, 22 8-30sta in for, early, 187use of, 4Q-41
Map le: in William and Mary, 228Maret , Daniel : influence of, 17Marqu et ry: See Inlay.Mar yland : desks, cylinde r, Federal, 90Mass:
light ening, 38-39Seealso Design: wit h negat ive space.
Massachusett s:beds,
field, Sherato n, 98ta ll-post, Chippenda le, 76
carving in, Jacobean , 14chairs,
arm , Jacobean Brewster, IIarm, Jacobean Carver, IIcrest-rail from, William and Mary,
28Q uee n Anne, 48side , C romwellian, IIupholstered , Federal, 95
chests, Jacobean , 14chests-of-d rawers ,
Heppl ewhit e, 87serpent ine-fro nted, 77Shera ton , 88
cupboard, Jacobean, 9feet , 161
ball-and -claw, 156-57high chests, 37, 218-20 , 23 1
Q uee n An ne, 54, 55William and Mary, 20 , 31
inlay, Hepplewhite, 172Qu een An ne in, 39sofas, squa re, Sheraton , 97
I N D EX 307
stoo ls, Jacobean , 10tables,
d ini ng, d rop-l eaf , 47, 276-78dressing, Q uee n Ann e, 4 3d ressing, Will iam and Mar y, 22Jacobean, 9legs of, Willi am and Mary, 29side, Q uee n Anne, 46tea, William and Mar y, 22
Seealso Bosto n. Hadley. Salem.Mcl nt ire, Sam ue l: ca rving by, on sofa, 97Measured d rawings:
making, 205-206seq ue nce for, 197-98tool s for, 197Seealso Photography.
Mechanicl:Exercises (M oxo n) : cited, 176 ,m
Merchant class: rise of, and taste, 33 -34Moldings:
Adam , 8 1attac h ing , 146cockbcading,
cu rved , 67dovetai l accommodation for,
142-43Feder al, 100
cornice, importance 01',31cove, 30cyma , 30Empire, 108history of, 20maki ng, 123Queen An ne, 5 1, 55, 22 8-30
development of, 42-4 3tea-table, 44
Ren aissan ce in fl ue nce on, 30with scra tc h stoc ks, 123, 14shado w (see scratc h)torus, 30William and Mar y, 26, 27, 2 15
types 01',30Montgom er y, C harles E: Am ericall
Funriture: The FederalPeriod, cite d, 100Mortise and ten on :
co rne r block s su pport ing, 100cross- wedged, 127described, 124-27dra w-bor ed , 126Federal, 100pegged , 12-13, 126-27Queen An ne, 5 1, 5 2, 53 , 54rou nd , 14wed ged , 127William and Mary, 27
Mounts: Set' O rmo lu.Moxon, Joseph: Meclltlllick Exercises, cited,
176, m
NNa ils:
hand-wr ought, 12use of, Jacobean , 13
Neoc lassical (sty le):cha irs, sh ield-back, 286-88su m ma rized, 109turn ings in , 177veneer in , 166, 167and wa r af te rma th, 86Seealso Emp ire. Greco-Rom an Revival.
308 I N 0 EX
Netherlands:carving, infl uence of, 14influen ce of,
through Baroque, 35in carving, 28-2 9in cha irs, 12in cu pboards, 9on Jacobean, 7, 8, 16in turning, 30o n William and Mary, 16 , 18
legs in , 36New Book of Omamellts, A (Copeland ):
cited, 59New Book of Omament with Twelve Leaves,
A (Lock): cited, 60lew England:
bed , turned Jacobean, 12cabriole legs, 154carving in , Jacobean, 14chairs,
arm, banister-ba ck , 24 , 224-25easy, Federal, 96easy, Q uee n Anne, 250-53Queen An ne, 48 , 49
chest-over-d rawers, Will iam and Mary,19
ches t-with- drawer s, Jacobean-Will iamand Mary transit iona l, 2 /2-14
fans in , 162hardwoods in , 12high ches ts , William and Mar y, 27join er y in , Queen Anne, 52sea ts in , Queen Anne, 52 -53side boards, C hippe ndale, 283-85tabl es,
Pembroke, Hepplewhite, 90Q uee n Anne tea, 39tea, bird-cage, 273
Willi am and Mary sty le in , 19New Hampshire:
ches ts-of-d rawe rs,Hepplewhite, 87Sheraton, 88
inla y, Hepplewhite, 172tab les, folding tea , 45See also Po rt smouth .
New Jersey: Dutch influen ce in , 12Newport (R I):
bur eau -ta bles, block-fronted , 78-77cabriole legs, 154case construct ion in , 140-4 1chairs,
C hippendale, 279easy, C hippendale, 75roundabout, 148side, C hippe ndale, 75side, Queen Anne, 39, 49
chests-o f-d rawe rs, 4 1Queen Anne, 22 8-30
ches ts-on-ches ts , C hippenda le, 69ches ts-o n-frame, 42C hippenda le style in, 65as design center, 34desk-bookcases, 264- 69
C hippendale, 69Directorsales in, 65drawer s, 228
bottoms of, 131, 132leet , ball-and-claw, 156 , 157, 160high ches ts ,
bonnet-top , 234 -37C hippendale, 68
joiner y in , Queen Anne, 51she lls, ca rving, 16 4-66
tables,dining, Hepplewhite, 94drop-leaf, Chippendale, 73Pembroke, C hippenda le, 74tea, 45 , 270-72tea, C hippenda le, 70tea, Queen Anne, 44
top-attachment me thod of, 145New York :
cha irs,easy, C hippendale, 75scro ll-back, Duncan Phyfe, 106scroll-bac k, Greco-Roman Revival ,
10 6side, Queen Anne, 49
C hippenda le sty le in, 65as design cen te r, 19 , 34desk-bookcases, Empire, 108Directorsales in , 65Dutch influence in, 12feet, ball-and-claw, 156 , 157, 160growth of, and sty le, 49sideboards in, Chipp endale, 283sofas, Em pire, 108tables,
card , C hippe ndale, 73card , Empi re, 107card , Hepplew hite, 93pedestal , Duncan Phyfe, 106Pembroke, Hepplewhite, 90Will iam and Mar y, 221
Norfolk (VA): chairs, arm, Sher aton , 95No rway: trade wit h, 7
oO ils:
copa l in , 191dr yers for, 191as fin ish , oil, 15lon g-, vs. sho rt-, 191rosin in, 191she llac in, 191tung, 191
O rm olu :di scu ssed, 35Empire, 103 , 107
Ornament:applied, Adam, 86in C hippendale, 112Empire, 103, 104-105Federa l, 98 -100variat ions in , 16 2-66Seealso Fans. Shells.
pPaint : early, 15Pallad ian:
in England, 40influen ce of, 41tabl e in , 40
Palladio, Andrea:influen ce of,
on Queen Anne, 36on William and Mary, 30
Panel s:fabric, in Empire, 105faux, in Adam style, 82painted, in Adam sty le, 82po rcela in, in Adam sty le, 8 2
Paris:cha irs,
arm, Loui s XV, 60Directoire, 103
Paterae:See In lay: pateme.Patin a:
defined , 192 -94grime in , 19 3-94luster of, 192 -93wear in , 193
Patterns:early, 206-207maki ng, 20 6
Pediments:C hippenda le, 68Q uee n Anne, 38, 41, 55, 234-37
arc hed, development of , 43Pennsylvania: feet , 161Philadelphia:
bed s, Federal, 98bureau -cabin et , William and Mar y, 2 1cabriole legs, 154chairs,
C hippendale, 279easy, C hippendale, 7 5Queen Anne, 48side, C hippe ndale, 75side, Jacobean, 11side , Queen Anne, 49upholstered, Jacob ean , 12
C hippe ndale style in, 65as design cen te r, 19 , 34desk-book cases in, 264Director sales in , 65feet , 16 1
ball-and-claw, 156 , 157, 160growt h of, and style, 49high ches ts, C hippe ndale, 68joinery in, Q uee n An ne, 52seats in , Q uee n An ne, 52-53sofas,
C hippendale, 76Quee n An ne, 50
tabl es,card, C hippendale, 73dressing, Willi am and Mary,
215-17side, C hippe nda le, 72tea, 270tea, bird-cage, 273tripod sta nd, 46
Photography:an gles for, 198, 199di stortion in , 198-99scaling from, 198, 199-20 5
Phyfe, Duncan : influence of , 106-107Pilaster s: flu ted , 55Plane s:
cu tt ing act ion of, explained, 118, 119fore , 116-17jack (see fore)jointer, 118low-an gle st rike-b lock, 118manufacture of, 118-19mo ld ing, 123smoot hing, 117SeealsoScraper s. Scratch stocks .
Plinths: Q uee n Anne, 55Polishes:
early, 192recipe for, 299
Porcelain: pan els, in Adam style, 82Portsm outh (NH):
cha irs, side, C hippen dale, 66tabl es,
C hi na tea, 70-7 1tea, 270
Portugal: influen ce of, on William andMar y, 18,29
Proportion s: Willi am and Mar y, ana lyzed ,30-32
Proud family: splat-bac k cha ir by, 244-4 6Provide nce (RI):
chairs, sh ield-back, Hepplewhite,289-9 1
as furniture-makin g cen te r, 87tables, card, Sher aton , 93, 286-88
Pulls: drop, history of, 8Pumice: grades of, 192Puritans: on decor ati on , 15
QQ ueen Anne :
beds,development of, 50tall-post, 50
cabriole legs, 154carv ing, 38, 41, 43, 48 , 49 , 231-32
develop ment of, 55cases, 41, 51, 67, 228-30, 23 1-33,
23 4-37developm ent of, 4 3
chairs, 41, 48, 49design of, 38 -40easy, 49-50, 250-53joinery of,S 2side , 39 , 48, 49side , carved, 40side, development of, 48-50side , early, 4 8side, regional variat ions in, 244side, splat-bac k, 48-49, 244-46splat-bac k, 244-46vs. C hippendale, 74
chests-o f-dr awers, 228-30with bra cket feet, 41development of, 41-4 2
chests-on- frame, development of, 41,42 -43
couc hes, development of, 50cyma cu rve in , 34, 35Decorated (see Georgian, Early.)desk-bookcases, 38, 43desks, development of, 43developm ent of, 39- 41, 41dovetails, 51drawers,
bottom s of, 52developm ent of, 41, 42, 4 3graduated, 23 1-33lipp ed , 51-52
feet, 161bracket , 51
finials, 38 , 43 , 55forms in, representativ e, 227-53hard ware, vs. C hippenda le, 79high chests, 31, 37, 41
arch itec tu ral, 55bonn et-top , 234-37develo pme nt of, 42-4 3flat-top , 23 1-34wit h gilde d she lls, 54japanned, 56
histor y of, 34-50japann ing, on Q uee n Ann e high
chests, 56join ery in, 50 , 5 1, 52knee blocks, 155legs, 36-37, 48, 49
cabr iole,5 1cyma, 245vs. Willi am and Mar y, 37
moldings, 5 1, 55, 228-30development of, 42-4 3tea-tabl e, 44
mor tise and ten on , 51, 52, 53, 54negativ e space in, 37, 38-40 , 23 1, 23 4,
238,241orna ment in, 162pediments, 38, 41, 55 , 234-37
arch ed , development of, 4 3plinths, 55seats in , 52-53
joiner y for, 52-53she lls, 231-32
development of, 55gilded,54
sofas, 50developmen t of, 50
su m ma rized , 109- 10tabl es, 41
card, 46- 47card, folding-top, 247-49developm ent of, 4 3-48dr essin g, 43, 238-40drop-l eaf, 47mi xin g, 44ped estal, 46ped estal, tip-top , 46side, 46tea, 44 , 241-4 3tea, informal, 44 -45tea, square, 39
turnings, 41upholster y, development of, 49-50venee r in, 166, 38walnu t in, 40-41
RRails:
knee blocks for, 154 -55sha ping, 122
Randle, William: as japanner, 57Randolph, Benjamin: cited, 65Rasps:
cutt ing acti on of, 121usin g, 15 2, 153
Rawson , Joseph, and Sons: card tabl e by,93, 286-88
Recueil de Decorat;ons lnterieures (Fontain eand Percier) : cite d, 103
Reeding:deri vati on of, 100Phyfe, 107She rato n, 86 , 100
Regency:developm ent of, 104-105Phyfe in , 106-107English, 104-105
Region al sty le: and apprentices h ip system ,32
Ren aissan ce: infl ue nce of, on moldings, 30Repository of Arts, Literature, Commerce,
Manufaerures, Pashia", and Politics(Ackerman ): cited, 105
Reproducti ons: accurate, ach ieving, 114Resin s:
for fin ishes , early, 296for varnish, 189-90
Restoration : history of, 7Rhod e Island:
beds, t all-post , Queen Anne, 50chairs,
easy, Qu een Anne, 49-50H eppl ewhite, 289splat-back, Queen Anne, 244-46
ches t-w ith-d rawe rs, Jacob ean-Williamand Mar y transiti onal, 2 12-14
high ches ts, 23 1tabl es, tea, 44 -4 5Seealso Newp ort . Providen ce.
Rococo:book on , cited , 60elem ents of, 59-6 1, 63end of, 82Fren ch, 6 3Ge orgian, 63
Rosett es:Federal , 98paterae, as Adam moti fs, 8 1
Rosewood : in Empire, 104, 108Roubo, And re Jacqu es: Cart du me",lis;er
ebeni s te,cite d, 166 , 186, 187Routers: "turning" with, 184Rule joint : di scu ssed, 47-4 8
SSalem (MA):
chairs, arm , sh ield-bac k, 95ches ts-of-d rawe rs, bornbe, 25 8desk-book cases in, 264
Fed eral , 89as fu rn it ure- making cente r, 87as port, 34tables,
cha m ber, Feder al, 88Jacob ean, 10ped est al, candlestand, 9 1
window seat, Hepplewhite, 97Sand paper:
development of, 114early subst itu tes for, 186
Savery, Willi am: cited , 65Sawm ills: development of, 115Saws:
band, invention of, 116circu lar, invention of, 116framed , 122
for venee r, 166pit , 115
marks from, 11 6reciprocating, marks f rom, 116, 241
Scrape rs:acti on of, 119, 120for su rface pr eparation , 120 , 186types of, 119-20SeealsoScratc h stoc ks.
Scratc h stoc ks: uses of, 123Searle, William: carving by, 14Seats:
join ery for, Queen Anne, 5 2-53slip, 49
end of, 96Seealso Upholste ry.
Secretaries: SeeDesk-bookcases.Seddo n, George: wo rks hop of, IIISewall, Sam uel: co rn ice by, 123Seymo ur, John:
tambour desk by, 89wo rk table by, 94
Shellacearly use of, 190producti on of, 190as "varnish: 188SeealsoVarnish .
Shells:applied, 266Boston, 239carving, 164 -66C hippenda le, Town send, 78
developm ent of , 41gilded, Q ueen Anne, 54inlaid , 17 3
Fed eral, 98origin of, 162Q ueen Anne, 23 1-32
developm ent of, 55Shera ton, Th omas:
Cub;llet D;eriollury, The,cited, 85,123,1 87
Ca binet-M aleer and Upholsterer'sDraunngBook, The, cited, 85, 95
Cabinet-lvtalcer, Upholsterer andGeneral Art ist's Ellcyclopedia, The,cited,85
influence of, 88, 90pe rspect ive d rawin gs in, 205
Shera ton (style):Am er ican, features of, 88con vert ible pieces of, 86desks, cylinde r, 90features of, 85peri ods of, 86su m ma rized, 10 9tabl es, card, 286-88
Shipp ing: rise of, and des ign, 19 , 33-34Side boa rds :
Fed eral , development of, 9 1-92H eppl ewh ite, 283-85in Hepplewh ite's Guide, 84-85, 92,
283Smith, George: Collectionsof Designs for
Household Pun liWreand IllteriorDecoration, cited, 10 5
Sofas:cabriole, Hepplewhite, 96-97C hippenda le, 76Em pir e, 10 8Federal, developmen t of, 96-97Q ueen Anne, developm en t of, 50squa re, Shera to n, 97See alsoWindow seats.
Spain:influence of,
in Queen Anne, 35on Willi am and Mar y, 18
Spo keshaves:cutt ing act ion of, 120-21using, 15 2-53
Stains:colorants for, 297defi ned , 188early, 187, 188
reci pes for, 298Jacob ean , 15oil, p igm ented , d isadv ised, 188Seealso Dyes .
Sta lker, Joh n, and George Parker : A Treatiseof Japanningulld \!lIn1ishillg, cited, 57,190 , 19 5, 196
Sta nds: SeeTables: pedestal.Stoo ls: joi nt , 10Su rface preparati on :
lSth-cen tu ry, 114-15for fini sh , 186as gu ide to age, 115by imp ortan ce, 115by planes, 116-19by scrape rs, 11 9-20by spo keshaves, 120-21Seealsoseparate tools.
Swags: as Ad am motifs, 8 1
I N D E X 309
TTab les:
aprons of,finia ls for, 22
and negat ive space, 39breakfast , 48card,
C hippe ndale, 73Empire, Lannuier, 107Fed eral. 92-93Federa l, shapes of. 9 2fo ldin g-top , Queen Ann e, 247-4 9Hepplewhi te, 92-9 3inlaid , Fed eral, 99pedestal, Empire, 10 6Queen An ne, 46-47, 247-49Sheraton, 92, 286-88ti me required for, 10 1Federa l, 100
cha mbe r, 10
Federa l. 88 -89in C hippe nda le's Director, 71console, 46
co nverti ble, She rato n, 86cross-st retc hers for, 74, 2 15- 17dining,
C hippe nda le, 69-70dro p-leaf. bu tt cr fl v 23d rop-leaf, Ch ippe~da le, 73,
276-78
d rop-leaf, gate leg, 23, 221 -23drop-leaf, Q ueen Ann e, 47d rop-leaf. st ructure of. 22 1, 276dr op-leaf. tongue-and-groove jo int
for, 22 1
exten dable, Hepplewhite, 94Federa l, 93-94gate leg, in print, 16t ime required for, 10 1
dr essin g, 164cases for, 140-41C hippenda le, 70drawer runners for, 144end of, 88-89legs of, tu rned , 29 -30Q ueen An ne, 43, 238-40st ructure of, 2 15
William and Mary, 22, 2 15- 17game, 44-4 5
foldin g, 46-47Jacobean, with dr awer, 9leg-and -str etch er, 9- 10legs of, turned, 29mixing, Q ueen Anne, 44with needl ework top , 247-49Palladian, 40pedes ta l,
candlestand, Federa l, 9 1piec rust, C hippe ndale, 72Q ueen Anne, 46roun d tea, 273-75stylized, Federal, 9 1t ip-top , Q ueen Anne, 46
Pembroke,
C h ippendale, 74Hcpplewhit c, 90-9 1icicle in lay on, 174tim e requi red for, 101
pie r,
Empire, 107
in Shera to n's Dral/'illK Book, 85porri nger-topped, 44-45 , 46
310 I N D E X
Queen An ne, 4 1, 43-48rul e joints in, 47-4 8side,
Adam, 8 1
in Hepplewh ite 's GI/ide, 83pier, C hippendale, 72pier, Fede ra l, 9 1-92Q ueen Anne, 46slab, C hippe ndale, 72
st retche rs of, cross, 22tabl e-chairs, 9tea, 22-23
C h ippe ndale, 70C hi ppen da le, C hina, 70-7 1C h ippe ndale, tu rret-top, 71,
270-72fo ldin g, 45
lose prominen ce, 90- 91Q ueen Anne, 44 , 24 1-4 3Q ueen Anne, infor ma l, 44 -45Queen Ann e, square, 39
William and Mary, 29const ruct ion of, 27
wor k,
Federal, 94-95Sheraton , 94
See also Rureau -tables.Teak : co ntra ct ion-expansion rate of, 19 5Tops :
atta ching,
wit h battens, 144, 14 5wit h cleats, 145with glue blocks, 276 , 277in rabbets, 145-4 6with screws, 14 5, 276wit h slid ing dovetails, 144-45
Town send, C hristophe r:high ches t by, 234-37work shop of, III
Townsend, Joh n:
ball-and·c1aw feet , 156-57bureau -tabl e by, 78-77chests-of·d rawers by, 22 8-30chests-on-<:hest by, 69cited,65
table by, Pembroke, 74Treatiseof lapa nning and \{ln lishilll:,A
(Sta lker and Parked : cited, 57, 190 ,19 5, 196
Tufft, Th omas: cited , 6 5Tu rners: as artisans 14Turnin g: '
Baroqu e, 17of cabriole pad , 15 1-52development of. 176-77facepl ate, 18 3-84
cu pping prevent ion for, 184flared t rumpet , 2 18- 19half. 13-14
Jacobean , 9 , 10 , I I, 12, 13of legs, off-center, 45off-center, 182-8 3pattern s for, 178process of, 178-82
.Qucen An ne, 49, 41regional variation s in, 22 1Sheraton, 86spind le, 180-82tools for, 178-79twist, I I, 12
William and Mary, 27, 29-3 0See also Lathes.
UUnderwoo d, John: turner, 177Upholstery:
with brass tacks, 95for chairs, Federal. 95, 96fabric, Will iam and Mar y, 25Hepplewhtn-, 83
leath er, Will iam and Mary, 24origins of, 12
Q ueen Anne, development of, 49-50"Tur key," I I
Urns :
as Ada m motifs, 8 1on candlesta nd, 9 1as containers, 84and pede sta l, in Hepplewhite 's G uide
84 '
up side-down , as finials, 266
vVarni sh:
alco hol for, 189copal for, 190, 191de velopment of. 188-89early,
defined, 188-89recipes for, 298-99
fixed-oiL 190-91ambe r in, 190, 191early, 190-9 1linseed , 190
kinds of, 28
resins fo r, early, 28, 189, 190, 296she llac, 188, 190turpen tin e, 190
Ven eer :
bandings of, 166-67black-dyeing, 194 -9 5cau k lamping, 168, 169devel opment of, 166-67discussed, 28Empir e, 108Federal, 11 2, 91, 100glue for, 168, 169
hammeri ng on , 167-69Heppl ewhi re, 83, 87oyste r, 166
Q ueen Anne, 54-55 , 38Sheraton, 88
sim ulated, William an d Ma ry, 27t rimm ing, 169vacuu m-bag clam ping, 169William and Mar y, 27
Vile, W illiam: cited, 64
""'yaKe dans la Basseet la Halite l'gypte:in flu en ce of. 104
WWalnut: in Q ueen Ann e, 40-41
Walpole, Horace: and Gothic revival, 6 1Waxes:
early,
mixture for, 189recipe for, 299
Jacobean use of. 15Wear: replicat ing, 185William and Mar y (style):
Am erican, beginni ngs of. 8bureau-cab in e-r, 21and Ca rolean pe riod , 8carving, 16, 27, 28-29, 22 5-26cases, 2 15
ana lyzed, 30co nst ruct ion of. 140doveta iled, 26
chairs, 23-25
crest-rail fro m, 28developmen t of, 24-25easy, 25
chest-over-drawers, 19couc hes, 23, 25decorative eleme nts in, 27defin ed, 18desk-bookcases, 21desk s, 2 1
dovet ails in, 18, 112, 11 5, 130drawers, 26-27, 215, 218 , 220, 22 1-23
proport ions of, 30-3 2ebon izing in, 194in England , 8, 16-17feet-attachment meth od in, 147fini shes, 28
for ms in, represent at ive, 211-26high chests, 20 , 2 1, 27, 31, 36, 37,
218-20
an alyzed, 30-3 2japa nned , 55 , 56Palladia n-infl uenced, 36venee red , 27
history of, 16-18in America, 19-32
-Jaco bean t ransit ion, in chest, 212-14japa nning, 57legs, 26
drama of, 31, 37turned , 22 1-23tu rned , profi les of. 29-30vs. Q uee n Anne , 37
moldin gs, 26, 27, 215types of, 30
ornamen t in , 162sum marized, 109- 10tables, 22-23, 29, 22 1
co nst ruct ion of, 27dining, d rop-leaf, 23, 22 1-23dr essing, 22, 215-17legs of, 29tea, 22
turni ng, 27
profi les in, 29-30uph olstery,
fabr ic,25leather, 24
veneer, 166, 27simu lated, 27
Window seats: Hepplewh tte, 97Wood :
by period , 8
precompression of, as crackprevention , 141
Wood movement :
acco mmoda t ing, 141, 293calcu lat ing, 29 3explained, 293
Works ill A rchitea ure (Adam ); cited, 8 1\Vorkshops:
condit ions in, Federal. 100- 101early, described , III
and th e industr ial revolut ion, 10 8price gu ides fo r,
English, 87New York, 173
CREDITS
Brit ish Museum, Londo n, England(©p. 16)
Brooklyn Mu seum , New York (pgs, 37right [Henry L. Batt er man Fund ), 252)
Co llections of Hen ry Ford Moseum andGree nfield Village, Dearb orn, Michigan(pgs, 21 bott om left , 42 bott om, 107bott om)
Co lonial Williamsburg Foundation(pgs. II top right, 21 top, 24 right, 46 top,47 bottom, 76 bot tom, 77 bottom, 177)
Con nectic ut Historical Society, Hart ford ,Co nnectic ut (pgs , I I top left , 70 top)
Dallas Muse um of Art (pgs, 67 top [FaithP. and Charles L. Bybee Co llect ion, gift ofMr. and Mrs. Charles Shar p ), 91 bollom[Faith P. and Charles L. Bybee Co llect ion,gift of Effie and Wofford CainFoundation), 95 bott om right [Faith P. andCha rles L. Bybee Co llection, gift of Ceci land Ida Green l)
Detro it Inst itut e of Arts, Fou nders SocietyPurchase, Eleanor Clay Ford Fund ,General Membership Fund, EndowmentIncome Fund and Special Activities Fund(p. fi)
Dover Publications (pgs. 35 bollo m{Chinese DomesticFurniture, 1986 repri nt ]:62,63,64, 66 left , 71 left , 77 top(Gentlemanand Cabinetmaker'sDirector,1966 reprint); 80, 83, 84 {Cabinet-Makerand Upholsterer's Guide, 1969 reprint] : 85,86,95 top right [Cabinet-MakerandUpholsterer's DrawingBook, 1972 reprint );105{Household FUnlirureand InteriorDecomtion, 1971 reprint]: 115 (LittleBookof EarlyAmerican Craft: and Trades, 1976reprint l)
Zac k Gaulkin (pgs. 41, 229)
C hristopher G ilbert and Artlines (UK)Ltd. (p. 8])
Jeffrey P. G reene (pgs, 29 top right , 42 topright , 51, 67 bott om, 120, 122, 148, 154,164 bottom left )
Histor ic Deerfield, Inc., Deerfield,Massach usetts (pgs, 14 top, 20 left , 22bottom, 24 cen ter, 79 bottom [AmandaMerullo photo ), 222 [Amanda Merullophoto ), 235 [Am anda Merull o photo),242 [Amanda Merullo photo), 256[Am anda Meroll a photo), 274 [AmandaMeru llo photol)
Susan Kahn (pgs. 29 bott om, 39 bottom,53 ,66 right , 93 bottom , 100, 116, 130botto m left , bollo m right , 133-137, 150153, 157-163, 164 top, botto m right, 165167,1 69,1 72-175,1 78,180-183,1 86-189,191-196, 198, 207 top, 245 , 271, 284 , 2871
Nathan Liveran t and Son, Co lchester,Co nnecticut (p. 42 top left )
Metropolitan Mu seum of Art, New York(pgs, II top cente r [gift of Mrs.1. InsleyBlair, 1951, 51.12.2), bottom left [bequestof Mrs. J. lnsley Blair, 1952 , 52 .77.51),39 top [gift of Mrs. Russell Sage, 1909,10 .125.135), 56 [pu rchase, Joseph Puli tzerBequest, 1940 ,40 .37.3), 58 [gift ofSamu el P. Avery, 1897, Geoffrey Clementspho to ), 59 [Harris Brisbane Dick Fun d,1925, 25.20), 60 [gift of 1. Pier pontMorgan, 1906, 07.225.34a, bI. 75 bott omIFriends of the Ame rican Wing Fund ,1967, 67.114.21. 82 [Fletcher Fund , 194 51,103 [gift of Cap t . and Mrs. W.G . Fitch,1910, in mem ory of C lyde Fitch ), 107 top[funds from various donors, 1966), 108top [gift of Francis Hartman Markee,1960), 25 1 [bequest of Flora E. Whiting,1971, 1971.180 .31])
Mu seum of Art, Rhode Island School ofDesign, Providen ce, Rhod e Island (pgs. 18[gift of Mrs. Gustav Radeke, Ameri canFurn iture catalog #22), 23 top [gift of th eestate of Mrs. Gus tav Radeke], 44 cen te r[gift of Mrs. G ustav Radeke], 45 top, 48right [bequest of Cha rles L. Pendl eton , byexchange Am er ican Furniture catalog# 106 ), 69 right [bequest of Charles L.Pendleton ), 72 top [bequ est of Leila 1'.Bowen; Del Bogart photo ), 72 bottom[bequest of C harles L. Pendl eton), 73bottom [Museum Works of Art, Am er icanFurniture cata log #64 ), 75 top right[bequest of C harles L. Pendleton), 79 top[bequest of C harles L. Pendleton), 259[bequest of C harles L. Pendleton, 04 .079),265 [bequ est of Mart ha B.Lisle, 67.166 ),277 (Museum Works of Art, Ame ricanFurnit ure cata log #6 4 ), 290 [bequ est ofMiss Emily Spauld ingl}
Mu seum of Fine Arts, Boston (pgs, 9 top[gift of Maurice Geeraerts in mem ory ofMr. and Mrs. William H. Robeson I, 12, 20right (gift of Hollis French ], 24 left (gift ofMr. and Mrs. Du dley Leavitt Pickm an), 25top [gift of Robert L. Parker and MargaretS. Parker in mem ory of Win nifred FranklinJon es), 25 bott om [bequest of C ha rlesHitchcock Tyler ), 28 [gift of Mr. and Mrs.Dud ley Leavit t Pickman] , 31 [gift of Holl isFrench), 37 left [bequest of C harlesHitchcock Tyler), 38 [M. & M. KarolikCo llect ion of Eighteenth Ce ntu ryAm erican Arts ), 40 top [gift of Mrs. JeanFrederic Wagniere in mem ory of hermother Henri et ta Slade Warn er] , 45botto m [gift of Holl is French), 47 top[anonymous con tribut ion and William E.Nickerson Fund), 54 [Julie Knight FoxFund ], 7 1 bott om [M. & M. KarolikCo llect ion ), 89 right [gift of Mrs. David R.Mdlwain e in mem ory of Margaret Land erPierce), 91 top [Ch arles H . Tyler Fund), 96top [bequest of Miss Hannah MarcyEdward s for th e Juli ana Che ney Edward sCo llect ion ), 10 2 [gift of Mrs. Horati o A.Lamb in mem ory of Mr. and Mrs.Winthrop Sargent ), 219 [gift of HollisFrench), 224 (gift of Mr. and Mrs. DudleyLeavitt Pickman), 248)
Th e New po rt Histori cal Society (pgs, 68cente r, 69 left [John Corbell ph otol)
Rhod e Island Historical Societ y,Providen ce, Rhod e Island (pgs. 66 right[Susan Kahn ph oto ), 9 3 bottom [SusanKahn photo), 94 top, 27 1 [Susan Kahnph oto), 287 [Susan Kahn ph oto l)
Israel Sack, ln c., New York City (pgs. 22top, 42 top cen ter [Am erican Ant iques),43, 232 , 239)
Smithso nian Institution (pgs. 9 botto m,71 top right)
Society for th e Preservation of NewEngland Antiquities, Boston (pgs. 44 left[gift of Caroline Barr Wade; David Bohlphoto), 48 left [bequest of Frances S.Marrett: Richard C heek photo),4 8 center[bequest of Ellen M. and Alice E. Jones;Richard C heek photo), 55 [bequest ofEllen M. and Alice E. Jones; David Bohlphoto ), 66 top right [gift of Virginia L.Hodge and Kath erine D. Perry; RichardChee k photo] , 75 top left [bequest of Juli aC rocker; Richard C heek photo l)
Bud Stee re Co llect ion (pgs. 117, 11 8, 12 ])
Toledo Mu seu m of Art, purchased withfun ds from the Flore nce Scoll LibbeyBequ est in memory of her father, MauriceA. SCOll (p, I7l
Wadsworth Ath en eum, Hart ford,Con nectic ut (pgs. 23 boll om [gift of Mr.and Mrs. Robert P. Butler), 29 top left[Wallace NUllin g Co llect ion , gift of 1.Pierp ont), 68 right (gift of Mr. and Mrs.Robert P. Butlerl )
Wallace Co llectio n, London, England(p .35)
Weth ersfield Historical Society,Weth ersfield , Co nnecticut (pgs , 14bottom [SCOll Phill ips photo), 130 top[Jeffr ey G reene photo l)
Winterthur Mus eum (pgs, 10 top , IIbottom right , 27, 36, 44 right , 50, 70bott om , 73 center, 74, 75 top center, 76top , 78 botto m, 87, 88 , 89 left [funds forpu rchase gift of Lamm ot du PontCopeland ), 90 left, 9 3 top, 94 bott om , 95left , 96 bottom, 97 [top, gift of Henry F.duPont, February 1958), 98, 106 top left ,top right, 207 bottom (pu rchase funds giftof Henry Belin dul'ont l)
YaleCe nte r for British Art, Paul MellonC ollection, New Haven, Co nnect icut(p . 33)
Yale University Art Ga llery, bequ est ofOlive Lou ise Dan n (p . 46 bot tom)
Yale University Ar t Ga llery, Mabel BradyGarva n Co llect ion (pgs, 8, 10 bott om , 15,19, 21 bottom right, 49, 68 left , 69 cente r,73 top, 78 top, 90 right , 99 , 106 bottom ,108 bottom , 212, 2 16, 262, 280)
311
ED IT O R : Pet e r C ha pma n
DESIGNER ILAY O UT A RT I S T : Ca ro l Sin ger
ILLUSTRATOR : Mi chael G ell atl y
IN 0 E X E R: Harri et Hod ges
TYP EFA CE : Berling
PAP E R : O rio n Satin , 70 lb ., Conso lidate d Pap er s
P R I NT E R : Q ue be co r Graph ics, Kingsp ort, Tennessee
