ALR732BWk2Topic2LecNotes2015

8/18/2019 ALR732BWk2Topic2LecNotes2015

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ACO410/ACX702: Communication Research Methods 2015

Week 2- O!"C 2: heoretica# !aradi$ms and Conce%ts &!re%ared '( ) Weerakkod(*

Assi$ned Readin$s: e+t'ook - Chapter 2: Reading 2.1- Kizilos (2008); Reading 2.2- Cooke (2004)In opi! 1" #e learnt a$o%t e%istemo#o$ies and their relationship to theoreti!al perspe!ti&es or paradig's"

'ethodologies and resear!h 'ethods. his opi! ea'ines a e# !o''on paradig's %sed in 'edia and

!o''%ni!ation resear!h along #ith se&eral ke*#ords s%!h as conce%ts, constructs" aria'#es et!.

heoretica# !ers%ecties or Research !aradi$ms

!aradi$ms: ho'as K%hn (1+,+). In the si'plest o ter's" a paradig' is a #a* o looking at so'ething. e.g.

he a'o%s dra#ing" #hi!h !an $e seen as that o an old or *o%ng #o'an. ee ig%re 2.2 on page 1+ intet$ook (/ld *o%ng #o'an); he earth as lat or ro%nd.

aradig's organize o%r o$ser&ations and help %s 'ake sense o the'3. e.g. ooking at ood ro' the points o

&ie# (or paradig's) o n%trition" aestheti!s (as art)" e!ono'i!s" !%lt%re" histor*" or so!iolog* (so!ial pra!ti!es).In other #ords" the sa'e pheno'enon iss%e e&ent et!. !an $e ea'ined ro' dierent an$#es or %aradi$ms.

5o#e&er" the paradig' %sed at a gi&en ti'e lo!ks %s into it at the epense o others" at least 'o'entaril*" as #esa# #ith the dra#ing 'entioned a$o&e. 6ierent paradig's or points-o-&ie# !an pro&ide dierent

eplanations and %nderstandings o the sa'e iss%epheno'enone&ent et!. In the s!ien!es" #ell kno#n paradig's !an $e 6ar#in3s heor* o 7&ol%tion; 7instein3s heor* o Relati&it* et!.

Chan$in$ %aradi$ms: t an* gi&en ti'e in so!iet*" so'e paradig's do'inate" to $e !hallenged $* others. e.g.

6ar#in3s heor* o 7&ol%tion &s Intelligent design. In the p%re s!ien!es" paradig's chan$e #hen the* are

dispro&ed or their li'itations short!o'ings are pointed o%t" and are repla!ed $* ne# ones. e.g. .rom seeingthe earth as lat to ro%nd. aradig' !hanges !an lead to dierent resear!h indings. e.g. ter seeing the #orld

as ro%nd" Col%'$%s !o%ld sail #est#ards in sear!h on India" #hi!h led to his dis!o&ering3 the 'eri!as. In the

so!ial s!ien!es" dierent paradig's o the sa'e pheno'enon 'a* re'ain side $* side #ith so'e $eing 'ore pop%lar and do'inant o&er others at a gi&en ti'e. o'e 'a* e&en ret%rn to a&o%r later. e.g. 9arshall

9!%han3s theories #ere &er* pop%lar in the 1+,0s $%t #ere less so in the late 1+0s and 1+80s. %t the*

ret%rned to do'inan!e in the 'id-1++0s and still re'ain so.


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sa'pling" operational deinitions et!.) d%ring the resear!h pro!ess. !!ording to positi&is'" resear!h indings

des!ri$e the relationships #e 'ight logi!all* epe!t a'ong &aria$les.

enera#ised 8as: ositi&ists rel* on t#o t*pes o eplanations or or's o causa# reasonin$. he* are: a)

Nomothetic and $) Idiographic t*pes o eplanation.

)omothetic &i e $enera#* (%e o 9+%#anation: Ao'otheti! eplanations identi* a e# !a%sal a!tors

ae!ting a !ategor* o sit%ations or e&ents (instead o a single sit%ation) in a parsi'onio%s 'anner. It is a 'ore

generalisa$le eplanation. e.g. 6eakin %ni&ersit* eperien!ed a all in de'and or I !o%rses ater 2002. his#as o%nd to $e !o''on to


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In a s*ste'" a resear!her needs to st%d* it as a #hole3 instead o the dierent parts in isolation. e.g.

Resear!h in&ol&ing ee!ts o E &iolen!e on !hildren !annot =%st st%d* the E !ontent and kids3 $eha&io%r.

(Reer to the 6E6" 6oes E KillD-1++>). he* need to ea'ine the !ontet o their li&es #ith respe!t to their

s!hool ho'e li&es" parents" neigh$o%rhood" and !o''%nit* in #hi!h the* li&e" ho# '%!h E the* #at!h"

#hat other progra's the* #at!h" #hat other a!ti&ities 'edia are a&aila$le to the' in order to ea'ine their

s(ner$(" interactions, corre#ations and interre#ationshi%s


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thro%gh the e*es o the resear!hed (e.g. nthropologi!al resear!h &ia parti!ipant o$ser&ation or B%alitati&e

inter&ie#ingtet anal*sis)" to gain insights as to #h* people do !ertain things in a !ertain #a* in a gi&ensit%ation !ontet !%lt%re and #hat !ertain a!tionspheno'ena 'ean to the'. e.g. In the il' Donny Brasco,

a!tor Gohnn* 6epp pla*s the real lie I agent Go istone #ho iniltrated the 9aia. @hen asked" he eplains to

his I !olleag%es #hat orgedda$o%ddid3 'eans to 9aia 'e'$ers.

Ru#es: In the interpreti&ist paradig'" the st%d* o 'eaning is related to the st%d* o r%les. r%le is a !o''onl*

shared $elie a'ong 'e'$ers o a gro%p or s%$!%lt%re a$o%t appropriate a!tion3. R%les spe!i* #hat is

allo#eden!o%raged not per'itted in the so!ial gro%pso!iet* #e $elong to. e.g. R%les o lang%age s%!h asgra''ar" spelling" and st*le in #riting; 5o# to $eha&e in a %ni&ersit* !lassroo' in %stralia.

n interpreti&ist resear!her ea'ines the !o''%ni!ati&e a!tions o a gro%p or setting to %nderstand the r%lesappli!a$le to the'. e.g. alinese !o!kights and its r%les on $etting; ho%ting3 in %stralian p%$s.

he Critica# !aradi$m (G%ergen 5a$er'as"1+1)

Criti!al theor* or the !riti!al ea'ination o the so!ial str%!t%re tries to ea'ine the po#er relations andideolog* e'$edded in a gi&en sit%ation and arg%es a$o%t #hat is #rong or %nair in so!iet*" #hose interests are

ser&ed in the pro!ess (generall* the 'ore po#er%l) and tries to 'ake positi&e !hanges to so!iet* ('ake things

$etter). (e.g. 6o ?ooders3; leeding 5earts3; /rganisations s%!h as Amnesty International ; @histle$lo#ers;nti-?lo$alisation !a'paigners et!.) It is !redited to the rank%rt !hool Instit%te or o!ial Resear!h (9a

5orkhei'er" heodore dorno" 5er$ert 9er!%se"1+2H). It is 9arist in origin (Karl 9ar" 1818-188H) and seesso!ial $eha&io%r as a pro!ess o !onli!t F an atte'pt to do'inate others or to a&oid $eing do'inated $* others.

9ar3s ideas #ere 'ainl* $ased on the !lass str%ggle. his is no# etended to gender" age" ra!e" ethni!it*"se%al orientation et!. It also !hallenges the ass%'ption that em%irica# o'seration (positi&is') is the onl*

path#a* to kno#ledge3.

Critica# Re#ection: Reers to an ea'ination o a data set to identi* its ideologi!al $ias and ho# it ae!ts and

indi!ates the po#er relations in so!iet*. e.g. ooking at teen 'o&ie !ontent prod%!ed $* po#er%l ad%lts and

st%dios and ho# it negati&el* ae!ts teens (tern" 200>).

Characteristics o critica# theor(: he !riti!al paradig' ass%'es that ideo#o$( and %oer shape so!ial

eperien!e and tries to epose the &al%es e'$edded in the'" hoping to enlighten (ed%!ate) and e'an!ipate(ree) the ae!ted 'e'$ers or gro%ps. e.g. etting oppressed gro%ps (e.g. eens) kno# the %nairness o their

sit%ation (e.g. negati&e 'edia portra*als); that it need not $e so; #h* and ho# it is 'aintained and ho# to

re!ti* or !hange it to $eneit the disad&antagede&er*one. It also tries to sho# #hose interests (generall* o

those in po#er) are ser&ed $* the stat%s B%o (the #a* things are). e.g. o#er%l 'en or the patriar!h* telling#o'en that the* sho%ld not do or or their o#n good e&en i the sit%ation is %nair and disad&antageo%s to

'ost #o'en.

A%%#ications o Critica# heor(: Co''%ni!ation resear!h in the !riti!al paradig' 'a* ea'ine ho# so!ial

!lasspatriar!h* ra!is'ethno!entris'ageis' et!. are reprod%!ed in E portra*als o &ario%s so!ial gro%ps.

e.g. 7thni! 'inorit* 'e'$ers portra*ed as &illains; teens as selish; the %ne'plo*ed as laz* to #orkdr%nks

et!.; /r e'inist resear!h 'a* ea'ine ho# proessional #o'en are portra*ed in e and the Cit*3 as%nhapp*" d*ing to 'arr* and $e!o'e a 'other3 et!. e&en tho%gh proessional 'en are not portra*ed that #a*.

his tries to sa* that the traditional gender roles #ere $est or #o'en and tr*ing to go against the' 'akes

#o'en %nhapp*" lonel* et!.

e* he .unctiona#ist !aradi$m

Introd%!ed $* %g%ste Co'te (18+,)" 5er$ert pen!er (18+,)" 7'il 6%rkhei' (1+82) and

anthropologists R Rad!lie-ro#n (1+H>) and ranisla# 9alino#ski (1+48) and others" this paradig'ass%'es that so!ial str%!t%res and pro!esses (the #a* #e do things) ha&e spe!ii! %n!tions (a!tions or %ses) and

a 'e!hanis' to 'aintain those str%!t%res and pro!esses.

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Characteristics o unctiona#ism: his paradig' tries to eplain #h* people $eha&e the #a* the* do or the

reasons $ehind spe!ii! so!ial $eha&io%rs and #hat !a%ses people to $eha&e in a parti!%lar #a*. e.g. he =ses

and ratiications heor( sees people !ons%'ing 'edia 'essages to o$tain so'e uses (%n!tions s%!h as

gaining inor'ation and kno#ledge; ill ti'e et!.) as #ell as gratifications (pleas%res s%!h as entertain'ent"

es!ape et!.) in the pro!ess.ater resear!h !arried o%t %nder this paradig' #as %sed to s%ggest ho# things 'a* $e i'pro&ed $*

looking at ho# and #h* people do things a parti!%lar #a* and ho# things #ork. It is kno#n as AdministratieResearch and is rooted in the Co#um'ia ;choo# e.g. a%l azarseld" ernard erelson" 5azel ?a%det (1+48)

at Col%'$ia < in Ae# ork #ith their st%dies on Eoting $eha&ior; ppli!ations o !ersuasion theor( in Rand ad&ertising; 9a#uation research or !ro$ram ea#uation in R

he )ature o 9+%#anation under 9ach !aradi$m

here are three t*pes o eplanation o resear!h indings. he* are:

i) Ca%se and 7e!t eplanations ii) %n!tion 7planations and iii) Reason 7planations.

i) Cause and 9ect 9+%#anations: 6eals #ith identi*ing the pro$a$le !a%ses o h%'an $eha&io%r

thro%gh rigoro%s" e'piri!al o$ser&ation. /ten %sed in %ositiism and the nat%ral s!ien!es. e.g.?ro#th o plants as d%e to light" #ater" n%trients et!.

ii) .unction 9+%#anations: "nter%retiist resear!hers look or 'eanings #hile ;(stems s!holars lookor %n!tions o a person3s $eha&io%r as a 'e'$er o a s*ste' or gro%p and ho# indi&id%al a!tions'a* inl%en!e the gro%p so!iet*. .unctiona#ist resear!hers ea'ine ho# and #h* things #ork in a

parti!%lar #a*.

iii) Reason 9+%#anations: Critica# resear!hers look at an iss%e as to its ineB%alities (%nairness) and

reasons or the' (#hose interests are ser&ed in the pro!ess) and po#er i'$alan!es in so!iet*.

Mu#timethod Research

9%lti'ethod resear!h %ses 'ore than one 'ethodologi!al tool or a spe!ii! st%d*. hese tools !an $e

ro' the sa'e paradig' or dierent ones and 'i $oth B%antitati&e and B%alitati&e data in the sa'e pro=e!t.J%alitati&e data !an s%pple'ent B%antitati&e indings. e.g. %r&e*s (B%antitati&e) !an !arr* open-ended

B%estions (B%alitati&e);


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#ithin a gi&en !ontet. e.g. keen st%dent3 or a gi&en resear!h pro=e!t !o%ld $e deined as one #ho attends

80 o !lasses" and does at least > o ea!h #eek3s assigned readings and t%d* g%ide eer!ises3.

9+am%#e: he ?riith (aria'#es ? Corre#ations

aria'#e is the e'piri!al (o$ser&a$le or 'eas%ra$le) !o%nterpart o a !onstr%!t. &aria$le des!ri$es ho# a

!onstr%!t is 'eas%red and has a set o &al%es assigned to it. hese &al%es !an $e either B%antitati&e orB%alitati&e. e.g. he aria'#e o se3 #ith the a#ues or cate$ories 'ale or e'ale3 (J%alitati&e or non-

n%'eri!al) or a person3s age as 40 *ears (B%antitati&e or n%'eri!al). It is so'ething that &aries or !hanges#hi!h !an $e 'eas%red and 'anip%lated. e.g. 6ierent o$ser&ations (sa* or the aria'#e ?rades re!ei&ed in a!lass3) or the a#ues 'ales and e'ales. &aria$le !an also take dierent and se&eral &al%es on a continuum

e.g. Kno#ledge o a s%$=e!t as not at all3" lo#3" 'oderate3" high3 and &er* high3.

Changes #ithin a &aria$le !an $e 'eas%red $* o$ser&ing ho# it !hanges ro' one &al%e to another. e.g. 5o#do *o% eel a$o%t D3 !an $e 'eas%red on a s!ale o 1 to > as &er* little3 to &er* '%!h3; or 5o# '%!h E do

*o% #at!hD s light (less than 10 ho%rs a #eek)" 'oderate (11-20 ho%rs a #eek) or hea&* (21-40 ho%rs a #eek).

his allo#s the resear!her to !o'pare dierent gro%ps o people e.g. 5ea&* &s light and 'oderate E &ie#ers.

Corre#ation: * 'eas%ring &aria$les" #e !an ea'ine i !hanges in one &aria$le" !orresponds to !hanges in

another. e.g. I ne#spaper reading de!reases #hen E &ie#ing in!reases $* the sa'e person. lease note thatcorre#ation is not the sa'e as causa#it( (one does not !a%se !hanges in the other $%t the* appear to go

together). e.g. e# 'onths ater a ne# C7/ takes o&er at E Aet#ork " its ratings go do#n. !hange in

'anage'ent is !orrelated #ith lo# ratings. %t this !o%ld $e d%e to it $eing an /l*'pi!s *ear and the ri&al E

Aet#ork #hi!h had the $road!ast rights leading the ratings. he !hanges to ratings or Aet#ork #ere not

necessari#( !a%sed $* the !hange in C7/ or his $ad poli!ies'anage'ent.

(%es o >aria'#es: Earia$les are also deined $ased on their relationship to one another. he Independentvariale is the one s(stematica##( chan$ed or mani%u#ated $* the resear!her that prod%!es !hanges in the

Dependent &ariale, the latter $eing the one #hi!h the resear!her hopes to eplain. e.g. 'o%nt o &iolent E

#at!hed $* a parent (light" 'oderate" hea&*) as the Independent variale and ho# parents think o the ee!ts o

&iolent !ontent on E on their !hildren3s $eha&io%r (not a pro$le'" so'e#hat pro$le'ati!" &er* pro$le'ati!) asthe Dependent variale.

@hat $e!o'es the 6ependent or Independent &aria$le is shaped $* the p%rpose o the indi&id%al resear!h

pro=e!t" and the resear!h B%estionh*pothesis ea'inedtested. @hen there is 'ore than one independent

&aria$le or se&eral dependent &aria$les" it is !alled a mu#tiariate ana#(sis

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Re#ationshi%s 'eteen >aria'#es

here are dierent t*pes o relationships that !an eist $et#een the !orresponding independent and dependent&aria$les. (ee page H in tet$ook or the rele&ant ig%res 2.H to 2..) he* are:

8inear: s one &aria$le !hanges" so does one or 'ore o the others. his indi!ates the eisten!e o an

independent and dependent &aria$le and their !hanges ollo#ing a predi!ta$le pattern. (In a graph $et#een these&aria$les" one #o%ld get a straight line.)

!ositie s )e$atie: he relationship $et#een &aria$les !an $e either positi&e or negati&e. ositi&e is #henone &aria$le in!reases" the other in!reases as #ell. In negati&e" as the &al%es o one &aria$le in!reases" the

other3s de!reases.

)on-#inear: Ao dire!t relationship $et#een &aria$les" #here 'an* relationships $et#een the ele'ents o a

!o''%ni!ation pro!ess intera!ts d*na'i!all* #ith others.

Curi#inear:


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A @(%othesis: h*pothesis" #hi!h is dire!tl* tested $* a resear!her" is a or'al state'ent a$o%t the testedrelationship $et#een &aria$les. he predi!ted relationship in a h*pothesis is to $e either tr%e or alse and not

$oth. h*pothesis is 'ore spe!ii! as to #hat is $eing tested and '%st $e alsiia$le (pro&en #rong) $* ha&ing

onl* one possi$ilit* listed. e.g. It #ill rain to'orro#3 and not It #ill or #ill not rain to'orro#3.

h*pothesis !an $e a predi!tion o a relationship dieren!e $et#een t#o &aria$les and as statisti!all* related

either positi&el* or negati&el*. e.g. @at!hing 'ore o C ne#s 'akes one 'ore kno#ledgea$le a$o%t

!%rrent aairs (positi&e); he higher the =o$ satisa!tion o e'plo*ees at an organisation" the lo#er its stat%rno&er (lea&ing the organization) #ill $e (negati&e).

A Research uestion: resear!h B%estion is %sed #hen a resear!her is not !ertain a$o%t the nat%re o the pro$le' %nder st%d*. resear!h B%estion is a or'all* stated B%estion intended to pro&ide an idea a$o%t

so'ething and is not li'ited to in&estigating relationships $et#een &aria$les. resear!h B%estion onl* poses a

general area or ea'ination that helps gather data" #hi!h !an later lead to the de&elop'ent o testa$leh*potheses. e.g. @hat are the 'ain so%r!es o inor'ation or people #ho are #ell &ersed in !%rrent aairsD

A Corres%ondin$ Research uestion &R* and @(%othesis &@*:

R: 6oes E lead to distortions o realit* or !hildrenD@: !hild3s le&el o distortion o realit* is dire!tl* related to the a'o%nt and t*pes o E progra's the !hild

&ie#s.

oa#s o Research

oa#s o Research: 1. ?eneral 2. heoreti!al H. rag'ati! and 4. oliti!al

eneral oals Related to pure research #here kno#ledge is so%ght or the sake o kno#ledge. e.g 7a'ine

#hat !a%ses a !ertain diseaseail'ent in h%'ans.

!heoretical oals lso related to pure research" resear!h #ith theoreti!al goals #ill !he!k" &eri*" alsi*"

'odi* or dis!o&er a theor*. e.g. 7a'ining the s!ientii!$iologi!al $asis or a diseaseail'ent and a theor* is

de&eloped as to ho# it is !a%sed 'a* $e !%red.

0ragmatic oals Related to applied research" prag'ati! goals o a theor* seek to ea'ine i it has an*

pra!ti!al or !o''er!ial %ses. e.g. 6e&elop a R !a'paign to ed%!ate the p%$li! a$o%t the disease and its

!a%ses pre&ention or de&elop a treat'ent phar'a!e%ti!al dr%g to treat it.

0olitical oals Related to applied research, resear!h #ith a politi!al goal #ill %se the indings to de&elop

so!ial poli!*" e&al%ate a (R) progra' related to it or pro&ide so!ial !riti!is'. e.g. d&o!ate a poli!* onin!l%ding the 'edi!ines that treat this diseaseail'ent %nder the har'a!e%ti!al eneits !he'e () to 'ake

it aorda$le to s%erers.

;ummar( o !aradi$ms

he !ositiist !aradi$m: ?enerall* #orks #ith B%antitati&e data looking at a pheno'enon at the le&el o ea!h&aria$le. 6ata are o$ser&a$le'eas%ra$le %sing the i&e senses.

he ;(stems !aradi$m: ?enerall* #orks #ith B%antitati&e data" $%t takes a 'ore holisti! approa!h to ea'ine

the pheno'ena %nder st%d*.

he "nter%retiist !aradi$m: ?enerall* %ses non-n%'eri!al or B%alitati&e data s%!h as #ords or &is%al i'ages

(in &ideotapes et!.).


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he Critica# !aradi$m:

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ALR732BWk2Topic2LecNotes2015