Alternative Energy Guides EE

8/13/2019 Alternative Energy Guides EE

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Alternative Energy Guideshttp://electrical-engineering-portal.com/download-center/books-and-

guides/alternative-energy

Renewable energy sources

Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resourcessuch as sunlight, wind, rain,tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished). In 2008, about 1! ofglobal final energy consumption came from renewables, with 1"! coming from traditionalbiomass, which is mainly used for heating, and ".2! from hydroelectricity.

New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal,

and biofuels)accounted for another 2.7% and are growing very rapidly.

#he share of renewables in electricity generation is around 18!, with 1$! of global electricitycoming from hydroelectricity and "! from new renewables.

%uring the fi&e'years from the end of 200 through 200, worldwide renewable energy capacitygrew at rates of 10'0 percent annually for many technologies. *or wind power and many otherrenewable technologies, growth accelerated in 200 relati&e to the pre&ious four years. +orewind power capacity was added during 200 than any other renewable technology.

owe&er,grid-connected PVincreased the fastest of all renewables technologies, with a 0'percent annual a&erage growth rate for the fi&e'year period.

Wind power

-irflows can be used to run wind turbines. +odern wind turbines range from around 00 / to$ +/ of rated power, although turbines with rated output of 1.$" +/ ha&e become the mostcommon for commercial use the power output of a turbine is a function of the cube of the windspeed, so as wind speed increases, power output increases dramatically.

-reas where winds are stronger and more constant, such as offshore and high altitude sites, arepreferred locations for wind farms. #ypical capacity factors are 20'0!, with &alues at the

upper end of the range in particularly fa&ourable sites.lobally! the long-term technical potential of wind energy is believed to be five

times total current global energy production! or "# times current electricity

demand.

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#his could reuire large amounts of land to be used for wind turbines, particularly in areas ofhigher wind resources. 3ffshore resources e4perience mean wind speeds of 50! greater thanthat of land, so offshore resources could contribute substantially more energy.

/ind power is renewable and produces no greenhouse gases during operation, such as carbon

dio4ide and methane.

Hydropower

#he oo&er %am when completed in 1" was both the world6s largest electric'powergenerating station and the world6s largest concrete structure.

nergy in water can be harnessed and used. &ince water is about '## times denser

than air! even a slow flowing stream of water! or moderate sea swell! can yield

considerable amounts of energy.

There are many forms of water energy:

(ydroelectric energy is a term usually reserved for large-scale hydroelectricdams. )amples are the rand *oulee +am in ,ashington &tate and thekosombo +am in hana.

icro hydro systems are hydroelectric power installations that typicallyproduce up to $## k, of power. hey are often used in water rich areas as aremote-area power supply 01&3. here are many of these installationsaround the world! including several delivering around 4# k, in the &olomon5slands.

+amless hydro systems derive kinetic energy from rivers and oceans without

using a dam.

6cean energy describes all the technologies to harness energy from theocean and the sea. his includes marine current power! ocean thermalenergy conversion! and tidal power.

Source:,ikipedia

-ll documents, software and boos are free to download and preser&ed only to registered users.7ogin and registration lins are located at the top of portal.

Alternativeenergy

guides

Download

1 - uide #o 9: +ini'ydro %e&elopments2 ;mall ydroelectric


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Renewable >nergy? eothermal >lectricity8 #he istory of /ind >nergy, >lectricity eneration from the /ind /ind =oolet -


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&low rate of change< the output power varies only gradually from day to day0not from minute to minute3.

good correlation with demand i.e. output is ma)imum in winter

5t is a long-lasting and robust technology< systems can readily be engineered

to last for 4# years or more.

It is also en&ironmentally benign. ;mall hydro is in most cases Crun'of'ri&erD in other words anydam or barrage is uite small, usually Gust a weir, and little or no water isstored. #herefore run'of'ri&er installations do not ha&e the same inds of ad&erse effect on thelocal en&ironment as large'scale hydro.

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+evelopments

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2. mall Hydroele!tri! "lantsWater power

*or generations water has been used as a source of energy by industry and by a limited numberof utility companies. In the continental 9nited ;tates, most ri&ers and streams capable ofproducing huge amounts of hydroelectric power ha&e been harnessed howe&er, this does not

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preclude the possibility of using mini'hydroelectric power as a source of energy supply for homeor farm.

arnessing a stream for hydroelectric power is a maGor undertaing. Bareful planning isnecessary if a successful and economical power plant is to result. ;tate water laws and

en&ironmental concerns must be determined. pdatesA et echnical articles

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#. Guide on How to Develop a mall

Hydropower "lant

$%ecutive Summary

%e&eloping a small hydropower site is not a simple tas. #here are many aspects which ha&e tobe taen into consideration, co&ering many disciplines ranging from business, engineering,financial, legal and administration.

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#hese will all be necessary at the different de&elopment stages from, first choosing a site untilthe plant goes into operation.

he DEaymans uideF guide brings together all of these aspects in a step-by-step

approach! and will serve as a useful tool for a potential developer of a small

hydropower scheme.

#his guide is di&ided into nine chapters and co&ers the basic concepts, meaning of definitionsand technological issues to be addressed.

&hapter '

Introduces basic concepts, such as the definition of small hydropower, types of schemes, ways ofe4ploiting the water resource a&ailable and gi&es a general o&er&iew of the guide6s contents,

&hapters ( through to )

%escribe the essential steps to be followed to e&aluate a proposed scheme before decidingwhether to proceed to a detailed feasibility study.

The basic concepts considered in the guide are:

opography and geomorphology of the site. valuation of the water resource and its generating potential.

&ite selection and basic layout. (ydraulic turbines and generators and their control.

nvironmental impact assessment and mitigation measures.

conomic evaluation of the proect and financing potential.

5nstitutional framework and administrative procedures to obtain thenecessary consents

Reading this guide will inform the potential small hydropower de&eloper and gi&e a betterunderstanding of the different issues, phases and procedures that need be followed to de&elop

and run a small hydropower operation.

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$. olar Heating o% &uildings and

Domesti! Hot 'ater

"esign criteria

#his handboo presents design criteria and cost analysis methods for the siHing and Gustificationof solar heat collectors for potable water and space heaters. ;ufficient information is presented toenable engineers to design solar space conditioning and water heating systems or conductfeasibility studies based on solar collector performance, site location, and economics.

=oth retrofit and new installations are considered.

Solar radiation

>nergy from the sun is recei&ed by the earth as electromagnetic radiation. +ost of the energy is

recei&ed in the &isible and infrared portions and a small amount as ultra&iolet radiation. Eorth ofthe #ropic of Bancer (2" deg. E latitude), the sun maes a daily arc across the southern sy fromeast to west as shown in *igure 1'1. *or a typical location at "2 deg. E latitude the sun would be81.$ deg. abo&e the southern horiHon or nearly o&erhead at noon (solar time) on une 21 while on%ecember 21 it would be only ". deg. abo&e the horiHon (=arnaby et al., 1??).

;olar insolation (I) is measured in 7angleys (7) or =tuJft K2K. 3ne 7angley euals ".88 =tuJftK2K.#he amount of solar energy that e4ists outside the atmosphere, often called the solar constant, is

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11. 7Jhr or 2.2 =tuJftK2K'hr. -t most ?0! to 80! of this amount will strie the earth6ssurface, the remainder being absorbed or reflected in the atmosphere.

+onthly a&erage and yearly a&erage daily insolation data for numerous locations are gi&en in#able 1'1. In general, the higher the latitude, the less insolation is recei&ed on a horiHontal

surface.

&ollecting solar energy

Bollection of solar energy is based on the &ery high absorption of radiant energy by dull, blacsurfaces and on the Cgreenhouse effect.D #he latter refers to the ability of glass to transmit &isibleradiation but pre&ent the loss of heat from the collector plate which radiates at longerwa&elengths (infrared freuencies). lass (or plastic) co&er plates are generally used o&er flatabsorber plates to reduce heat loss (see *igure 1'2). #he heated absorber plate may ha&e a fluid(water, air or other) pass o&er it or through tubes attached to the plate.

#he fluid thus heated may be used to heat potable water, heat spaces, or dri&e an absorption orRanine power cycle air conditioner.

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(. "assive olar &uildings

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*eneral description

- passi&e solar building is one that deri&es a substantial fraction of its heat from the sun usingonly natural processes to pro&ide the necessary energy flows. #hermal conduction, freecon&ection, and radiation transport therefore replace the pumps, blowers, and controllers

associated with acti&e solar heating systems. #he elements of a passi&e solar heating system tendto be closely integrated with the structure for which heat is pro&ided. ;outh facing windows, fore4ample, may ser&e as apertures through which solar energy is admitted to the building, andthermal storage may be pro&ided by inherent structural mass.

;olar radiation absorbed inside the building is con&erted to heat, part of which meets the currentheat load whereas the remainder is stored in the structural mass for later use after the sun has set.=ecause of the integral nature of passi&e solar buildings, it is not possible to design the structureindependent of the heating system as is usually done with acti&e systems. Instead, it is necessaryto consider the solar characteristics of the building from the initial phases of the design processto completion of the construction documents.

- well designed passi&e solar building is comfortable, energy efficient, and &ery reliable becauseof its inherent operational simplicity. owe&er, a poor design, lacing some or all of thesedesirable characteristics, may be &ery difficult to modify after construction is complete and theproblems become manifest. It has therefore been necessary to de&elop a new approach tobuilding design that couples solarJthermal considerations with the more traditional concerns ofform and structure.

!urpose o+ the design procedures

#he purpose of these procedures is to mae the results of recent scientific research on passi&e

solar energy accessible to professionals in&ol&ed in building design or design e&aluation. =y sodoing, this new technology can be transferred from the research laboratory to the drawing boardand the construction site. - successful transfer will undoubtedly impro&e the energy efficiencyof new buildings as well as many e4isting buildings that are suitable for retrofit.

#his document is addressed principally to prospecti&e Ea&y contractors for design andconstruction of passi&e solar buildings. owe&er, because good passi&e solar designs are of little&alue if they are reGected in fa&or of more con&entional but less efficient structures, the designanalysis procedures presented herein are also intended for use by engineers and architectsin&ol&ed in the e&aluation process. #he calculations that are in&ol&ed are based on the use ofsimple tables and graphs. -n arithmetical calculator is the only tool reuired.

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). *enewa+le Energy

Solar, wind, biomass, geothermal and hydro

Renewable energy sources solar, wind, biomass, geothermal and hydro could mae importantcontributions to sustainable de&elopment. Burrently, their e4ploitation in commercial marets islow, being constrained by costs and uncompensated benefits (e4ternalities), as well asintermittent supplies and other technical and institutional considerations.

=ut they hold promise forF

enhanced energy security by providing supplies that are abundant! diverseand indigenous 0non-import dependent3! with no resource e)haustionconstraintsn&ironmental concerns ha&e increased the

attraction of these sources to policy'maers and growth in demand in industrialised countries isleading to economies of scale.

;uch growth enables increased access by the de&eloping world.

;ome renewable technologies are now commercially a&ailable and cost'competiti&e in particularmaret circumstances, but most are still at an early stage of de&elopment and technologically notmature. #heir costs remain high, but are continuing to fall.

*urther reductions are needed for them to compete broadly with the cheapest fossil'fuelalternati&es.

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,. Geotermal Ele!tri!ity

Resources

eothermal power is considered to be sustainable because the heat e4traction is small comparedto the >arth6s heat content, but e4traction must still be monitored to a&oid local depletion.-lthough geothermal sites are capable of pro&iding heat for many decades, indi&idual wells maycool down or run out of water.

#he three oldest sites, at 7arderello, /airaei, and the eysers ha&e all reduced production fromtheir peas. It is not clear whether these plants e4tracted energy faster than it was replenishedfrom greater depths, or whether the auifers supplying them are being depleted. If production isreduced, and water is reinGected, these wells could theoretically reco&er their full potential.

"ry steam power plants

%ry steam plants are the simplest and oldest design. #hey directly use geothermal steam of1$0LB or more to turn turbines.

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Flash steam power plants

*lash steam plants pull deep, high'pressure hot water into lower'pressure tans and use theresulting flashed steam to dri&e turbines. #hey reuire fluid temperatures of at least 180LB,usually more. #his is the most common type of plant in operation today.

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. Ele!tri!ity Generation /rom te 'ind

httpFJJelectrical'engineering'portal.comJwp'contentJuploadsJelectricity'generation'from'wind.Gpg

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Overview

7ie old fashioned windmills, today6s wind machines(also called wind turbines) use blades tocollect the winds kinetic energy. #he wind flows o&er the blades creating lift, lie the effect onairplane wings, which causes them to turn.

The blades are connected to a drive shaft that turns an electric generator to produceelectricity.

Wind !roduction

In 2008, wind machines in the 9nited ;tates generated a total of 5 billion kilowatthours, about!."# of total $.%. electricity generation. -lthough this is a small fraction of the Eation6s totalelectricity production, it was enough electricity to ser&e . million households or to power theentire ;tate of Bolorado.

he amount of electricity generated from wind has been growing rapidlyin recent

years.

eneration from wind in the 9nited ;tates nearly doubled between 200 and 2008. Eew

technologies ha&e decreased the cost of producing electricity from wind, and growth in windpower has been encouraged by ta4 breas for renewable energy and green pricing programs.

+any utilities around the country offer green pricing options that allow customers the choice topay more for electricity that comes from renewable sources to support new technologies.

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How Wind Turbines Wor#?

&ind is a form of solar energy.

/inds are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the

earth6s surface, and rotation of the earth. /ind flow patterns are modified by the earth6s terrain,bodies of water, and &egetation. umans use this wind flow, or motion energy, for manypurposesF sailing, flying a ite, and e&en generating electricity.

#he terms wind energy or wind power describe the process by which the wind is used to generatemechanical power or electricity.

Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical

power.his mechanical power can be used for specific tasks 0such as grinding

grain or pumping water3 or a generator can convert this mechanical power into

electricity.

;o how do wind turbines mae electricityM ;imply stated, a wind turbine wors the opposite of afan. Instead of using electricity to mae wind, lie a fan, wind turbines use wind to maeelectricity. #he wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft, which connects to a generator andmaes electricity. #ae a loo inside a wind turbine to see the &arious parts.

Wind !ower !lants !roduce $lectricity

/ind power plants, or wind farms, as they are sometimes called, are clusters of wind machines

used to produce electricity. - wind farm usually has doHens of wind machines scattered o&er alarge area.

he worlds largest wind farm! the (orse (ollow ,ind nergy *enter in e)as!

has!" wind turbinesthat generate enough electricity to power 22#!### homes

per year.

+any wind plants are not owned by public utility companies. Instead, they are owned andoperated by business people who sell the electricity produced on the wind farm to electricutilities.

#hese pri&ate companies are nown as'ndependent Power Producers.

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0. 'ind &oolet

The History and alue o+ Wind

/ind energy is nothing new in fact, it6s actually maing a come bac. >4perts belie&e thatwindmills were used ,000 years ago for grinding grain and pumping water. In the 18006s,appro4imately $00,000 windmills pro&ided energy for >urope and Bhina. In the 1"06s,

-mericans depended on about 00,000 windmills in rural areas to pro&ide electricity and water.

>uropeans ne&er abandoned wind energy, with ermany as the industry leader. /ind power inermany puts ,000 people to wor. Eew offshore wind de&elopment proGects will soon createanother 10,000 Gobs. #his all adds up to an economic base of N$.? billion per year.

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7eftF #he =rush nergy -ssociation (-/>-)announced that the 9.;. wind energy industry is e4pected to install about 2$00 megawatts (+/)of new wind power each year in the coming years. 3ne megawatt of wind energy can typicallypower up to "00 homes.

-/>- e4pects the renewed interest in wind could bring the total wind energy generated in the9.;. to more than 10,000 +/, ser&ing 2. million homes.

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1. "otovoltai! "ower ystems

This *uide

#he recommended installation practices contained in this guide progressfrom the photovoltaicmodules to the electrical outlets(in a stand'alone system) or to the utility interconnection (in autility'interacti&e system).

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@or each component! #$% re&uirements are addressed! with the appropriate

*ode sections referenced in brackets. sentence! phrase! or paragraph followed by

a N* reference refers to a reGuirement established by the N*. he words Dwill!F

Dshall!F or DmustF also refer to N* reGuirements.

;uggestions based on field e4perience with B. In some places references will also be made to -rticle 0from the 2002 E>B that ha&e been significantly changed in the 200$ E>B.

In recent times, monetary incenti&es ha&e resulted in large numbers of utility'interacti&e B in 4amples are included.

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11."rote!tion re3uirements %or a large

s!ale wind par

.bstract

In the past wind power plants typically had a small power rating when compared to the strengthof the connected electrical networ and the beha&ior of the wind mills during faults in thenetwor was considered non critical and wind power plants were simply pulled out of the

system.ence protection reuirement of a wind mill was Gust restricted to simple current and &oltagebased measurement.

his paper identifies the areas of concern whereproper protectionhas to be

introduced apart from the basic wind park reGuirements.

3wing to the increase in demand for renewable energy large wind pars are constructed in deepseas. ;uch wind pars are connected to the electrical grid on the land by comprehensi&eunderground cables.

#he underground cables are a potential for afault occurrence. #he ne4t area of concern wouldbe in the multiple mechanically switched capacitor bans or *-B#; used for dynamic reacti&ecompensation. #he &oltage flicer produced by large wind pars owing to the &arying speed ofthe wind mills on the interconnected grid has a deteriorating effect on the other connectedeuipment and also on the grid as well.

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#o maintain &oltage stability as per E>RB guidelines and to mitigate &oltage flicers, dynamicreacti&e compensation can be pro&ided with multiple mechanically switched capacitor banksor()*T%.

#herefore the paper will discuss in detail the protection possibilities for the underground cables

and the reactors for large wind pars located offshore.

This paper will focus on the following:

$. 5ntroduction and analysis of the various electrical fault possibilities in anoffshore wind park.

2. +etection and prevention against @erro resonance due to inductivereactance introduced by wind generators! reactors and capacitive reactanceintroduced by the long running cables and capacitor banks.

;. utomatic fault collection and analysis! and its benefits.

Title: rotection reGuirements for a large scale wind park - &hyamusunuri! &iemens nergy

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12. 4veread Higway igns powered

+y olar ligting

22
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/ntroduction

/ith energy costs rising and the high cost of running power lines to remote areas, there has beena growing interest in using renewable energyin low power highway applications. #his proGecte4plores usingphotovoltaic solar panelsto harness power from the sun to pro&ide the reuiredenergy to illuminate o&erhead signs along the highways.

#here is !+++ &attsof power in one suare meter of sunlight, but the typical solar panels oftoday can only collect !5#of that energy from the sun when operating into a matched load. #hismeans a solar panel that has an area of one suare meter can only collect !5+ &atts out of !+++&atts under ideal conditions.

he inefficiency of the solar panel reGuires that the system efficiency must be at a

ma)imum to reduce the siHe and cost of the solar panels.

#he proGect looed at two approaches for formulating low cost reliable designs. 3ne approachuses,(Light Emitting Diode) technology and the second approach uses *(,(CompactFluorescent Lamp) technology. =oth approaches offer a high light intensity output with aminimum of input power. #he main thrust of the research was to de&elop highly efficient dri&ercircuitry in the effort to eep the solar panel siHe to a minimum.

The specific goals of the research were:

he drive circuitry should be as efficient as possible to minimiHe the reGuired

siHe of the solar panel. he overall electronic control system should be compact and portable.

he lighting system must be of robust construction to handle the harshenvironment along the highways.

he lighting system circuitry should be robust! reGuiring a minimum ofmaintenance.

2;


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&ystem maintenance should reGuire a minimum of effort.

Solar !owered 0$" System

#he 7>% light system uses a pdatesA et echnical articles

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1#. &uild 5our 4wn 6erti!al A7is

'ind Tur+ine

24
http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/download-center/books-and-guides/alternative-energy/build-your-own-vertical-axis-wind-turbinehttp://electrical-engineering-portal.com/download-center/books-and-guides/alternative-energy/build-your-own-vertical-axis-wind-turbinehttp://electrical-engineering-portal.com/download-center/books-and-guides/alternative-energy/build-your-own-vertical-axis-wind-turbinehttp://electrical-engineering-portal.com/download-center/books-and-guides/alternative-energy/build-your-own-vertical-axis-wind-turbine


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/ntroduction

The Savonius Wind Turbine

#hese plans are for the construction of vertical a/is wind turbine, modelled after a design by the*innish engineer%. 0. %avoniusin 122.1is idea was to mount two half-cylinders on a verticalshaft.

5t was simple to build! and could accept wind from any direction.

owe&er, it was somewhat less efficientthan the more common horiHontal a4is turbine.

#he reason for the difference has to do with aerodynamics. oriHontal a4is turbines ha&e bladesthat create lift to spin the rotor, whereas the &ertical a4is design we are using here operates on thebasis of dragOone side creates more drag in mo&ing air than the other, causing the shaft spin.

2C


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!ermanent 1agnet .lternator

;mall home wind turbine based on &ertical a4is

#his wind turbine model maes its electricity with a simple generatorwhich produces pulses ofcurrent, or alternating current. It does so by passing strong magnets o&er coils of fine wire. >achtime a magnet passes o&er a coil, the coil becomes energiHed with electricity.

,ith coils connected together in series! the result is a &uadrupling of the

voltage.

#his is the simplest and possibly most efficient way to generate electricity, and is the same basicprinciple used in almost all wind turbines, e&en the large scale commercialones.

The electricity from a wind turbine varies with the wind speed, so to mae practical use of it,you must be able to store it in batteries, or change it into a form that gi&es a stable, constant&oltage. 9sually, electricity from wind turbines is con&erted from alternating current to directcurrent, which can be used for battery charging.

@ou can find plans on the Internet for simple electronic de&ices called bridge rectifiers. =ridgerectifiers consist of Gust diodes, and can be made for Gust a few dollars.

27


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Title: =uild Jour 6wn ,ind urbine 8 +ave ussell! http://www.re-energy.ca

Format: +@

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1$. Guide %or Generator 8ondition

Assessment 9n Hydropower "lant

2'
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1etrics +or *enerator &ondition .ssessment

*orgenerator condition assessment, it is recogniHed that thephysical conditioncannot beproperly and sufficiently e&aulated based on the visual inspections onlywhile the results fromsome routine or a&ailable tests are more critical as indication of generator condition.

lthough these testing results can be catergoriHe into the hysical *ondition! they

are listed separately in adition to the visual condition to emphaHie the importances

of these meterics.

#hus, as listed in Table !, the following eight condition parametersare considered for conditionassessment of generator and generator partsF

$. he Kisual *ondition2. he ge

;. he 5nstalled echnology Eevel

". he 6perating 1estrictions

4. &tator lectrical ests

C. 1otor lectrical ests

7. &tator *ore ests

'. he aintenance 1eGuirement

These 2 condition parameters are scored based on the following: pre&ious testing andmeasurements, historical 3P+ records, original design drawings, pre&ious rehabilitationfeasibility study reports if conducted, inter&iews with plant staff, and some limited inspections orpre&ious inspections.

Ta+le 1:#ypical enerator Bondition -ssessment P ;coring

29


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#able 1F #ypical enerator Bondition -ssessment and ;coring

't is noticed that there are certain level of relevance between the age and physical condition3maintenance needs3 or some operating restrictions.

owe&er, as a benchmaring condition assessment without specific new testing andmeasurements conducted on site, these eight parameters are regarded as pro&iding the basis forassessing the condition of generator parts and entire generator. If any type of tests or metrics arenot applicable for some parts (e.g., the Stator Eletrcial Tests are only applicable to the Stator),input CE-D into the cells of irrele&ant parts for this metrics.

In addition, theata 4uality 'ndicator, as an independent metrics, is to reflect the uality ofa&ailable information and the confidence on the information used for the condition assessment.In some cases, data may be missing, out'of'date, or of uestionable integrity, and any of thesesituations could affect the results of condition assessment.

#he scores of data uality are determined by the on-site evaluators for each assessed partitemto indicate the data a&ailability, integrity and accuracy and the confidence on the gi&en conditionratings (+/ 2010).

Title:

( 8 *ondition ssessment anual 8 ppendi) $.#9 8 uide for

enerator *ondition ssessment 8 & &&6*5&! 5N*. *hattanooga!

N ;7"#2! hydropower.ornl.gov

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ad:

1(. Guidelines /or Ere!tion; Testing

and 8ommissioning o% mall Hydro"ower "lants

;$
http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/download-center/books-and-guides/alternative-energy/erection-testing-small-hydro-power-plantshttp://electrical-engineering-portal.com/download-center/books-and-guides/alternative-energy/erection-testing-small-hydro-power-plantshttp://electrical-engineering-portal.com/download-center/books-and-guides/alternative-energy/erection-testing-small-hydro-power-plantshttp://electrical-engineering-portal.com/download-center/books-and-guides/alternative-energy/erection-testing-small-hydro-power-plantshttp://electrical-engineering-portal.com/download-center/books-and-guides/alternative-energy/erection-testing-small-hydro-power-plantshttp://electrical-engineering-portal.com/download-center/books-and-guides/alternative-energy/erection-testing-small-hydro-power-plants


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$rection O+ *enerating 2nit

>rection, setting, adGustment, centering and alignment of hydro generating unitis a &erycomplicated and specialiHed Gob. #his has to be carried by e4pert and e4perienced team ofengineers, technicians and helpers.

#his guide, therefore, has been prepared with intent to pro&ide guidelines to such team forcarrying out erection testing and commissioningof either hori6ontalor vertical machines upto 5 7& capacitysuccessfully.

he guide covers planning! pre-erection activities! erection seGuence of both

horiHontal and vertical machine!pre'commissioning checks! commissioning

checks and tests. 5t also gives tolerance to be achieved during erection and testing.

#he erection technologies though e4plained uite in detail but as hydro machines are tailor made,the technologies may differ for a particular machine which has to be obtained from themanufacturer.

!lanning O+ $rection O+ a Hydropower !lant

#he entire process of erection, testing and commissioningmay be di&ided into three maincategoriesF

$. re'erection activitiesto be completed before starting of erection of theplant.

;2


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2. rection of built in partsof the plant.

;. rection of main operating componentsof hydro set.

Pre-erection )ctivities 7ainly *overs following:

reparation of a plan to carry out erection work and seGuence of differentactivities

reparation for site storage and pre assembly of the eGuipment! constructionof roads! accesses for delivery of plant to assembly area.

rection of temporary structures! living Guarters necessary for carrying outsite work smoothly and speedily.

rrangement of construction power water! compressed air for the erectionactivities.

rrangement of lighting of erection site and nearby area

&etting lay out of erection bay as shown in igure ".

nsuring delivery of eGuipment and materials necessary for continuity oferection work as per charts and plan.

roviding hoisting! handling mechanisms! tools and devices for erection asalso making arrangement of transportation of material to the site.

rrangement of safety measures protection of workers and eGuipment duringhandling! shifting and installing different components of plant.

rrangement of first aid and health checkups for workers.

;;


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7ayout of erection bay ' ydropower plant

rection of these items starts as soon as the underwater concrete structurehas

reached the reGuired elevation below the lining of + cone.

-t this stage permanent crane is not a&ailable as such temporary gantry cranehas to be installedwhose lifting capacity, tra&el upward, downward, forward and bacward is decided by the siHeand weight of hea&iest and largest part to be handled by the crane.

Title:

uidelines @or rection! esting and *ommisioning of &mall (ydro ower

lants - lternate (ydro nergy *enter 5ndian 5nstitute of echnology

1oorkee

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22.1. How solar !olle!tors wors&acuated #ube ;olar Bollector

>&acuated collectors are good for applications reuiring energy deli&ery at moderate to hightemperatures (domestic hot water, space heating and process heating applications typically at0LB to 80LB depending on outside temperature), particularly in cold climates.

%8$9*:Clean Energy Project Analysis !ETScreen Engineering " Cases Te#tboo$

2#. olar "anels and /eed-in Tari%%s = Te

9ntri!a!ies o% olar "ower

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!hotoelectric $++ect

-t its most basic, olar "oweris the con&ersion of sunlight into electricity either directly usingpotovoltai!s(


40/116


41/116

property in order to be connected to the electrics in your home. In some cases this is achie&ed byrunning the wire under the ea&es and directly into the loft.

3ther system options include in'roof panels which are integrated into the roof and ha&e alessened &isual impact, ew download? Easy !al!ulate si@e o%

solar panels?

;creenshot from +; >4cel ;preadsheetF Balculate ;iHe of ;olar


42/116

*or the purposes of this guide, we are assuming that the solar energy generated by the panels willbe stored in a battery or number of batteries. #he basic principle is to identify the siHe of panelmaintain sufficient charge of energy in your battery to support your typical usage reuirement.

#his tool is de&eloped by mr. ignesh


43/116

2$. tand-Alone "6 ystems

"000/ 3ff'grid polar power system

;tand'alone


44/116

!-!owered Fans

12A %B fan


45/116

the reser&oir pro&ides water at a limited rate, the pumping rate may be limited by the reser&oirreplenishment rate, and battery storage may be reuired to e4tend the pumping time.

/hile it is possible to !onne!t te "6 arrayoutput directly to the pump, it is generally better toemploy the use of an electronic ma4imum power tracer (+


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/hile this may not seem to be &ery much power, it is adeuate for efficient display technologyto deli&er a respectable message.

If the system is a 12 A %B system, a set of deep discharge batteries will need to ha&e a capacityof 18$ -h for each day of battery bac'up (day of autonomy). *or " d of autonomy, a total of

$$$ -h of storage will be needed, which euates to eight batteries rated at ?0 -h each.op

Hybrid !-!owered Single Family "welling

+edium domestic


47/116

Schematic diagrams o+ a +ew typical ! applications7

a) ;imple powered fan b) /ater pump with ma4imum power tracing

c) 1.$ / residential rooftop utility interacti&e system connected on customer side of re&enuemeter

d) ybrid residential installation

"7


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SO2R&$:1oger . essenger

2(. 4verview o% solar panel types#here are three commonte!nologiesused in solar panels, all of which are based on thecommon element silicon, which maes up a large proportion of the earth.

1onocrystalline cells

+onocrystalline cells are made from a thin slice or wafer cut from a single large crystal ofsilicon. #he cells are then doped and the fine current collecting wires printed on or in the surfaceof the cell.

enerally monocrystalline cells ha&e the highest efficiency, but this comes at a price. #his typeof cell taes more energy to mae than any other, and so has a greater energy paybac period,

though this is usually still within fi&e years. - number of manufacturers mae monocrystallinepanels, including =< ;olar and ;harp ;olar.

op

!olycrystalline cells


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50/116

;olar,


51/116

"etailed description

/ith the combination of +3A'+3A (+etal 34yd Aaristor) or+3A'spar gap, the o&er&oltage will be limited at the &alue of the &oltage protection le&el of the-== 3AR surge protector.

3ur surge protector, as recommended in standards and guides, insure all protections (between and ', and round and and round).

3n each surge arrester, as option, an a&ailable au4iliary contact will inform the end life status toensure a ma4imum efficiency.

op

One easy solution

/ith this solution, many cells in power plant and residential application ha&e been protected.#hans to lightning protection group of -== because for all ind of power in the installation-== has a solution. If you don6t protect your cells, in case of se&eral big surges, your cells willbe completely damaged and in case of many small surges without &isual damages for you, your

efficiency will go down o&er the years.

@ou should use a surge protection to ha&e a better return on in&estment.

4$
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>4ample of typical installation

@ou should also chec with your insurance company if in your contract, a surge protection is

reuired to be insured at 100!.

op

Technical "ata 6fficial name: Surge !rotection "evice 8S!"9 5* C$C";-$: 5nternational standard for surge protective devices connected to

low-voltage power distribution systems

&urge arresters ype $: for buildings protected by lightning rods

(igh capability: $4 k up to $## k in $#/;4#

Eow protection level: $!' kK 0electronic triggering3

Kery small siHe compared to performance.

&urge arresters ype 2: 6K1 &+B& 8 in the other situations or in coordinationwith ype $

luggable lightning arresters

&afety reserve

6ptical monitoring bloc

odular range

&urge arresters ype ; 8 to protect eGuipment against small over voltages orin coordination with ype 2

SO2R&$:== 8 hotovoltaic application! &urge protection rotection of cells M

5nverter +* side

2,. 8al!ulation E7ample o% mall

"otovoltai! "6B *esidential tand-Alone

ystem

42
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%ample

- )rray %i6eF 10, 12'&olt, $1'watt modules IscS ".2$ amps, AocS 20.? &olts- ;atteries:800 amp'hours at 12 &olts- ,oads:$ amps %B and $00'watt in&erterwith 0! efficiency.

"escription

#he


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*igure 1 ' ;mall Residential ;tand'-lone ;ystem

&alculations

- The moduleshort-circuit currentis ".2$ amps.- *8


55/116

From $&Table ;''2 is selected for this

wiring, because it has an ampacityof "1. amps under these conditions, and the reuirement foreach sub'array is 5 / ?.+= @ +." amps.

E&aluated %ith '()C insulation, a *+ A- cable has an ampacity o /( amps at /+)C, %hich isgreater than the actual re0uirement o 1+./ amps 2( # 3.+45.

In the array Gunction bo4 on the roof, two "0'amp fuse sin pullout holders are used to pro&ideo&ercurrent protection for the 10 -/ conductors. #hese fuses meet the reuirement of 2$.amps (*1(6 o 1+./) and ha&e a rating less than the derated cable ampacity.

5n this unction bo)! the two sub-arrays are combined into an array output.

The ampacity re&uirement is *.+ amps ("* .*+). " , >@ cable 04-2w/gnd3 is selected for the run to the control bo). 5t operates in an ambient

temperature of*-%and has a temperature-corrected ampacity of + amps (/0

*./"). his is a +*-%cable with 9#* conductors and the final ampacity must be

restricted to the C#* value of 7# amps! which is suitable in this e)ample.

-ppropriately derated cables must be used when connecting to fusesthat are rated for use onlywith ?$LB conductors. - 0'amp circuit breaer in the control bo4 ser&es as the


56/116

#he cables from the battery to the control center must meet the in&erter reuirements of .amps plus the %B load reuirements of .2$ amps (1.2$ 4 $).

- -/ #E has an ampacityof 8$ amps when placed in conduit and e&aluated with ?$LBinsulation. #his e4ceeds the reuirements of ?1 amps (. .2$). This cable can be used in

the custom power center and be run from the batteries to the inverter.

#he discharge-circuit fusemust be rated at least B! amps. -n 2+-amp fuseshould be used,which is less than the cable ampacity.

he +* load circuit is wired with $# , N cable 0ampacityof 30 amps3

and protected with a "0'amp circuit breaker.

#he grounding electrode conductor is -/ and is siHed to match the largest conductor in thesystem, which is the array'to'controlcenter wiring. #his siHe would be appropriate for a concrete'encased grounding electrode. >uipment'grounding conductors for the array and the charge

circuit can be 10 -/ based on the 0'amp o&ercurrent de&ices.

#he euipment ground for the in&erter mustbe an 2 )& conductorbased on the 2+-ampovercurrent device. -ll components should ha&e at least a %B &oltage rating of !.5 / +.B @ =volts.

9eference:Photo&oltaic Po%er Systems And the 1++( 7ational Electrical Code 8ohn ilesSouth%est Technology De&elopment 9nstitute 7e% :e#ico State ;ni&ersity

20. 'at Do 5ou >eed To Know 'en

8onne!ting olar Ele!tri! ystem to teUtility Grid

In the past, most homes with solar electricsystems were not connected to the localutility grid. It made sense to install solar electricsystems in areas without easy assess to the power grid, where the option of e4tending a powerline from the grid might cost tens of thousands of dollars.

4C
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es with solar electric systems were not connected to the localutility grid. It made sense to installsolar electric systems in areas without easy assess to the power grid, where the option ofe4tending a power line from the grid might cost tens of thousands of dollars.

In recent years, howe&er, the number of solar'powered homes connected to the local utility grid

has increased dramatically. #hese Cgrid'connectedD buildings ha&e solar ele!tri! panelsorCmodulesD that pro&ide some or e&en most of their power, while still being connected to the localutility. 3wners of grid'connected homes can choose to supply a portion of their energy with solarenergy, using the utility for power during the night or on cloudy days. =ecause of the up'frontcosts of installing a solar electric system, many of these homeowners initially install systems thatmeet about oneuarter to one'half of their energy use.

;olar electric systems sometimes produce more electricity than your home needs. #his e4traelectricity is either stored in batteries or fed into the utility grid. omeowners can be gi&en creditby their local power companies for the electricity produced at their homes through CnetmeteringD programs.

op

et metering

;imple scheme of connecting solar electric system to the grid

rid'connected systems generally use a billing process called Cnet meteringD or Cnet billingD. Inthis process, any energy generated by thesolar modulesthat your home does not useimmediately is sent to the utility grid.

47
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owe&er, when the solar electric system is producing less power than is needed, you can drawadditional power from the grid. If your system is connected to the grid through a single electricmeter, your meter can actually run bacwards as you contribute e4cess energy to the utility.

#he e4cess electricity is being credited to you at the same retail rate as the electricity you use

from the utility. @our utility may reuire the use of two metersOone that meters yourconsumption of energy from the grid and the other that meters your contribution to the grid. Inthis case, your solar'generated e4cess energy could be credited at the retail rate or possibly at alower wholesale rate, depending on the utility.

In addition, some utilities bill their customers according to a Ctime'of'useD rate system. 9nderthis system, customers are billed at a higher rate during certain times of the day, such as duringthe sunniest daytime hours of summer when air conditioners are woring at their pea. If this isthe case with your utility, you may be able to CtradeD your e4cess energy to the utility at thesesame rates.

@ou can therefore benefit from the fact that your solar electric modules produce the most powerduring those sunny summer days. /hen you need power from the utility during the off'peaperiods, such as in the e&ening, the rate is usually lower. If you choose to ha&e a grid'connectedsolar electric system, and your system produces enough energy in any gi&en month so that youdo not ha&e to draw from the grid, you may still recei&e a small monthly bill. #his is becausemany utilities charge monthly fees for meter reading. -gain, chec with your local utility.

op

&onnecting to the grid

3ne of the most important steps in purchasing a grid'connected solar electric system is choosinga pro&ider with e4perience. - good pro&ider will also ha&e a properly licensed electricalcontractor, ha&e enough years of e4perience to ha&e demonstrated an ability to wor withcustomers, and be able to compete effecti&ely with other firms.

good provider should be familiar with your local utilityBs regulations on

interconnection reGuirements. 5f your provider is not familiar with these

reGuirements! check with your local utility! state energy office! or state or local

ublic >tility *ommission for details.

@our solar electric pro&ider should supply you with e&erything you need to run your system,

including a specific type of in&erter for grid'connected systems, batteries (if you want bacuppower), and a special electric meter. -s mentioned already, some utilities reuire you to ha&eone electric meter that runs both forward and bacward. 3ther utilities reuire two separatemetersF one for incoming power you recei&e, and one for power you generate that goes bac intothe system. #hese meters are sometimes paid for by the utility, but may be part of yourpro&ider6s price for the system.

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-s part of the installation of your solar electric system, you will need to sign an interconnectionagreement with the utility company. @our solar electric pro&ider may be able to handle thenegotiations and paperwor with the utility, but this contractual agreement is between you andyour local utility. =e sure to read the fine print in this agreement, which may differ considerablyfrom one utility to another. It could range from a short one'page statement to a lengthy boolet.

In either case, the fine print may contain references to liability issues that you will want to fullyunderstand before signing the contract.

-lso, be sure to spea with your homeowner6s insurance pro&ider, because the solar electricsystem itself will need to be added to your policy. In many cases, you may ha&e to add a rider toyour policy for the gridconnected system.

SO2R&$:>.&. +epartment of nergy 8 National 1enewable nergy Eaboratory

#. "otovoltai! Module 9nter!onne!tions

Bopper conductors are recommended for almostall photo&oltaic system wiring. Bopper conductors ha&e lower &oltage drops and better resistanceto corrosion than other types of comparably siHed conductor materials. -luminum or copper'cladaluminum wires can be used in certain applications, but the use of such cables is notrecommended' particularly in dwellings.

-ll wire siHes presented in this guide refer to copper conductors. #he E>B reuires 12 A'GAmeri!an 'ire GageBor larger conductors to be used with systems under $0 &olts. -rticle 0ampacity calculations yielding a smaller conductor siHe might o&erride -rticle ?20

considerations, but some inspectors are using the -rticle ?20 reuirement for dc circuits T0."U.

#he Bode has little information for conductor siHes smaller than 1 -/, but ;ection 0."1(%)pro&ides some guidance. +any listed


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;ingle'conductor, #ype 9* (9nderground *eederOIdentified (mared) as ;unlight Resistant),#ype ;> (;er&ice >ntrance), or #ype 9;>J9;>'2 (9nderground ;er&ice >ntrance) cables arepermitted for module interconnect wiring. #ype 9* cable must be mared C;unlight ResistantDwhen e4posed outdoors as it does not ha&e the inherent sunlight resistance found in ;> and 9;>conductors T97 +aring uide for /ire and BableU.

9nfortunately, single'conductor, stranded, 9* sunlight'resistant cable is not readily a&ailableand may ha&e only a 0LB temperature rating. #his 0LB rated insulation is not suitable for long'term e4posure to direct sunlight at temperatures liely to occur near ntrance Bable (9;>'2) is suggested as the bestcable to use for module interconnects. /hen manufactured to the 97 ;tandards, it has a 0LB

temperature rating and is sunlight resistant e&en though not commonly mared as such. #he C'2Dmaring indicates a wet'rated 0LB insulation, the preferred rating. -dditional maringsindicating V7'2. 9;>'2 is acceptable to most electrical inspectors. #he R andR/'2 designations freuently found on 9;>'2 cable allow its use in conduit inside buildings.9;> or 9;>'2 cables, without the other marings, do not ha&e the fire'retardant additi&es that;> and R/JR/'2 cables ha&e and cannot be used inside buildings.

If a more fle4ible, two'conductor cable is needed, electrical tray cable (#ype #B) is a&ailable butmust be supported in a specific manner as outlined in the E>B T"" and "2U. #B is sunlightresistant and is generally mared as such.

-lthough sometimes used (improperly) for module interconnections, ;3, ;3, and similarfle4ible, portable cables and cordage may not be sunlight resistant and are not appro&ed for fi4ed(non'portable) installations T00.?, 8U.

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#he temperature derated ampacity of conductors at any point must generally be at least 1$! ofthe module (or array of parallel'connected modules) rated shortcircuit current at that pointT0.8(-), (=)U.

4U*8E:


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6ften does not reGuire a large battery bank

&ystem is Guiet and often can be made unobtrusive

ypically low maintainance

Windpower: Eow cost per watt hour in a good location &maller systems can be low maintainance

redictable power output in some locations

Solar power:

*an be used almost anywhere )termely low maintainance

Kery long system lifespans

*an be operated unmonitored for e)tended periods of time

redictable power output in most locations

&imple installation

&ilent ! unobtrusive operation

op

"isadvantages

Hydropower:

Not suitable in many locations due to lack of resource 6ften reGuires substantial modification of water resource 0e)cept for in-

stream type generators3

5nitial installation cost can be high if damming or dirtwork is reGuired

5n colder climates! freeHing of pipes! etc can be a problem

oving parts will eventually wear out

Windpower:

Not suitable in many locations due to lack of resource owering can be e)pensive for larger units! and may reGuire heavy

eGuipment to erect.

&ome people obect to the tower aesthetically

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=irds of prey run into tower and guy wires 0similar to but smaller than utilityinstallations in this respect3

ower output can be sporadic in some areas! nescesitates the use of a largebattery bank and / or altrenate power source

any people report that considerable noise is generated in high winds

ven routine! minor maintainance on a windmill can be difficult on the top ofa tower. &ystems to reduce / eliminate this problem typically add to the costand comple)ity of the system.

oving parts will eventually wear out

Solar power:

(igh initial cost for solar panels ower output can be variable in some areas! nescesitates the use of a large

battery bank and / or altrenate power source

1eGuires good solar e)posure 0not practical in shaded areas! etc.3

#he maGor problem with -E@ power source is the C3pposition special interest groupsD. 7ets seenow of course we all now about the e&ils of the nues, windmills ha&e been now to cut birdsin half and the CIt destroys my &iewD people. C;olar panels are uglyD people. ydro hurts thefish. I suspect that if we all used a generator with a hand cran someone would find a problemwith that.

=ottom line is that no matter what we do, there /I77 be a side affect somewhere, people need todeal with itWW

reg,

Read the rest of discussion

>ach system must be optimiHed to the location and aplication for which it will be used.Installation and maintainance reuirements can be a signifigant factor, and should be weighedhea&ily in the design process.

ybrid systems using two or more of these power sources, or using a fuel powered generator as asupplement usually pro&ide superior performance o&er a wide range of conditions.

$1. 'ind 6aria+ility

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3ne of the most critical features of windgeneration is the &ariability of wind. /ind speeds &ary with time of day, time of year, heightabo&e ground, and location on the earth6s surface. #his maes wind generators into what mightbe called energy producers rather than power producers.

#hat is, it is easier to estimate the energy production for the ne4t month or year than it is toestimate the power that will be produced at F00


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-n e4cellent form of storage is water in ahydroelectric lae. +ost hydroelectric plants are siHed large enough to not be able to operate full'time at pea power. #hey therefore must cut bac part of the time because of the lac of water.

- combination hydro and wind plant can conser&e water when the wind is blowing, and use thewater later, when the wind is not blowing. /hen high'temperature superconductors become alittle less e4pensi&e, energy storage in a magnetic field will be an e4citing possibility. >ach wind

turbine can ha&e its own superconducting coil storage unit.

#his immediately con&erts the wind generator from an energy producer to a pea powerproducer, fully dispatchable. %ispatchable pea power is always worth more than the fuel costsa&ings of an energy producer. 9tilities with adeuate base load generation (at low fuel costs)would become more interested in wind power if it were a dispatchable pea power generator.

#he &ariation of wind speed with time of day is called the diurnal cycle. Eear the earth6s surface,winds are usually greater during the middle of the day and decrease at night. #his is due to solarheating, which causes CbubblesD of warm air to rise. #he rising air is replaced by cooler air fromabo&e. #his thermal mi4ing causes wind speeds to ha&e only a slight increase with height for the

first hundred meters or so abo&e the earth. -t night, howe&er, the mi4ing stops, the air near theearth slows to a stop, and the winds abo&e some height (usually "0 to 100 m) actually increaseo&er the daytime &alue. - turbine on a short tower will produce a greater proportion of its energyduring daylight hours, while a turbine on a &ery tall tower will produce a greater proportion atnight.

As tower eigt is in!reased; a given generator will produ!e su+stantially more energy.

owe&er, most of the e4tra energy will be produced at night, when it is not worth &ery much.;tandard heights ha&e been increasing in recent years, from $0 to $ m or e&en more. - tallertower gets the blades into less turbulent air, a definite ad&antage.

#he disad&antages are e4tra cost and more danger from o&erturning in high winds. - &erycareful loo should be gi&en the economics before buying a tower that is significantly taller thanwhate&er is sold as a standard height for a gi&en turbine.

/ind speeds also &ary strongly with time of year. In the southern reat


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power when winds are the lowest and the least power when winds are highest. #he diurnal&ariation of wind power is thus a fairly good match to utility needs, while the yearly &ariation isnot.

T.50$ '

onthly verage ,ind &peed in ( and roected nergy roduction at C4 m! at aood &ite in &outhern ?ansas

1 m ) m Energy 1 m ) m Energy

+onth ;peed ;peed (+/h) +onth ;peed ;peed (+/h)1J 1. 20." 2$ 1J? 1$.8 21.2 22J 1.2 22. 20 2J? 1.? 1.0 20?"J 1?. 22." 281 "J? 1?. 22.8 21J 1.8 2$.2 "22 J? 1$. 20. 22$J 18. 2".1 2? $J? 1$.2 1.8 2"J 1".$ 18.2 20" J? 11. 1." 1?

?J 12.$ 1.$ 1 ?J? 1"." 18.$ 2128J 11. 1.0 1$ 8J? 11.? 1. 1?J 12. 1?.2 182 J? 1". 1.0 21110J 1?.1 2"." "20 10J? 1$.0 21.1 2$11J 1$." 20.0 2"$ 11J? 1." 1.? 2"12J 1$.1 20.1 2? 12J? 1". 1.$ 2"$

#he &ariability of wind with month of year and height abo&e ground is illustrated in #able 1.#hese are actual wind speed data for a good site in :ansas, and proGected electrical generation ofa Aestas turbine (A?'0) at that site. -nemometers were located at 10, 0, and 0 m abo&e

ground. /ind speeds at 0 and 0 m were used to estimate the wind speed at $ m (the nominaltower height of the A?'0) and to calculate the e4pected energy production from this turbineat this height. %ata ha&e been normaliHed for a "0'day month. #here can be a factor of twobetween a poor month and an e4cellent month (1$ +/h in 8J to "22 +/h in J).

#here will not be as much &ariation from one year to the ne4t, perhaps 10 to 20!.

-d&ertisement

- wind power plant de&eloper would lie to ha&e as long a data set as possible, with an absoluteminimum of one year. If the one year of data happens to be for the best year in the decade,

followed by se&eral below a&erage years, a de&eloper could easily get into financial trouble. #heris gets smaller if the data set is at least two years long.

3ne would thin that long'term airport data could be used to predict whether a gi&en data setwas collected in a high or low wind period for a gi&en part of the country, but this is not alwaystrue. 3ne study showed that the correlation between a&erage annual wind speeds at Russell,:ansas, and %odge Bity, :ansas, was 0.$ while the correlation between Russell and /ichitawas 0.11$.

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#he terrain around Russell is &ery similar to that around /ichita, and there is no ob&ious reasonwhy wind speeds should be high at one site and low at the other for one year, and then swaproles the ne4t year.

#here is also concern about long'term &ariation in wind speeds. #here appears to be an increase

in global temperatures o&er the past decade or so, which would probably ha&e an impact on windspeeds. It also appears that wind speeds ha&e been somewhat lower as temperatures ha&e risen,at least in :ansas. It appears that wind speeds can &ary significantly o&er relati&ely shortdistances. - good data set at one location may underpredict or o&erpredict the winds at a site afew miles away by as much as 10 to 20!. -irport data collected on a ?'m tower in a flat ri&er&alley may underestimate the true surrounding hilltop winds by a factor of two.

If economics are critical, a wind power plant de&eloper needs to acuire rights to a site andcollect wind speed data for at least one or two years before committing to actually constructingturbines there.

4U*8E:>lectric


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he Guantity of energy delivered depends on thepeak power capacity of the

siteand how fully that capacity is utiliHed over every hour of the year.

#he normaliHed measure of the power plant performance is the nergy elivery (actor D(E.

It is defined as the ratio of the electrical energy deli&ered to the customers to the energy that canbe deli&ered by the plant if it could be operated at the fully installed capacity during all 23B=+hours of the year, that is as followsF

;ince the load power &aries o&er the time, the >%* taes the integral formF

where:

"m


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Eot only does it include the energy con&ersion efficiencies of &arious components, it alsoaccounts for the reliability, maintainability, and a&ailability of the o&erall plant o&er the entireyear.

/ind *arm in Bedar Bree, Bolorado, 9;- (photo by =< Images &ia *licr)

#he >%* is useful in comparing the economic utiliHation of one site o&er the other, or the annualperformance of a gi&en site. /ind plants operate with the annual average ( around "+percent, with some plants reporting >%* as high as ?+ percent.

C9


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This compares with * to * percent for the conventional plants.he base

load plants operate at the higher end of the range.

#he wind farm energy deli&ery factor&aries with season and that must be taen into account.

9esource:ind and solar po%er systems :. >. Patel

$2. 'ind Energy End-Use Appli!ations

1ar#ets

/ind energy maretscan be classified based on the end'use application of the technology. /indenergy proGects are common for off-grid applications.

owe&er, the largest maret potential for wind energy proHects is with on-grid(or grid=connected) applications.

O++-grid applications

istorically, wind energy was most competiti&e in remote sites, far from the electric grid andreuiring relati&ely small amounts of power, typically less than 10 /.

In these off'grid applications, wind energy is typically used in the charging of batteries that storethe energy captured by the wind turbinesand pro&ides the user with electrical energy on demand,as depicted in (igure !.

7#
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&ater pumping, where water, rather than energy, can be stored for future use, is also a eyhistorical application of wind energy. #he ey competiti&e area for wind energy in remote off'grid power applications is against electric grid e4tension, primary (disposable) batteries, diesel,gas and thermoelectric generators.

,ind energy is also competitive in water pumping applications.

On-grid applications

In on'grid applications the wind energy system feeds electrical energy directly into the electricutility grid.

Two on-grid application types can be distinguished.

$. 1solated'grid electricity generation! with wind turbine generationcapacity typically ranging from appro)imately "* kW to !** kW.2. %entral'grid electricity generation! with wind turbine generation capacity

typically ranging from appro)imately !** kW to ! 2W.

*igure 1 ' 10 / 3ff'rid /ind #urbine in +e4ico. 7


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/solated-grids

'solated-gridsare common in remote areas. >lectricity generation is often relatively e/pensivedue to the high cost of transporting diesel fuel to these isolated sites. owe&er, if the site hasgood local winds, a small wind energy proGect could be installed to help supply a portion of the

electricity reuirements.

#hese wind energy proGects are normally referred to as wind-diesel hybrid systems.

#he wind energy system6s primary role is to help reduce the amount of diesel fuel consumption.- wind'diesel hybrid system is shown in (igure .

*igure 2 ' $0 / Isolated'rid /ind #urbine in the -rctic.


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In relati&ely windy areas, larger scale wind turbines are clustered togetherto create a wind-farmwith capacities in the multi'megawatt range. #he land within the wind'farm is usually used forother purposes, such as agricultureorforestry.

-nother common approach for wind energy proGect de&elopment includes the installation of one

or more larger scale wind turbines by indi&iduals, businesses or cooperati&es.

- windfarm, as depicted in (igure ", consists of a number of wind turbines (%hich are oteninstalled in ro%s perpendicular to the %ind direction), access roads, electrical interconnectionsand a substation, a monitoring and control system and a maintenance building for the largerfarms.

he development of a wind energy pro3ectincludes the determination of the

wind resource! the acGuisition of all authorisations and permits! the design and

specification of the civil! electrical and mechanical infrastructure! the layout of the

wind turbines! the purchasing of the eGuipment! the construction and the

commissioning of the installation.

*onstruction involves the following:

$. reparing the site!2. rading roads!

;. =uilding turbine foundations!

". 5nstalling the electrical collection lines and transformers!

4. recting the turbines! and

C. *onstruction of the substation and building.

*igure " ' Bomponents of a /indfarm in the 9nited ;tates. 7


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#he wind resource assessmentand approvals for a windfarmare often the longest acti&ities inthe de&elopment of the wind energy proGect. #hese can tae up to years in the case of a largewindfarm reuiring a comprehensi&e en&ironmental impact study.

he construction itself can normally be completed within one year.

#he precise determination of the wind resource at a gi&en site is one of the most importantaspects in the de&elopment of a wind energy proGect as thea&ailable wind resource at the proGectsite can dramatically impact the cost of wind energy production.

In the case where apre-feasibility studyindicates that a proposed wind energy proGect could befinancially &iable, it is typically recommended that a proGect de&eloper tae at least a full year ofwind measurements at the e4act location where the wind energy proGect is going to be installed.

(igure ?shows the installation of a 0 m tall meteorologi'cal mast at the B-E+># >nergy#echnology Bentre Aarennes in Banada.

*igure ' Installation of a 0 m +eteorological +ast.


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7earn how wind energy is generated and stored for use in this most peculiar area, and its impacton li&ing things both near and far.

Cant see this &ideo? Clic$ hereto %atch it on @outube.

9esource:CLEA7 E7E!-@ P!8ECT A7AL@S9S< !ETSC!EE7 E7-97EE!97- " CASESTEBT> Canmet Energy Technology Centre

$#. 'at 9s Te "urpose 4% 'ind /arm

Cigting+>E; wind turbine)

9esource:-reening the ind En&ironmental and Social Considerations or ind Po%erDe&elopment -eorge C. Ledec, >ennan . !app and !oberto -. Aiello

$$. How to Monitor 'ind peed 1ystery Or ot?

/hen considering wind power, most people as what the average annual wind speedis and howto get that number. #he usual response is that you must monitor thewind speed at your sitefor atleast 12 months, preferably longer, to determine whether a wind generator will wor for you.

%ounds too longI &ell3 yes and noJ

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*or a home system, this isn6t necessary. #he costs in&ol&ed in collecting wind data may not beGustified when compared to the total cost of a small wind machine.

here is no economic formula to determine this! but it doesnBt make much sense to

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