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ALGAE AN AN INDICATOR OF FRESH WATER COASTAL OUTFLOW IN HAWAII
by
Timothy W. Brilliande
&
Larry K. Lepley
Technical ~1emorandum Report No .25,
February 1971
Water Resources Research CenterUniversity of Hawaii
Honolulu, Hawaii
ABSTRACT
Zonation of algal communities in the intertidal areas of the Hawaiianislands has been correlated with zones of reduced salinity caused by submarine fresh-water springs.
Laboratory salinity tolerance experiments showed that the greenseaweed VIva (known as "sea lettuce") tolerated brackish water of halfof normal ocean salinity~ whereas~ Acanthophora sp. did not.
A field survey of salinity and algal species zonation at a coastalspring on the island of Oahu between Diamond Head and Black Point verifiedthe laboratory findings and showed VIva fasciata, Peyssoneila sp.~ and·Gelidium sp. predominating in the brackish areas and Acanthophora sp. andSargassum sp. in the areas of higher salinity.
An algal-salinity survey between Kawaihae and Kona on the island ofHawaii showed that~ along most of the coastline~ algal communities werenon-existent or too sparse for use as a salinity indicator.
Spectral measurements and photographic experiments showed that twosalinity indicators~ Ulva sp. (low salinity) and Sargassum sp. (highsalinity) could be mapped by color infrared photography from aircraft.Wratten #12 (yellow) and Kodak CC50C-2 (cyan) filters with Type 8843Ektachrome IR film were used to enhance the color differences of thesespecies from each other and from their backgrounds.
For limited~ accessible areas~ established communities of marinealgae can be mapped direct7y to derive a map of time-averaged salinityanomalies. For large or inaccessible areas~ aerial infrared photographywith appropriate filters is recommended.
ii
CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES iv,
LIST OF FIGURES ..........................•....................... iii
INTRODUCTION 1
LABORATORY STUDI ES 3Procedures eo_ ••••••••• 3
RESULTS OF LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS 7
FIELD STUDIES ON OAHU ~ ~ 7Procedures ....................................•................7
RESULTS OF FIELD STUDIES ON THE ISLAND OF OAHU ~ 16
FIELD STUDIES ON HAWAII. 16
RESULTS OF FI ELD STUDI ES ON THE ISLAND OF HA~~AI I. 30
. DISCUSSION OF THE FIELD AND LABORATORY RESULTS 37
INFRARED APPLICATIONS OF ALGAE AS A FRESH-WATER INDICATOR 38Ground Mapping of Time-Averaged Marine Spring Flow...........• 38Aerial Mapping of Coastal Marine Springs 39
CONCLUS IONS 43
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 48
REFERENCES 49
LIST OF TABLES
1. Phyla of the three alga studied 22. Taxonomic breakdown of eight genera of algae 23. Field descriptions ~ 34. Density-salinity conversion table at standard temperature 55. Hydrometer readings for survey site on Oahu .....•............. ll6. Results of the survey at Study Site 1 137. Results of the survey taken at seepage area near Lae 0 Il i. 238. Key to Kahaluu survey map 32
Figure1
2
3
4
5
6a
fib
6c
6d
LIST OF FIGURES
Eight Species of Algae Common to the Hawaiian Islands ..••.....4Algal Reaction to Laboratory Salinity Tests ..........•........8Map of Diamond Head Survey Area: Study Sites 1 and 2 9Map of Salinity and Frequency of Algal Species Presentat Study Site 1. . ..•........................•................. 12Composite Graph of the Percentage of Occurrence of AlgalSpecies Present at Study Site 1..........•....•..••..•...•.••15Percentage Range and Mean of Occurrence of Ulva Fasciata andSargassum sp., Within the Algal Areas Present, Relative toSal inity at Study Site 1.......................•......••..... 17Percentage Range and Mean of Occurrence of Gelidi~m~~.,Within the Algal Areas Present, Relative to Salinity atStudy Site 1....••.•.......................•......•.......... 18Percentage Range and Mean of Occurrence of Acanthophora sp.,Within the Algal Areas Present Relative to Salinity atStudy Site 1 ~ 19Percentage Range and Mean of Occurrence of Peyssoneila sp.,~~ithin the Algal Areas Present, Relative to Salinity atStudy Site 1 20
7 Map of Study Sites on the Island of Hawaii .•....•.••.••...•.. 2l8 Map of Salinity and Frequency of Algal Species Present at theSeepage Area Near Lae 0 11i ..............•..........•••.•..•. 249a Percentage Range and Mean of Occurrence of Gelidium sp.,Within the Algal Areas Present, Relative to Salinity at
Lae 0 Ili ~ 25·9b Percentage Range and Mean of Occurrence of Red Algal Scum,Within the Algal Areas Present, Relative to Salinity at
Lae 0 11 i- ~ 269c Percentage Range and Mean of Occurrence of Brown Algal Scum,Within the Algal Areas Present, Relative to Salinity at
LaeOIli 279d Percentage Range and Mean of Occurrence of Ulva Fasciatawithin the Algal Areas Present, Relative to Salinity at
La e 0 11 ie 28
10 Composite Graph of the Percentage of Occurrence of AlgalSpecies Present at the Seepage Area Near Lae q 11i ..•.•...... 29.11 Map of Salinity and Frequency of Algal Species Present atKahaluu Beach ....•.........................•................. 3112a Percentage Range and Mean of Occurrence of Gelidium sp.,Within the Algal Areas Present, Relative to Salinity at
Kahaluu Beach ........................................•........33
12b
12c
13
14
15
16
17
18
Percentage Range and Mean of Occurrence of Red Algal Scum,Within the Algal Areas Present, Relative to Salinity atKahaluu Beach~ ...........•.................................. ' .34
Percentage Range and Mean of Occurrence of Ulva Reticulata,Within the Algal Areas Present, Relative to Salinity atKahaluu Beach ...............•....................•...........35Composite Graph of the Percentage of Occurrence of AlgalSpecies Present at Kahaluu Beach 36Aerial Photograph of Nearshore Algal Communities inNatural Color ..................................•..............41Aerial Infrared False Color Photograph of Nearshore AlgalCommunities (Identical Site With That Shown in Figure 14).Using Various Yellow Filters ~ 41Reflection Spectra of Sargassum andUlva Fasciata .•..........42Filter Transmission Curves ........•.•...........•.•......••..44
Aerial Infrared False Color Photograph of Study Sites1 a.nd 2..... e- •••••••••• ~ ••••• ' ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••• 45
19 'Aerial Natural Color Photograph of Study Sites 1 and 2....•. .4520 Ecological Distribution of Species Relativ~ to
Salinity Variance •...................•.... ; .•......••......•.. 47
INTRODUCTION
It has long been known that marine algae are affected by the salinity
of the water. Furthermore, it has been suspected that differential algal
growth occurs around coastal outflows of fresh water in Hawaii. It was
the purpose of this study to establish a quantitative relationship between
algal growth and coastal outflows of fresh water and, ultimately, to
develop techniques for mapping fresh coastal outflows on the basis of
algal occurrences. Although Kohout and Kolipinski (1967) have established
such a correlation for the waters off Florida, such investigations have
not been made in Hawaii.
During September to December 1968, laboratory experiments were con
ducted at the Waikiki Aquarium and field surveys were carried out on marine
algae in several locations along the coasts of the islands of Oahu and
Hawaii where fresh water seeps into the ocean. These experiments helped
to verify the field work findings in the environmental studies, that there
exists definite ecological zones of flora in response to salinity fluctua
tions over extreme time exposures in the intertidal zones of Hawaiian
coastline. Based on past botanical investigations by Brilliande 1 , the
most likely algal indicators of fresh water mixing areas near or along
coastlines on Oahu and Hawaii were expected to be species in the Chlorophyta
and Rhodophyta phyla.
A short algal taxonomy is here presented asa guideline for readers
without prior botanical knowledge. The three main divisions of macrosco
pic algae are Rhodophyta (red algae), Chlorophyta (green algae), and Phaeo
phyta (brown algae). Within these three divisions there are eight genera
of interest to this report: Peyssoneila~ Acanthophora~ Amansia~ Gelidium~
Sargassum~ Enteromorpha~ Ulva~ and Dictyospaeria. Color, however, can be
quite deceptive to the novice. For example, several colors beside red are
encountered in the Rhodophyta. The full and detailed characteristics used
to distinguish the three main algal divisions and the eight general pre
viously stated, are too complex for the purpose of this report. However,
in the following pages, a short table on the three algal divisions (Tables
Brilliande, Timothy. 1968. An ecological algal study of a smailquadrant off Diamond Head Beach~ Oahu. A report done of Bot. 181at the University of Hawaii under Dr. Neushec.
2
1, 2, and 3) and picture (Fig. 1) of some of the Hawaiian species in each
of the eight genera are included to facilitate identification.
TABLE 1. PHYLA OF THE THREE ALGA STUDIED.
CQ'AMONPROPORTION MARINE
APPROX. NO. MARINE PREDC1'1I NANT OCCURRENCE .PHYLUH OF LIVING SP. (PERCENT) SIZE (APPROX. DEPTH IN FT)
CHLOROPHYTA 7000 13 MICROSCOPIC BENTI-lOS, 0-100GREEN ALGN:. TO tt\ASS IVE
PHAEOPHYTA 1500 99.7 MICROSCOPIC BENTI-lOS, 0-100BROWN ALGAE TO MASSIVE
RODOPHYTA 4000 98 MICROSCOPIC BENTHOS, 0-100RED ALGAE TO MASSIVE
TABLE 2.
PHYLUM:ORDER:FAMILY:GENERA:GENERA:
ORDER:FAMILY:GENERA:
PHYlU'1:ORDER:FAMILY:GENERA:
PHYLlX-1:CLASS:ORDER:FAMILY:GENERA:
ORDER:FAMILY:GENERA:
ORDER:FAMILY:GENERA:GENERA:
TAXONOMIC BREAKDOWN OF 8 GENERA OF ALGAE.
CHLOROPHYTAULORKICHALESULVACEAEEnteromorpha (ABOUT 18 SPECIES, COSMOPOLITAN)UZva (ABOUT 13 SPECIES, COSMOPOLITAN)
SIPHONOCLADALESVALONIACEAEDictyospaeria (4 SPECIES, TROPICAL ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC)
PHAEOPHYTAFUCALESSARGASSACEAESargassum (ABOUT 23 SPECIES, TROPICAL AT~~IC AND PACIFIC)
RHODOPHYTAFLORI DEOPHYC IDAEGELIDIALESGECIDIACEAEGeZidiwn (28 SPECIES, TEMPERATE AND TROPICAL ATLANTIC AND
PACIFIC)CRYPTONEMIALESSQUAMANIACEAEPeyssoneiZa (9 SPECIES, TEMPERATE TO TROPICAL PACIFIC AND
ATLANTIC)
CERAMIALESPHODQ\1ELACEAEAmansia (1 SPECIES)Acanthophora (2 SPECIES)
3
TABLE 3. FIELD DESCRIPTIONS .
SPECIES
Dictyospaeria sp •
Sargasswn sp •
Ulva fasciata
Enteromorpha sp.
Peyssoneila sp'.
Acanthophora sp.
Amansia sp.
Gelidiwn sp.
COLOR
GREEN TO BLUE GREEN
BROWN TO DARK BROWN
LIGHT GREEN TO DARKGREEN
GREEN
PINK
LIGHT BROWN TO BLACK
RED TO BRIGHT RED
MANY SHADES RED ANDGREEN
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SMOOTH SURFACE WITH MANY HOLL~I CHAMBERSWITHIN. CQ~SISTENCY IS BRITTLE ANDCRUNCHY.
ROUGH, SCRATCHY SURFACE. SMALL AIR BLADDEN OFTEN PRESENT. THE STRANDS ARE RUBBERY AND TOUGH. LENGTH FROM 6 TO 24 INCHESLONG.
SURFACE IS SMOOTH, SOMETIMES SLIMY TO THETOUCH. CONSISTENCY IS SIMILAR TO THINPLASTIC. 6 TO 18 INCHES IN LENGTH.
TEXTURE SMOOTH· TO SLIMY. THE'STRANDS AREHAIR-LIKE, 6 TO 12 INCHES IN LENGTH.
IT IS A CALCAREOUS ALGAE WHICH ENCRUSTSROCKS AND CORAL.
TEXTURE OF THE STRANDS IS ROUGH USUALLY •.THE STRANDS ARE OFTEN STIFF AND RUBBERY.4 TO 8 INOiES IN LENGTH.
THE FILAMENTS ARE IN A CLOSELY PACKEDTUfT. THE TEXTURE OF THE. TUFT IS STIFFAND SPONGY, WITH THE INDIVIDUAL FI LAMENTSBEING LIKE THIN PLASTIC. 1 TO 6 INC~~S
HIGH.
THE LENGTHS MAY VARY FROf"1 1/2" TO 7" TO 8"IN LENGTH. THE fILAMENTS ARE USUALLY BLADELIKE, BUT SOME SPECIES ARE SIMILAR TOAcanthophora sp •
iI!
LABORATORY STUDIES
Procedures
Laboratory salinity experiments were conducted during October and
November 1968. The experiments were divided into tw~ parts: an indoor
study under biolights (artificial sunlight sources), using species ob
tained from the Diamond Head beach area, and an outdoor study in natural
sunlight using species found in shallow water in front of the Waikiki
Aquarium. In both tests, white plastic buckets were used as salt-water
4
UL.VA FACIATA
2 GEL/DIUM Sp.
3 SARGA,$Sl./M Sp.
4 ENTEROMORPHA Sp.
5 DICTYOSPAERIA sp.
a AMANS/A sp.
7 PEYSSONEILA sp.
a ACANTHOPHORA sp.
FIGURE 1. EIGHT SPECIES OF ALGAE COMMON TO THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.
5
aquariums. All other colors of plastic buckets contained large quanti
ties of harmful chemicals (due to the pigmentation) which interfered
with experimental accuracy. ,The water used in these experiments ranged
in density from .995 g/ml to 1.023 g/ml (.995 g/ml is the density of
fresh water at approximately 2°C and 1.023 g/ml is the density of sea
water at Diamond Head Beach and the Waikiki Aquarium). Table 4 shows
the conversion from density in g/ml to salinity in parts per thousand
(%0) for the solutions used in this study. All buckets were well
aerated to provide the necessary oxygen and water movement needed for
algal survival in the restricted area \qithin the bucket aquarium. Sam
ples of algae, still attached to the rocks on which they were growing,
were taken to the laboratory immediately after collection so that the
algae were disturbed as little as possible. Thus, other than for field
transplants, algae were tested for salinity tolerances with as few
disturbances as possible.
In the indoor laboratory experiments using algae species found at
Diamond Head, UZvafasaiata was used in two different experimental runs
of 3 days each. The first run used unfiltered sea water from the algal
extraction area at Diamond Head and tap water diluted to the eight
desired densities is shown in Table 4.
TABLE 4. DENSITY-SALINITY CONVERSION TABLE AT STANDARD TEMPERATURE.
TANK NO.
CONTROL
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
DENSITY SALINITy:tG/ML CO/00)
1.023 35.
1.021 . 32.
1.017 27.
1.014 24.5
1.011 20.
1.008 15.
1.005 11.
1.002 7.
.995 3.
::0 0/ 00 = FRESH WATER35 0/00 = NORMAL SALINITY OF HAWAIIA~ SEA WATER
THE ABOVE DENSITY RANGE WAS MAINTAINED THROUGHOUT ALL OF THE ALGALSALINITY TOLERANCE EXPERIMENTS.
6
In the second run, Hawaiian rock salt was dissolved in tap water
in each tank. (Hawaiian salt is prepared commercially by evaporating
ordinary sea water in large pans in full sunlight.) In each run, the
biolights over the plastic tanks were turned on and off with the rise
and set of the sun to simulate normal seasonal photoperiod. During
the course of the indoor laboratory experimentation it was found that
unfiltered sea water created an ideal environment for planktonic life
in the well-aerated, calm salt water of the algae test tanks. For
this reason, Hawaiian salt added to tap water was used for the saline
solutions in the second series of the indoor experiments.
The Hawaiian salt contains a considerable amount of silt and
other foreign particles which might influence the progress of the
algal response to salinity stress. Consequently, other sources of
saline water were considered for the outdoor experiment, including
natural sea water put through the long process of filtration and ster
ilization. Chemi~ally produced "synthetic sea water" appeared to be
the most practical way to produce the needed saline solutions. This
commercially produced chemical powder, which dissolves in tap water,
quite readily, produces solutions in which the balances of standard.
sea water are duplicated for the first 20 major elements. The outdoor
salinity experiments were conducted with synthetic sea \"ater.
In the outdoor salinity experiments, conducted at the Waikiki
Aquarium, three species of algae, UZva Zaotuaa~ UZva retiouZata, and
Aoanthophora sp .. were studied in three separate experiments lasting
three days each. The algal species were collected from shallow water
on the beach in front of the Waikiki Aquarium. The synthetic salt
water powder was added to tap water in plastic tanks until the desired
densities were reached. Each evening while the experiments were in
progress, sheets of thin plastic were placed over the plastic tanks to
prevent rain or foreign particles from contaminating the tanks. During
the daylight hours the plastic sheets were removed be~ause of their filter
ing and reflecting effect on incoming sunlight. As water evaporated
from the plastic tanks, appropriate amounts of water and powder were
added each morning to re-establish the correct density.
Throughout, and after, each experimental run, the algal specimens
were examined for pigmentation, turgor, and visible signs of deterio-
7
ration. Samples were also cut from the algae, sectioned with a razor
blade, and examined under a microscope for changes in cellular constituents
or condition.
RESULTS OF LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
The most tolerant of the four species examined to fresh water expo
sure was UZva fasciata .. It survived as long as four days without total
destruction of the thallus (Fig. 2). The second most tolerant species
wasUZva Zactuca. As shown in Figure 2, there were two distinct peaks,
one at 1.010 glml and one at .995 glml tank solutions. For this species,
therefore, there seems to be a factor, other than salinity, affecting
plant health in tank conditions. The most frequent trend ·for any a~gal
reaction to salinity change only is a general rise or fall in cellular
health with the reduction or increase of salinity. However, UZva Zactuca
:reached ~t?p~ak at .995 g/ml indicating: that it. can_tolera1:e'-brac~~~~.. ' 7
to fresh water conditions very well. The third most tolerant species was
UZva reticuZata. Having reached a major peak at 1.010 glml, it then
suffered a steady decrease in tolerance towards fresh water, with total
thallus destruction occurring at .995 g/ml. The last species, Acantho
phora sp., peaked at normal sea water composition, 1.023 glml, and de
clined steadily to 1.010 g/ml where its tolerance dropped steeply until
death occurred at 1.002 g/ml. This would indicate that although Acan
thophora sp. is somewhat tolerant to about a 75 percent mixture of sea
water and fresh water, it does not stand up well to a more diluted
mixture.
In general, then, species of Ulva in the Chlorophyta phylum tolerate
lesser salinities while species of Acanthophora of the Rhodophyta phylum
do not.
FIELD STUDIES ON OAHU,
Procedures
Two sites of fresh-water outflo\1l were chosen for the field study
on the island of Oahu. The first area of fresh-water seepage studied was a
quiet cove at the end of Kulamanu Place near Diamond Head crater (Fig. 3).
.-. ULVA FAC/~TA \e-e ULVA R£TICULATAl
• • i..lL VA LACTUCA \
......... ANCANTHOPHORA· ~P'l
CHLORPLASTOR
CHROMOPLASTBREAKDONN
NORMAL
LOSSOF
TURGOR
PLASMOLYSISOR
LYSIS
DEATH
6
1.024 1.020
30
1.016 1.012 1.008
10
1.006
8
.996
DENSITY Co/me)
FIGURE 2. ALGAL REACTION TO LABORATORY SALINITY TESTS.
o1
00
20
03
00
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FIGU
RE3.
MAP
OFDI
AMON
DHE
ADSU
RVEY
AREA
:ST
UDY
SITE
S1
AND
2.
.LV
The eastern side of Kupikipikio Point on the tidal flats of Kahala Beach
\vas the second site. These two locations were chosen because of the
algal community structure. Many genera of the three algal divisions,
Phaeophyta~ Rhodophyta~ and ChZorophyta~ were present. This diverse com
munity, therefore, was ideal for observing the effect of salinity changes
caused by numerous points of seepage on patterns of algal growth over
large areas. At each of the two observation sites, fresh-water outflow
occurred through small holes, 1/4 inch to 1 inch in diameter, occurring
as a small close group or singly in the rock and coral.
Salinity, indicated as density, was measured by a hydrometer encased
,in a closed,. perforated J>lastic tube. The set of perforations:, "s~a,~.~s!.by. re
movable rubber stoppers, could be filled easily while working under water
'makin~·.~ t po~sible' to ~ obta'in density re-ading? rapidly in ~he fie!cL At
the Kulamanu Place site, the density range was from 1.023 g/ml to:.995 glml
of-fresh' water. A..~.imple densi ty:salinitt_!~}ation applies to ~his.~!:"f.~a.4Ec~__
to the low temperature differentials between the salt, brackish, and
fresh waters. A test run of densities for Study Site 1 (Fig. 3) can be
found in Table 5. The distance of 715 feet was chosen because, within
that area, several different ecological zones were transversed. The
number of species present diminished near the zones of fresh water outflow.
The algal survey at Study Site 1 was conducted in areas surrounding
fresh water seepage (Fig. 4). A sample area of two square feet was laid
down at each predetermined point on a map. A systematic point system at
5-foot intervals was used. The sea wall was measured and marked every
five feet with a chalk marker. From each mark, five-foot intervals were
measured out into the water. A hydrometer reading and a count of algal
species present were made at each point until sand pockets were reached
where no algal growth occurred. The salinity (in terms of density),
the total percent occupied by algae, and the percent of each species was
recorded for each sample area and tabulated in Table 6. The composite
frequency of occurrence of each species for Study Site 1 is presented as
Figure 5.
TABL
E5.
HYDR
OMET
ERRE
ADIN
GSFO
RSU
RVEY
SITE
ONOA
HU.
DIST
ANCE
AL(X
>,'GHY
DRO'
IETR
ICDI
STAf
\'CE
ALO'
lGHY
DRCX
-lETR
ICDI
STAN
CEAL~
HYOR
O'IE
TRIC
DIST
ANCE
ALaN
>HY
DROM
ETRI
CSH
OREL
INE
VALU
ESSH
OREL
lN::
VALU
ESSH
OREL
INE
VALU
ESSH
ORE
Lll\E
VALU
ES(F
T)
(GIL
)(F
T)
(GIL
)(F
T)
(GIL
)(F
T)
(GIL
)
010
2218
510
2137
010
2255
510
205
1022
190
1021
375
1020
560
1020
1010
2319
510
2138
010
20.
565
1020
1510
22.5
200
1021
.538
510
19.5
570
1020
2010
22.5
205
1021
.539
010
2057
510
2025
1023
210
1021
395
1020
.558
010
2030
1022
215
1021
400
1020
585
1020
3510
2222
010
2140
510
1959
010
201i
010
2222
510
2041
010
20.5
595
1019
.5·4
510
2223
010
21.5
415
1020
.560
010
2050
1023
235
1021
.542
010
2060
519
19.5
5510
2224
010
2142
510
2161
010
2060
1023
245
1021
1130
1021
615
1019
.565
1022
250
1021
1135
1020
620
1019
.570
1022
.525
510
21.5
440
1020
.562
510
19.5
7510
22.5
260
1021
445
1020
630
1019
8010
222&
510
2145
010
20.5
.63
510
19.5
8510
2227
010
2045
510
2164
010
1990
1022
275
1020
450
1020
645
101'
).5
9510
2228
010
2046
510
20.5
650
1019
.510
010
22.5
285
1021
'/70
1020
.565
510
1610
510
22.5
290
1020
.547
510
20.5
*&60
1020
110
1023
295
1020
.51i
8010
20.5
*6&
510
19.5
115
1023
300
1020
485
1019
.5*6
7010
2012
010
2330
510
2049
010
20.
"675
1019
.512
510
2231
010
2049
510
20*6
8010
2013
010
21.5
315
1020
500
1019
.5*6
8510
15.5
135
1022
320
1020
505
1020
*690
1017
.514
010
2232
510
2051
010
20*6
9510
17.5
145
1021
.533
010
19.5
515
1019
.5*7
0010
1715
010
21.5
335
1019
.552
010
20*7
0510
15.5
155
1021
340
1020
525
1020
*710
1011
160
1022
345
1019
.553
010
19.5
*715
1009
165
1022
350
1021
535
1919
.5**
720
0999
.517
010
2135
510
20.5
540
1019
.517
510
2136
010
20.5
5115
1020
180
1021
3&5
'102
0.5
550
1020
*TH
OSE
READ
IN:iS
NEAR
THE
QRI
GIN
t,LSP
RIN
GAR
EA.
·"TH
ERE
ADIN
GDI
RECT
LYFR
CX4
THE
SPRI
NG
.~ .....
FE
e:T
01
02
03
04
05
0eo
70
eo
90
10
011
01
20
1:3
01
40
ISO
lEO
17
01
8t'
"IS
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RE4.
MAP
OFSA
LIN
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AND
FREQ
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YOF
ALGA
LSP
ECIE
SPR
ESEN
TAT
STUD
YSI
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. !',;
TABLE 6. RESULTS OF THE SURVEY AT STUDY SITE 1.
13
PERCENT OF SPECIES DENSITY (2 SQ FT)DEPTH DENSITY 2 SQ FT
STATION (INCHES) (G.'t~L ) OCCUPIED PERCENT SPECIES
A 0 DRY 50 100 !.Il:'.:1 fasciataB 6 1.021 70 100 Ul,'.:1 faodataC 6 1.021 60 100 Ul:'.:1 fasaiataD 1.021 80 50 Ul:'a fasc'iata
25 ':;e:"idiwn SP. A12 25 l'e;,;sso1leila SP.
E 1.021 100 30 Ul:"l fasoiata10 Pe,.sGOncila SP.
6 60 ~'o":llli'la SP,F 1.021 70 80 Ull'a fasciata
12 20 Pe;,;ssonei la SP.G 1.0205 40 20 Ul:'a fasciata
30 Pc;,;ssoneila SP.30 BRiMN ALGAL SCLM
3 20 Am.:nsia SP.H 1.021 90 10 Ulva fascia ta
80 Pe;,;sso"'aila SP.5 BROtiN ALGAL SClN
12 5 An;:;nsia SP.1.021 80 10 Uba fasciata
20 Acanthophopa SP.6 70 CO"alUm SP.
J 1.0205 80 30 Ul"a fasaiata50 Ce!idi,,", SP. A
18 20 Peifssoncila SP.K 1.0215 60 30 Uba fasciata
6 70 Celidiwn SP. AL 1.021 100 30 Ulva [asciata
60 Ce!idiwn SP. A12 10 CeUdium SP. B
M 1.0215 90 40 Ulva fasciata6 60 CcUdiwn SP. A
N 1.021 100 5 Ulva fasciata55 Ce lidiwn SP. A20 Pei/ssonci la SP.10 GeUdium SP. B
12 10 AC:lnthophora SP.0 1.021 100 ,20 Ulva fasciata
liO Acanthophm'a SP.3 liO GeUdiwn SP. ,;
P 1.021 100 20 Ulva fasciata12 80 Cc Udium SP. A
Q 1.0215 80 50 Ulva faociata40 CeUdiwfJ SP. A
6 10 Acanthophopa SP.R 1.021 100 25 Ul,a fasciata
50 Celidiu", SP. A15 l'ei:lssor:eila SP.
18 10 Ar'.a71sia SP.S 1.0215 50 50 Ulva fasciata
30 Acanthopllor'a SP.15 Ce lidilun SP. A
3 5 Ar'anoia SP.T 1.021 100 30 Ulva fasa,iata
65 cclidium SP. A12 5 Ar'ancia SP.
U 1.022 90 60 A'''lflthopllor'a SP.30 C€lidi= SP. A
6 10 Celidilun SP. BV 1.021 100 Ie Ulva faaciata
10 Pe'J',so71eila SP.12 80 Celidiwn SP. B
W 1.022 80 10 Ulva fasciata20 Celid"ium SP; A
9 70 Acanthophopa SP.X 1.022 100 60 VIva faociata
20 Ar:a71sia SP.18 20 hyssoneila SP.
Y 1.022 100 50 Ulva faaciata30 Atr.ancia SP,
18 20 Gelidium SP. AZ 1.022 90 90 Ulva facciata
6 10 Peycconeila SP.
TABLE 6. RESULTS OF THE SURVEY AT STUDY SITE 1. (CONT.)
14
PERCEfH OF SPEC I ES DENS I TY (2 SQ FT)DEPTH DEN51TY 2 SQ FT
STATION (INCHES) (G/t~L) OCCUPIED PERCENT SPECIES
PA' 1.023 100 50 VI.va j::"aiata30 Pcyod,'·;.-Ua SP.
12 20 Gelid,:., SP. ABB' 1.022 30 30 VIva f.:aaiata
3 70 Peyssc.;..ila SP.CC' 1.0215 100 70 VIva l.:iJ<;iata
25 Peyss.~.; .. ila SP.12 5 Amansi:: SP.
00' 1.020 50 30 VIva f::saiata30 Aaant;:::,hol'<l SP.
6 40 Peyssc>:".Jila SP.EE' 1.022 60 50 VIva f.~aaiata
25 Gelidi:., SP. A12 25 Peyssc·;,.ila SP.
FF' DRY 60 90 VIva f.:saia ta0 10 Peyssc>:aila SP.
GG' 1.021 100 50 VIva l::saiata12 50 Peyssc';aila SP.
H-1' 1.021 100 40 VIva j'.:saiata30 Aaanth=:lhol'a SP.10 Amansic.· SP. .
18 10 PeysscI:aila SP.II' 1.021 50 50 Ulva l::.saiata
24 50 Gelidi:J.., sr. A.kI' 0 DRY 10 100 Ulva j::saiataKK' 1.0215 100 GO Ulva f.~sC'iata
30 Poyssor.aila SP.9 10 Amans'-.: SP.
LL' 1.021 80 SO Ulva j'c.sciata12 20 Pcysscr.aila SP.
/'ot1' 1.021 100 GO Ulva fc.sciatq.24 40 Peyssor.aila SP.
m' 6 1.022 00 0000' 9 1.077 00 00pp' 8 1.008 2 100 Ulva fasciataen' 3 1.006 80 100 VIva fasciataRR' 1.013 100 70 VIva fJ.sdata
15 Peyssc·;eila SP.18 15 GREY ALGAL SCLM
SSt 1.010 40 50 Ulva fasciata12 50 Pcysscr.e i la SP.
IT' 1.018 100 40 Ulva f7.sciata9 60 . Peyssor.ei la SP.
W' 12 1.014 50 100 VIva [asciataW' 1.018 100 Go Ulva [=sc-iaw.
15 40 Peysscr.ei la SP.W· 1.017 100 30 VIva f:Isaiata
60 GelidiAm SP. A18 10 Peycccr.eila SP.
XX' 1.017 70 70 VIva [ac<Jiata18 30 Peysscr.d la SP.
yy' 1.020 60 50 VIva [7.sciata24 50 Peyssc.:ei la SP.
ZZ' 1.019 100 60 VIva f':lsctata .12 40 Peyssc':eila SP.
PA 1.0165 100 80 VIva fasciata24 20 Peyssc>:eila SP.
BB 30 1.0195 30 100 VIva fasciataCC 1.020 80 10 VIva fasciata
10 VIva fasciata18 80 Acant,i:.?phol'a SP.
00 .1.021 -100 20 VIva [acciata24 80 LIGHT BROWN ALG~~ SCU1
EE 1.020 100 70 VIva fasciata18 30 Acanth'phol'a SP.
FF 36 1.0215 10 100 Ulva f7.caiataGG 42 1.021 50 100 VIva fasaiataU1 1.0215 80 10 Ulva fasaiata
10 VIva retiaL/lata10 Acanti:?phora SP.
48 70 LIGHT BROWN ALG~L SCU1II 1.020 50 70 VIva f'lsaiata
48 30 Aaanti:,phora SP.JJ 1.020 100 40 VIva f'lsdata
3 60 Go lid,-'ATl SP. AKK 36 1.0215 40 100 VIva ['lsaiataLL 1.021 80 33 VIva f'.lsaiata
33 VIva reticulata30 33 Sargaeawn SP.
/'ot1 36 1. 0215 20 100 VIva f'lcaiatam 36 1. 021 60 90 VIva ['lsciata
36 10 Ulva reticL/lata00 36 1.0215 60 100 Ulva fasciata
IS
oPERCENT OF
~o 0
OCCURRENCE-01 ~o 0
(J1
o
' .. :
P£YSSONEILA- r - -- sp. A
Isp.
I
GELIDIUM
I IACANTHOPHORA
I IAMANSIA sp.
I . I ,/GELIDIUM sp. B ,
I IIULVA RETICULATA
I r I •CORALLINA sp. I
I 1- IBROWN ALGAL SCUM
I I I ,GRAY ALGAL SCUM
I I I ILIGHT BROWN ALGAL SCUM
I I IRED ALGAL SCUM
I I Isp. !
FIGURE 5. COMPOSITE GRAPH OF THE PERCENTAGE OF OCCURRENCEOF ALGAL SPECIES PRESENT AT STUDY SITE 1.
16
RESULTS OF FIELD STUDIES ON THE ISLAND OF OAHU
In established areas, which were defined as areas having 15 to 25
or more different species of algae in at least 3 different algal divisions,
definite zoning was present as the number of species decreased from 15 to
20 per square yard to 2 to 3 species per square yard at the fresh-water
seepage points. The species, which were present near the seepage zones,
were almost always found within 5 feet of the fresh-water seepage point
and were always members of Cryptonemiaces, Chlorophyta, and Rhodophyta.
Ulva fasaiata was usually the dominant species followed by Peyssoneila\
sp., Acanthophora sp., and members of Gelidiales (F1gs. 6a-6d). Ulva
fasciata was most frequent at a salinity range of 21,000 - 9,000 ppt at
which no other algal species occurs in abundance, if at all.
A species map was not made for the second area, the tidal flats of
Kahala Beach on the west side of Kupikipikio Point (Fig. 3). A cursory
hydrometer examination of the seepage points present revealed densities
ranging from 1.015 glml to .995 g/ml. Near these points, it was observed
that aside from small quantities of Gelidium and Peyssoneila sp., Ulva
fasciata and Enteromorpha sp. were quite plentiful and constituted almost
80 percent of the algal flora present in water ranging in depth from 6 to
36 inches.
From the data of the survey conducted in .1968 by the author, it was
found that species of VIva, in general, were absent altogether and Sargassum
and Acanthophora dominated the algal cover in normal sea water.
FIELD STUDIES ON HAWAII
To further test the correlation observed in laboratory and field
tests on Oahu between algal growth and water salinity, a study was made of
the growth patterns of algae around fresh-water outflows along the western
coast of the island of Hawaii (Fig. 7) during the last \veek in December
1968.
Several bays and inlets between Kawaihae and Kailua-Kona were studied
for algal growth and concentration for possible correlation to reduced
17
• ULVA FACfATA
o SARGASSUM Sp.
•
,
I-
d-en
lLo
o612Ie2430
O'-- ..L-__-.;._.L. ....... ...L --I. --'36
SALINITY (ppt)
FIGURE 6A. PERCENTAGE RANGE AND MEAN OF OCCURRENCE OF ULVA FASCIATAAND SARGASSUM SP.~ WITHIN THE ALGAL AREAS PRESENT~RELATIVE TO SALINITY AT STUDY SITE 1.
18
o6121824·30
o~"'-__---JL...- L-':"-' L.- ..--JL.- .L.- --J
_36_
100
I
dhi 80l!lcr~0q0'
J60
~I~i
II
Ja.en
I
I40
~:ja'Oi
~~
!
LLi20
0'I!
-;.:Ii
SALINITY (ppt) ;
FIGURE·6B. PERCENTAGE RANGE AND MEAN OF OCCURRENCE OF GELIDIUM SP.~
WITHIN THE ALGAL AREAS PRESENT7 RELATIVE TO SALINITYAT STUDY SITE 1.
19
100
ow(('((:J
g :80
oZWI~
,60I
tci.en
20
~Ia~Ia 140
~<~~
lLo
o61218.2430
0'-- ---lL-.. ---lL-.. --I ---I1-.. --I1-.. --'36
SALINITY (ppt) .
FIGURE 6C. PERCENTAGE RANGE AND MEAN OF OCCURRENCE OF ACANTHOPHORA SP. 1WITHIN THE ALGAL AREAS PRESENT RELATIVE TO SALINITY ATSTUDY SITE 1.
20
100
0w,a::,[(:J00; so0:z:W:I~.
a. , 60en
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36
. SALINITY . (ppt)
FIGURE 6D. PERCENTAGE RANGE AND MEAN OF OCCURRENCE OF PEYSSONIELA SP.?WITHIN THE ALGAL AREAS PRESENT? RELATIVE TO SALINITY ATSTUDY SITE 1.
200 _--HAPUNA
KAHALUUSAY
MILESo 15 30-- - ,
21
~-----l------200
FIGURE 7. MAP OF STUDY SITES ON THE ISLAND OF HAWAII.
22
salini ty caused by fresh-water springs. At each suspected fresh-water area.
preliminary dives were made by members of the crew to obtain a gross assess
ment of the presence of algal indicators. On a stretch of intertidal rock
in an inlet with a diverse algal community, a physical grid was staked out
under water with a knotted cord and large nails. A steel ring, which en
closed an area of two square feet, was placed with its center at each node
point of the grid. The percentage of the area within the ring occupied
by algae and the percentage of each species present were estimated and
logged for each node point. In addition, the salinity at the node was re
corde,d ''1i th a portab I e conductance meter ~ "The iriformation obtained was
p}~Yted o,n ,maps which present the salinity , density, frequency, and ,t~_e I'percentage ofalgal,spec;ies found in each restricted random sample s~te.
. . ... . .-..._~ .. _. ..- - '- _. - -_.. ..... ~""-"'. ~-" -... ... ... .'--_. - .- ..._. -." - --,-._.. -'~
On December 28, 1968, Anaehoomalu Bay was surveyed. No macroscopic
algae was found in the ,6 to 0 foot depth.
On December 29, a small bay near Puu Anahulu Homestead, an inlet near
Lae a Hiiaka, a cove between Lae a ali and Kupuniau Point, and Hapuna
Beach near Kaunaoa Point were surveyed. Although there was fresh-water
seepage at all four sites, no macroscopic algae was found at PuuAnahulu
Homestead or Lae a Hiiaka. In the cove between Lae a IIi and Kupuniau
Point, however, large quantities of Ulva fasciata and several species of
Gelidiales were found at fresh-water seeps. Within this area algal zo
nation appeared to correlate with salinity changes. Good algal growth
and zonation were also found at Hapuna Beach. Eight different algae
species, Ulva fasciata, Enteromorpha sp., Porolithon sp., two brown scum
algaes (which could not be identified), two species of Gelidium, and
Ampheltia sp., were observed under reduced salinity conditions. Beyond
the intertidal rocks, no macroscopic algae were found growing on the sand
and coral bottom, due mainly to wave scouring.
Ie., A grid survey '\1aS -made of the'iilgal-'growth a:t--tne' 5e'epag'e-' area near
Lae a IIi on December 30. Table 7 lists the results of this survey and
Figure 8 shows a map of species location and salinity changes at each grid
point. The frequency of occurrence of each species in this area can be
found in Figures 9a - 9d with a composite graph of the percentage of occur
rence of the species found g~ven -a~, ,f.~gure ~O. A corr.elatiol1 <.9f..~pecie? ...',
to salinity changes could not be made,because the algae did not grow beyond
TABLE 7. RESULTS OF SURVEY TAKEN AT SEEPAGE AREA NEAR LAE 0 ILl.
23
PERCENT OF SPECIES DENSITY (2 SQ fT)DEPTH DENS ITY * 2 SQ FTSTATlO'l (INCHES) ("/.. ) OCCUPIED PERCENT SPECIES
A 6 8.500 30 100 Gdidiwn SP.8 3 9.500 100 100 Getidium SP.C 8 9.600 100 95 GeZidium SP.5 RED ALGAL SCUM0 2 6.200 20 100 GeUdiwn SP.E 3 7.800 80 100 Gelidium SP.F 6 10.000 80 90 Gc lidiu", SP.
10 DROWN ALGAL SCUMG 8 10.500 100 100 GeZidiwn SP.H 12 10.200 50 90 G"Zidiwn sr.10 DROWN ALGAL SCUMI 8 . 9.500 5 100 GeZidiwn SP.J 6 10.500 3 50 GeZidi..", SP.50 DROWN ALGAL SCIJ'IK 2 11.200 50 100 GeUd·iwrt SP.L 3 11.700 2 33 GcZidiwn SP.33 RED ALGAL SCUM33 BLACK ALGAL SCLt-1M 6 11. 600 2 100 GcUdiwn SP.N 10 11.000 30 40 GeUdiwn SP.20 BRO'NN ALGAL SCLt-140 RED ALGAL SCLt-10 12 11.500 30 80 Ge Zidi,vn SP.
·20 RED ALGAL SCLt-1P 12 10.500 30 100 GeUdiwn SP.Q 14 10.000 90 . 95 Ge1.idi,un SP•5 RED ALGAL SCLt-1f( 4 12.000 2 60 GeUdiwn SP.
40 RED ALGAL SCUMS 5 12.000 20 100 Ge Zidi,un SP.T 5 12.500 30 100 GeZidiWTI SP.U 5 12.000 10 100 GcUdiwn sP.V 10 12.000 60 90 GcUdiwn SP.10 RED ALGAL SCUMW 15 12.000 30 60 GcZidiwn SP.40 RED ALGAL SCLt-1X 18 11.000 50 100 BRO'dN ALGAL SCLt-1Y 14 10.500 90 40 Gclidit•." SP.60 BRowN ALGAL SCUMAA 24 12.000 50 95 L'~V<.l [a,wi"t,:
5 RED Al.GAL SCLt-1BB 18 . 16.000 95 100 GeZidi'<lIl SP.CC EXPOSED 10.500 5 100 Gel id·i"m SP.DO 20 15.00 90 95 UZOa·· [aac;''' t"5 RED ALGAL SCUMEE 3 17.000 100 100 Gelidiwn SP.FF 12 14.500 80 100 Gclidium SP.GG 10 22.000 100 100 RED ALGAL SCUMHH EXPOSED AT
LOW TIDE 25.000 90 40 UllJa [al1ciata60 RED ALGAL SCUMII EXPOSED AT
LOW TIDE 31.000 100 90 GOLD ALGAL SCUM5 Poro Zi tho>! SP.5 UllJa [aaciataJJ 36 30.000 100 100 GOLD ALGAL SCUMKK PARTIALLY
ExPOSED 32.000 100 33 Go UdiWTI SP.33 UllJQ faaciata33' Poro Zi Ol(m SP.LL PARTIALLY
EXPOSED 18.000 50 100 G~Udium SP.
·STAWARD SEA WATER APPROXH·\I\TELY 35.000 */••.
o3
69
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FIG
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LIN
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EC
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PRES
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o612IS2430
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36
SALINITY (ppt~
FIGURE 9A. PERCENTAGE RANGE AND MEAN OF OCCURRENCE OF GELIDIUM SP.~WITHIN THE ALGAL AREAS PRESENT~ RELATIVE TO SALINITY ATLAE 0 Ill.
26
100
0W0:0::J000 eo
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- -36
SALINITY (ppt)
FIGURE 9B. PERCENTAGE RANGE AND MEAN OF OCCURRENCE OF RED ALGALSCUM, WITHIN THE ALGAL AREAS PRESENT, RELATIVE TO SALINITYAT LAE 0 ILI .
27
o 100
W0:0::J000
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~:J0 60(J)
...J<t~...J<t
40
z:~:
00::m
l.L0 20
~.0
o612182430
OL-. L..- L..- --.JL..- -I -JI.- --J36
SALINITY (ppt)
FIGURE 9C. PERCENTAGE RANGE AND MEAN OF OCCURRENCE OF BROWN ALGALSCUM, WITHIN THE ALGAL AREAS PRESENT, RELATIVE TOSALINITY AT LAE 0 ILl.
28
100
O·I
WiSO((:((.::l'0,0,oZ '60WI~!
~,~U 40~'
~'
~
~lL.:o 20
~o
•
0L... -Jl.- -L -L. ....L- ..I- ---'
36 30 24 IS 12 S 0
SALINITY {ppt}
FIGURE 9D. PERCENTAGE RANGE AND MEAN OF OCCURRENCE OF ULVA FASCIATAWITHIN THE ALGAL AREAS PRESENT~ RELATIVE TO SALINITYAT LAE 0 Ill.
29
60 ..---------------------------.
FIGURE 10. COMPOSITE GRAPH OF THE PERCENTAGE OF OCCURRENCE OF ALGALSPECIES PRESENT AT THE SEEPAGE AREA NEAR LAE 0 ILl.
30
the intertidal zone and each,of the species present was a primary colonizer
having similar tolerances.
Anaehoomalu Point was also surveyed, but no algae were found.
On December 31, Kahaluu Beach, approximately three to four miles south
of Kona, was surveyed. The correlation between changing salinity and algal
growth was plotted as the detailed species-density map given as Figure 11.
The data obtained are presented in~Table 8. At this fresh-water seep
as many as ten species were present, including Enteromorpha sp., UZva fasci
ata, Dictyospaeria sp. and several species of algal scum and Gelidiales.
The frequency of occurrence of GeUdium sp., red scum, and UZva reticul.ata
was graphed and is given as Figures l2a - l2c, respectively, and a compo
site graph of the percentage of species found at the survey site is given
as Figure 13.
RESULTS OF FIELD STUDIES ON THE ISLAND OF HA~~II
In general, the results of 'studies at Anaehoomalu Bay, Puu Anahulu,
and Lae 0 Hiiaka indicate the establishment of good algal growth in or near
the shoreline where fresh water outflow was recorded, although such growth
was not present elsewhere. Furthermore, it appears that the living polyp
coral bottom in the inshore areas and the somewhat uniformly low saline bay
water would prevent any further establishment of numerous species of algae
in this area. Therefore, algae markers could not be used as visible indi
cators of the fresh-water seepage along this coastline. If on the other
hand, polyp corals were to be used as "mixing area" markers, the attempt to
correlate such corals with reduced saline conditions would also fail because
owing to insufficient mixing of the fresh water and sea water layers the
corals did not die. At a depth of over 1 foot below the surface, the sali
nity of the sea water was 35000 - 36000 ppt, or normal, and inshore coral
growth\~as -fouhd- at -a depth- :r-ange--6£- 3 to 5 feet.
At LaeO Oli, Hapuna Beach, and Kahaluu Beach, the three areas where
algal communities were present under reduced saline conditions, algal zoning
was correlated to decreasing salinity. At Lae 0 IIi, the two groups of al
gae found frequently on Oahu as cover elements under brackish conditions.
(GeZidium and VZva), both showed peaking at 18,000 - 10,000 ppt, or approx
imately 1/2 to 1/3 normal salinity:(Figs. 9a and 9d). The algal scums had
mixed reactions; but'tended to trend at the lower salinity ranges (Figs. 9b
and 9c).
31
L H30 • •
M I35 • •
I- R N~40 • •IJ..
S 045 • •
V T50 • •
X U55 • •60
20
15
5
20
25
10
35
45
t40 W
IJ..
30
60o·
55504540
W-.::• 50:::.
y'.• 55
SO
65
70.
K
•
p
•
35FEET
25 302015105o
10
15
5
o
25
65
70
7575
zeo L-_~__...L..__.L-_~__ • __-l-_~__...L..__.J.-_---i__-'-_-..J eoo 5 10 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 eoFEET
FIGURE 11. MAP,OF SALINITY AND FREQUENCY OF ALGAL SPECIESPRESENT AT KAHALUU BEACH.
TABLE 8. KEY TO KAHALUU SURVEY MAP.
_32
PERCElH OF SPCC IES DEl<S ITY (2 SQ FT)DEPTH DENSIW 2 SQ FTSTATION (INCHES) <"/.0) OCCUPIED PERCENT SPECIES
A 4 7.500 30 100 Gelidiw_1 SP.B 2 16.000 40 80 edi.it:d-': SP.20 RED ALGAL SCl.MC 24.000 40 50 Ge lidiwn SP.2410 RED ALGAL SCUO'l1i0 CHLOROPHYTA0 3 14.000 80 70 Gelidiwn·SP.20 Vl va 1'e t-i.cu l ..ta10 BROlIN ALGAL SCLt~E 12 7.800 80 90 GelidililTl sr.10 Vlva 1'e tiel< z...~t'(lF 13.500 50 40 GalidiulII SP.61i0 RED ALGAL SCl.M20 CHLOROPHYTAG 22.000 70 1i0 Gelidiwn SP.121i0 RED ALGAL SCU'12.0 GREEN ALGAL SCUt~H 21i 31.000 2 100 CHLOROPHYTA1 31.000 80 33 Gelidiwn SP.2433 Ge lid.iwn SP.33 Vlva retieulata30.000 20 Paysonnei la SP.3080 Ge lidi,,,,, SP.K 21i.000 70 30 Galidill:rl SP.835 Celidiwn SP.35 CHLOROPliYTAL 28.000 100 33 RED ALGAL SCLt~1233 CHLOROPHYTA33 CelidillJn SP.M 24 28.000 70 95 Celidiwn SP.5 Vlva retieulataN 30 33.000 90 95 Calidi..", SP.5 Ulva raticulata0 30 35.000 30 100 Ce lid-i!1ln SP.P 30 30.000 80 100 Ce lidiwn SP.Q Iii 30.0pO 50 1i0 Calidiwn SP.
1i0 DietyoGpael'ia SP.20 Ce lidium SP.R 3 30.000 100 1i0 Cc lidiwn SP.30 Dictyoapae1'ia SP.20 Peysom:eila sP.S 6 32.000 100 95 Gdidi,,;i; sr.5 GOLDEN ALGAL SCl.MT 36 31i.000 80 98 Celidiwn SP.2 lIm:mnia SP.U 30 35.000 20 100 Celidiwr: SP.y 12 30.000 100 80 Gelidi..", SP.
15 RED ALGAL SCl.M5 Dietyospaeria SP.W 12 35.000 100 _ 50 .. - Galid,:,.", sr.
50 Ulva lactul'aX 30 36.000 70 100 Galidiwn SP.y 32.000 100 1i5 Gelidizlln SP.61i5 Ulva lactu1'a10 RED ALGAL SCl.MZ ·36.000 BARE COPAL ROCK
*36.000 0/00 CORRESPONDED TO Pt-RE SEA' WATER CN OUR METER.
100
01Wi0::: 800::::::li0101O!
I
IzlW' 60I~
ci.(i)'
I
~i:::>: 40_,Qi"..J:ll.l(.Fl'
I.L.0
20
~0
33
o36 30 24 18 12 6 o
. 'SALINITY (Ppt)
FIGURE 12A. PERCENTAGE RANGE AND MEAN OF OCCURRENCE OF GELIDIUM SP.~WITHIN THE ALGAL AREAS PRESENT~ RELATIVE TO SALINITYAT KAHALUU BEACH.
34
1000W0::0:::J000: 80
ZWI5
~ 60::J0CJ)
...J<{
19-J
40 II •<{
0W0::
lL.0
20
0'C>'.
o612182430
O'-- .L- L-- .L- L-- .L- ----'
36
SALINITY (ppt)
FIGURE 12B. PERCENTAGE RANGE AND MEAN OF OCCURRENCE OF RED ALGAL SCUM~
WITHIN THE ALGAL AREAS PRESENT, RELATIVE TO SALINITYAT KAHALUU BEACH.
35
100
0W0::,0::::J0 so0dI
~lJ~II 60
~I"{I~!orj::i
I
~; 40
I§! e~t
I
11.l0: 20 e~0
ee e
o612IS2430
0 ..L-. L.... J.-. --1L.... --1L.- ~
36
SALINITY (ppt)
FIGURE 12C. PERCENTAGE RANGE AND MEAN OF OCCURREN~E OF ULVA RETICULATA~
WITHIN THE ALGAL AREAS PRESENT~ RELATIVE TO SALINITYAT KAHALUU BEACH.
,)0
oPERCENT OF
U1 0
OCCURRENCEt\)
U1 0t\)m
RED ALGAL SCUM
I· I ..CHLOROPHYTA
IR£TICULATA
Isp,
IULVA
I IDICTYOSPA£RIA
I I,P£YSSON£ILA sp.
I I IULVA LACTUCA
I I IG£LlDIUM Sp. 2
I I IG£LlDIUM Sp. 4
"/ I IBROWN ALGAL SCUM
I I I IGREEN ALGAL SCUM i
I I I I I.GOLDEN ALGAL SCUM I
I I. AMANSIA Sp
FIGURE 13. COMPOSITE GRAPH OF THE PERCENTAGE OF OCCURRENCEOF ALGAL SPECIES PRESENT AT KAHALUU BEACH.
37
No algal map was plotted for the Hapuna Beach site because it \'las feltthat the algal population was too sparse and patchy to yield meaningful dat~.However, it was observed that at a salinity range of 10,000 - S,OOO pptthere were healthy groupings of UZva fasciata and Enteromorpha sp. Athigher salinities, PeyssoneiZa sp.~ GeZidium sp.~ and AmpheZtia sp.appeared more frequently.At the Kahaluu Beach site, the algal indicators parted from theexpected trends. Algal groupings were denser at areas of higher ratherthan lower salinities (Figs. 12a - l2c). It must be taken into account,however, that at several seepage points the temperature varied as much asSoC from the surrounding sea water. This added stress factor probably.caused the variance.
DISCUSSION OF THE FIELD AND LABORATORY RESULTSIn laboratory experiments, salinity tolerance was the only perceivable'major factor affecting algal growth. During the field studies on Oahu andHawaii, however, it became readily obvious that in natural setting manyvariables besides salinity affect algal growth patterns. In particular,such things as the effect of sewage outflows, which cause an increasedlevel of calcium, nitrates, sulphates, etc. in the water, although notrecognized at the time of the study, must be considered in future work.Physical and biological competition, or the lack of it, also may affectthe zonation of algal species. For example, large quantities of a primarycolonize~ such as Cypraea sp. (some of the common inshore cowries), oftendestroy parts of the UZva fasoiata colony during feeding. Mycologicalparasites, often associated with UZva sp.~ might also be a factor if theyreduced' the fresh.;;water·. toler;:mce of the UZva sp . Algal 'species which are
,the best salinity indicators, such as UZva fasciata~ also usually tend tobeaJfi6rigthe -first colonizers so that in the absence of a large. number _ai'different species, it is not always known whether the presence of thesealgae indicate low salinities or simply a lack of bio~ogical competition.Furthermore, the algae which are the best salinity indicators also tendto be among the most resistant algae to physical disturbances so thatoften it is difficult to determine if these algae are dominant owing tolow salinities or their resistance to physical disturbances, such as
heavy surf or alternate drying and wetting because of tidal fluctuations.
Although several procedures were tried for the laboratory salinity
experiments, the effect of variables such as maximum sunlight, proper
circulation, and water movement always will be difficult to approximate
in closed experimental tanks and further experiments should be conducted
in the field. Transplants of certain algal species to fresh-water seepage
zones and removal of certain species from seepage zones to areas of greater
salinity will yield significant data. Laboratory and field experiments
are needed on several hundred different species present in Hawaiian waters,
including algal scums and crustal forms. Information from these studies
will help to establish patterns of succession in virgin waters under
specific ecological stress found along the coasts ,of the Hawaiian Islands.
In the many areas surveyed on the island of Hawaii, an established
area of algal species could not be found. There are many possible
reasons for this. Probably the two most important aTe the. large quanti
ties of living polyp coral which prevent algal spores and zygotes from
growing on their calcified surfaces and the relatively low saljnity of
coastal waters. The numerous small springs prevent salinity-sensitive
algae from growing in the shallow waters.· Other less important.factors
are the possible solubility of newly formed lavas, such as the flow of
1859 near Anaehoomalu Bay, and the.extTeme depth of the water.-'
INFRARED APPLICATIONS OF ALGAE AS A FRESH WATER INDICATOR
Ground Mapping of Time-Averaged Marine Spring Flm'l
One of the principal difficulties in the detection and 'measurement
of coastal spring outflows is the magnitude of. the fluctuations in the
-vof~me over short 'periods. Yri":sif;u salfni ty mea'surements,. using density
or conductivity indexes, often must be repeated over a long. per~od to
minimize tidal and seasonal effects.
Fortunately, botanical indicators tend to reflect an integrated
time history of the effects of salinity. In areas near coastal outflows
of fresh or brackish water, salinity tolerance is the most striking effect
on algal species established before competition between species becomes a
significant ecological factor. Marked changes in the salinity of intertidal
39
regions result in secondary succession. In intertidal zones, primary colonization by algal species in the Chorophyta or Rhodophyta divisions occursmost commonly in the genera, GeZidium and UZva. In heavy surf zones, themost frequent algal snecies are members of the Phaeophyta and Rhodophyta.
Where fresh-water seepage is-present in water-less than 6 feet deep,algal zonation patterns are recurrent enough to represent certain salinities or densities other than 1.023 glml density or 34,500 micro-ohms.For example, if the frequency of the occurrence of UZva fasciata is over90 percent, this would indicate dilution of sea water by a time-averageof 10 percent to 75 percent fresh water, "filtering out" most of the otherspecies growing in natural sea water.
The continuing dominance of species of UZva after stress relief canbe used as a time index of ecological succession. For example, after astimulus, such as fresh water or sewage disposal, is removed, the domi~
nance of species of UZva temainsbeca~se of the con~inuing presence ofantibiotic substancessecret~dby the.thallus into the s.urrounding.water.This prevents a more immediately pronounced succession of other algalspecies with the presence of salinity reduction. However, a definiteamount of time is needed to create a biological impasse to algal speciesin any ecological disturbance. Fresh-water seepage would have to begreat and continuous over a long period to reduce the salinity of anarea to less than 25 0/00 or low enough to kill or injure parent plantsalready established and prevent second and third generations from developing past the zygote stage. These conditions are necessary to enable aspecies more tolerant to low salinity, such as UZva fasciata, to becomeestablished.
Field work has thus shown that by ground mapping algal zonation in theHawaiian islands, algae could be used as'an indicator of the. history 'ofsalinity changes.
Aerial Mapping of Coastal Marine Springs
Fresh coastal springs in Hawaii are difficult to map from the groundbecause they are often inaccessible by road or boat due to lava flows,cliffs, reefs, or surf. Aerial reconnaissance is the only possible technique for the mapping of many of these isolated areas.
40
Remote line and spot measurements with an infrared radiometer from
a helicopter (Lepley and Palmer, 1967) to detect thermal anomalies as
sociated with coastal springs were found to be impractical because the
helicopter had to be flown directly above each spring. Many of these
anomalies, however, have been mapped by airborne thermal scanners
(Fisher, Davis, and Sousa, 1966; Lepley and Adams, 1968). These surveys
show that: 1) not all temperature anomalies indicate springs (cool
anomalies normally associated with springs can be caused by upwelling of
deeper water or shading from solar heat by cliffs and other anomalies
can be caused by differential solar heating of calm waters and by hot
volcanic springs), 2) not all springs have temperature anomalies, and
3) temperature anomalies show a strong diurnal and seasonal time de
pendence, due to tides, rainfall, solar heating, arid surf conditions:
In Hawaii, profuse growth of the marine alga, UZva sp. is a time
integrating temperature-independent indicator of fresh-water outflow,
mappable by certain aerial imagery techniques. UZva sp. usually is a
bright green seaweed found attached to rocks along the shore in shallow
water. UZva fasaiata is especially visible because it has a broad leaf
(Fig. 1). Seaweed found in areas of normal seawater salinity usually is
brown. Green-colored species in profuse growth are rare.
Aerial photography in natural color (Ektachrome Kodacolor and
GAF200D) shown as Figure 14 and aerial infrared false color photography
(Ektachrome infrared Type 8443 with various yellow filters) as indicated
by Figure 15 produced only marginal, results owing. to two factors: 1) .from
aircraft, at altitudes of more than 1,500 feet, the UZva resembles the
dark lava rocks in natural color; and 2) all shallow marine algae appeared
bright red in the infrared false-color photographs and failed to differen
tiate between fresh-water lndicators and non-indicators.
-~.-1'h~s.··fi-l-ters- were~used- to enli'anee-differences ~betweerithe-in9.icatOT and
non-indicator algae, such as Sargassum~ on the color infrared film (Smith
and Anson, 1963). The basis of the selection of filters was the reflection
spectra of the algae as measured with a grating spectrometer (Fig. 16).
Both UZva sp., the fresh-water indicator, and Sargassumsp •• a non-indicator,\
show very high reflectance in the infrared (700 nm),.whereas UZva sp. shows
moderately high reflectance in green (550 nm) and Sargassum sp; 'shows high
reflectance in red (600 nm). Color infrared film is sensitive to all of
these colors, but the high infrared reflectance -of these plants partially
41
FIGURE 14. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH OF NEARSHORE ALGAL COMMUNITIES INNATURAL COLOR.
FIGURE 15. AERIAL INFRARED FALSE COLOR PHOTOGRAPH OF NEARSHORE ALGALCOMMUNITIES (IDENTICAL SITE WITH THAT SHOWN IN FIGURE 14)USING VARIOUS YELLOW FILTERS.
LEGEND:--_. SCATTERED' AND REFLECTED
LIGHT FROM SARGASSUM
--- SCATTERED AND REFLECTEDLIGHT FROM ULVA FACIATA
W.J<J:0(J)
cr<J:WZ:J
>=f-roZwf-Z
W>jWcr
900
...
700NANOMETERS
(),
I
f
I
j ,lly I./\V\ .I\ Iv
600·OF UGH'r,
400 500WAVELENGTH
..
..
300
w>~-'wrr
tw.J<J:o(f)
rr<J:wf.J~
>l-V5ZwlZ
FIGURE 16. REFLECTION SPECTRA OF SARGASSUM AND ULVA FASCIATA.
43
override their spectral differences. Accordingly, a cyan colorcorrection filter (Kodak CC50C-2) was added to enhance the greenand orange and to attenuate the infrared. A yellow filter (Wratten#12) was also used because all of the emulsions of type 8443 film aresensitive to blue. Also, in photography of water, blue is always highin "noise" and should be eliminated. Figur~ 17 shO\...s the transmissioncurves of the two filters, separately and combined.
Photographs using the film-filter combination of type 8443 film..and cyan and yellow filters were made from the ground. The fresh-water indicator, UZva sp., appears as violet in color (in the falsecolor infrared, green is shown as blue, in infrared as red, and theircombination as violet); the non-indicator, Sargassum sp. as orange(in false color red and brown show as yellow-orange, in infrared as red,and their combination as orange); and the water is shown as deep blue(the natural blue of blue-green water is absorbed by the yellow filterand the remaining green of the water is shown as blue).
Figures 18 and 19 show aerial photographs taken from the ISOO-footaltitude, using 1/250 second, f/5.6 Ektachrome and Ektachrome infrared film. The area shown in the photograph is the small cove on theDiamond Head side of Black Point described in the first section ofthis report (Fig. 3). \ in> the infrared false color photograph?_F.Ig?:.r:~_!18, the marine algae can be discriminated from the rocks by theirdistinctive traces of red. Along the shore arid on the small reef afew feet off shore, the UZva can be identified by its violet hue andalong the outer reef Sargassum can be recognized by its red-orange hue.It is easy to extrapolate the underwater extent of UZva (green to blackin natural color) and of Sargassum (brown) shown in Figure 19 becausetheir above-water portions have been identified by the false-color filln.
CONCLUSIONS
The number of different species of algae, the dominant groups,and profuseness of growth is directly affected by salinity changescaused by fresh-water seepage in the intertidal regions of the Hawaiianislands. The presence of many species and dominance by species of
NI
N 0I 0o too 0to 0o +o N,
o-----------------10
ro en.0:::
\\ wi. I-i./ w·r 2:
00 .;. ----~OZ! ~
/./; I'-«! ~./' Zi 3
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---,---------.,-------1g~I ~:(f\ -I 1-'.... .J i
i fl3~I 8:
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===~:;;;;;,;:;;;;;;:;:::-~.:..:-:.~.~"""""=~:"~::::=::::::::::::~~~~J gFn! : i
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-----------------------10V
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o'----__---'-__--'-__-'--_---'__--'-__...L-.__'-_--'-__-'--_-----' 0
Orooo
FIGURE 19. AERIAL NATURAL COLOR
PHOTOGRAPH OF STUDY SITES 1
AND 2.
45
FIGURE 18. AERIAL INFRARED FALSE COLOR
PHOTOGRAPH OF STUDY SITES 1
AND 2.
'+0
Acanthophora and Sargassum, would indicate normal, 36,000 to 30,000 ppt,
salinity conditions. In general, there is a decrease of 14 or more
species when passing from normal salinity for the Pacific Ocean of 36,000
ppt to a salinity of 3,000 ppt or 1/12 normal (Fig. 20).
The reduction of salinity produces a change in the dominant species
and the continuity of an algal population. Along the shorelil1es of 'Oahu...·
and Hawaii the dominant species, consisting of 25 percent or more of the
species in a given area, are Acanthophora sp. and Sargassum sp. at 36,000
32,000 ppt salinity. In areas of fresh-water seepage, where the sa~inity
drops to 20,000 ppt and below, the numbers of the dominant species consist
of 50 - 95 percent of the species present and include members of the
genera GeZidium~ Ulva~ PeyssoneiZa~ and Enteromorpha,
Therefore, it can be definitely concluded that in fully algal
colonized shorelines , salinity reductions cause an increase inU}va,
Enteromorpha, GeUdium,and Peyssoneila dominance with a reduction in
the total number of species per unit area. And, due to tne size and 'color
of the green algal species, they may be used as fresh-water coastal
outflow indicators.
The total ecological effect of low salinity stress is a cOIlUllunity
of 2 to. 4 macroscopic algal species growing in great profusion with
one species creating an almost homogeneous visual cover. In most
areas, when present, it was found that species of Ulva and Enteromorpha,
or other green colored_~lgae were quite successful in creating homo
geniety near seepage points.
Capitalizing on this effect, infrared color film with series of
filters for color enhancement can be used effectively from 2,000 feet
and above, to locate green algal groupings when profuse. When combined
with thermal anomaly recordings, this method of detect~ng fresh-water
_s~epage in <:0as_!a1_a.J.'e_as _can be effective in fully algal colonized
areas, such as found on Oahu.-
The preliminary work done in this study indicates that twin~camera
aerial photography using natural color and appropria~ely-filtered
infrared false color can be used to map intertidal marine botanical in
dicators of submarine springs or other hydrologic phenomena.
SA
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48
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research project could not have been completed without the
direction and cooperation of Dr. William Mansfield Adams. I would
also like to express my deepest appreciation to ~r. Spencer Tinker,
Director of the Waikiki Aquarium, for the space and his enduring
patience during the out-of-door laboratory experiments, Stephen Lang
ford for the inspiration so needed to begin a task like this and fol
low it through, Dr. Maxweil Doty for his advice on the procedure for
the salinity experiments, Dr. Frank Peterson for his assistance on
the Hawaii field study and the review of this report, and Clifton
Warren, Karen Brilliande, and Leo Kempchenski for their assistance in
my field work.
49
REFERENCES
Al 1 C J and IJ C Bold 1967. Algae and Fungi. Nacmillanexopou os, . . , i.. •
Co. New York.
Corner, E. J. H. 1968. The Life of Plants. The New American Library.New York.
Dawson, D. Yale. 1966. Marine Botany. Holt Reinehart &Wilson, Inc.New York.
Fisher, Davis and Sousa. 1966. Fresh Water Springs of Hawaii FromInfrared Images. U. S. Geological Survey Hydrology Atlas HA-2l8.
Kohout, F. A. and Kolipinski, M. C. Estuaries. "Biological ZonationRelated to Groundwater Discharge Along The Shore of Biscayne Bay,Miami, Florida." Kellogg Biological Station, Michigan State.Pub. #83.
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