Project:

ALBERT ELLIS1913-2007

Table of Content

TABLE OF CONTENT................................................................................2

ALBERT ELLIS............................................................................................3

RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOR THEORY......................................4

GENERAL RULES.......................................................................................7

FROM SELF-DEFEAT TO RATIONAL LIVING;.................................................9

RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOR THERAPY..................................11

PHILOSPHICAL CONDITIONING.........................................................11IRRATIONAL IDEAS THAT CAUSE AND SUSTAIN NEUROSIS....12

CLINICAL IMPLEMENTATION OF REBT.........................................14

CASE.........................................................................................................14

GOAL OF R.E.B.T......................................................................................15

CRITICISM.................................................................................................17

CONCLUSIONS.........................................................................................18

References.....................................................................................................20

ALBERT ELLIS

Albert Ellis, Ph.D., was born in Pittsburgh on September 27, 1913, and raised in New

York City. He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in business from the City University of

New York in 1934. He also holds M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in clinical psychology from

Columbia University, and has held many important psychological positions, including

chief psychologist of the State of New Jersey and adjunct professorships at Rutgers and

other universities. He is the founder of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), the

first of the now popular Cognitive Behavioral Therapies (CBT). In 1959 he established

the Albert Ellis Institute, a non-profit organization whose mission was to promote

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) as a comprehensive educative and

preventative theory. The Albert Ellis Institute promoted REBT theory and practice

through training professionals, paraprofessionals, and the public. Initially, he ran

everything from his private practice as a psychologist. He practiced psychotherapy,

marriage and family counseling, and sex therapy for over sixty years at the Psychological

Center of the Institute in New York.

Dr. Ellis served as president of the Division of Consulting Psychology of the American

Psychological Association and of the Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality; he

also served as officer of several professional societies including the American

Association of Marital and Family Therapy, the American Academy of Psychotherapists,

and the American Association of Sex Educators, Counselors, and Therapists. He was a

diplomat in clinical psychology of the American Board of Professional Psychology and

of several other professional boards. Professional societies that have given Dr. Ellis their

highest professional and clinical awards include the American Psychological Association,

the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, the American Counseling

Association, and the American Psychopathological Association.

He was ranked as one of the "Most Influential Psychologists" by both American and

Canadian psychologists and counselors. Dr. Ellis served as consulting or associate editor

of many scientific journals. He published more than eight hundred scientific papers and

more than two hundred audio and video cassettes. In 1971, the American Humanist

Association named Dr. Ellis as the Humanist of the Year. He authored or edited over

seventy-five books and monographs, including a number of best-selling popular and

professional volumes. Ellis died of heart and kidney failure on July 24, 2007.

RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOR THEORY

Rational Emotive Behavioral Theory begins with ABC! 

A is for activating experiences, such as family troubles, unsatisfying work, early

childhood traumas, and all the many things we point to as the sources of our unhappiness.

B stands for beliefs, especially the irrational, self-defeating beliefs that are the actual

sources of our unhappiness. 

C is for consequences, the neurotic symptoms and negative emotions such as depression

panic, and rage, that come from our beliefs.

Although the activating experiences may be quite real and have caused real pain, it is our

irrational beliefs that create long term, disabling problems.  Ellis adds D and E to ABC: 

The therapist must dispute (D) the irrational beliefs, in order for the client to ultimately

enjoy the positive psychological effects (E) of rational beliefs.

For example, “a depressed person feels sad and lonely because he erroneously thinks he

is inadequate and deserted.”  Actually, depressed people perform just as well as non-

depressed people.  So, a therapist should show the depressed person his or her successes,

and attack the belief that they are inadequate, rather than attacking the mood itself.

Although it is not important to therapy to pin point the source of these irrational beliefs, it

is understood that they are the result of “philosophical conditioning,” habits not unlike

the habit of answering the phone just because it rings.  Further, Ellis says that we are

biologically programmed to be susceptible to this kind of conditioning.

These beliefs take the form of absolute statements.  Instead of acknowledging a

preference or a desire, we make unqualified demands on others, or convince ourselves

that we have overwhelming needs.  There are a number of typical “thinking errors”

people typically engage in, including...

1.  Ignoring the positive,

2.  Exaggerating the negative, and

3.  Over generalizing.

I may refuse to see that I do have some friends or that I had a few successes.  I may dwell

on and blow out of proportion the hurts I have suffered.  I may convince myself that

nobody loves me, or that I always screw up.

ABC of Feeling’s and Behaviors

Alan A young man who had always tended to doubt himself, Alan imagined that other

people did not like him, and that they were only friendly because they pitied him. One

day, a friend passed him in the street without returning his greeting - to which

Alan reacted negatively. Here is the event, Alan’s beliefs, and his reaction, put into the

ABC format.

A. What started things off:

Friend passed me in the street without speaking to me.

B. Beliefs about A

1. He’s ignoring me. He doesn’t like me.

2. I could end up without friends for ever.

3. That would be terrible.

4. For me to be happy and feel worthwhile, people must like me.

5. I’m unacceptable as a friend - so I must be worthless as a person.        

C. Reaction:

Feelings: worthless, depressed.

Behaviors: avoiding people generally.

Point of view from another person, someone who thought differently about the same

event would react in another way:

A. What started things off:

Friend passed me in the street without speaking to me.

B. Beliefs about A.:

1. He didn’t ignore me deliberately. He may not have seen me.

2. He might have something on his mind.

3. I’d like to help if I can.

C. Reaction:

Feelings: Concerned.

Behaviors: Went to visit friend, to see how he is.

These examples show how different ways of viewing the same event can lead to different

reactions. The same principle operates in reverse: when people react alike, it is because

they are thinking in similar ways.

GENERAL RULES

Everyone has a set of general 'rules’. Some will be rational, others will be self-defeating

or irrational. Each person’s set is different.

Mostly subconscious, these rules determine how we react to life. When an event triggers

off a train of thought, what we consciously think depends on the general rules we

subconsciously apply to the event.

Let us say that you hold the general rule:

'To be worthwhile, I must succeed at everything I do.’ You happen to fail an

examination; an event which, coupled with the underlying rule, leads you to the

conclusion: 'I’m not worthwhile.’

Underlying rules are generalizations. One rule can apply to many situations. If you

believe, for example:

'I can’t stand discomfort and pain and must avoid them at all costs,’ you might apply this

to the dentist, to work, to relationships, and to life in general.

Why be concerned about your rules? While most will be valid and helpful, some will be

self-defeating. Faulty rules will lead to faulty conclusions. Take the rule:

'If I am to feel OK about myself, others must like and approve of me.’ Let us say that

your boss tells you off. You may (rightly) think:

'He is angry with me’ but you may wrongly conclude: ‘This proves I’m a failure.’

And changing the situation (for instance, getting your boss to like you) would still leave

the underlying rule untouched. It would then be there to bother you whenever some

future event triggered it off.

Most self-defeating rules are a variation of one or other of the '12 Self-defeating Beliefs.’

To describe a belief as self-defeating, or irrational, is to say that:

1. It blocks you from achieving your goals and purposes;

2. It creates extreme emotions which persist, and which distress and immobilize

3. It leads to behaviors that harm yourself, others, and your life in general.

From Self-defeat to Rational Living;Self-defeating Beliefs Rational Beliefs

1. I need love and approval from those significant to me and I must avoid disapproval from any source.

1. Love and approval are good things to have, and I'll seek them when I can. But they are not necessities. I can survive (even though uncomfortably) without them.

2. To be worthwhile as a person I must achieve, succeed at what ever I do, and make no mistakes.

2. I'll always seek to achieve as much as I can, but unfailing success and competence is unrealistic. Better I just accept myself as a person, separate to my performance.

3. People should always do the right thing. When they behave obnoxiously, unfairly or selfishly, they must be blamed and punished.

3. It's unfortunate that people sometimes do bad things. But humans are not yet perfect and upsetting myself won't  change that reality.

4. Things must be the way I want them to be otherwise life will be intolerable.

4. There is no law which says that things  have to be the way I want. It's disappointing, but I can stand it especially if I avoid catastrophising.

5. My unhappiness is caused by things   outside my control, so there is little I can do to feel any better.                            

5. Many external factors are outside my control. But it is my thoughts (not the externals) which cause my feelings. And I can learn to control my thoughts.

6. I must worry about things that could be dangerous, unpleasant or frightening otherwise they might happen.

6. Worrying about things that might gowrong won't stop them happening. It will, though, ensure I get upset and disturbedright now!

7. I can be happier by avoiding life's difficulties, unpleasantness, and responsibilities.

7. Avoiding problems is only easier in the short term; putting things off can make them worse later on. It also gives me more time to worry about them!

8. Everyone needs to depend on someone stronger than themselves.

8. Relying on someone else can lead to dependent behavior. It is ok to seek help as long as I learn to trust myself and my own judgment.

9. Events in my past are the cause of my problems and they continue to influence my feelings and behaviors now.

9. The past can't influence me now. My current beliefs cause my reactions. I may have learned these beliefs in the past, but can choose to analyze and changethem in the present.

10. I should become upset when other people have problems and feel unhappy when they're sad.

10. I can't change other people's problems and bad feelings by getting myself upset.

11. I should not have to feel discomfort and pain. I can't stand them and must avoid them at all costs.

11. Why should I in particular not feel discomfort and pain? I don't like them, but I can stand it. Also, my life would be very restricted if I always avoided discomfort.

12. Every problem should have an ideal solution, and it is intolerable when one can't be found.

12. Problems usually have many possible solutions. It is better to stop waiting for the perfect one and get on with the best available. I can live with less than the ideal.

RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOR THERAPY

Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) is a comprehensive approach to psychological

treatment that deals not only with the emotional and behavioral aspects of human

disturbance, but places a great deal of stress on its thinking component. Human beings

are exceptionally complex, and there neither seems to be any simple way in which they

become "emotionally disturbed," nor is there a single way in which they can be helped to

be less-defeating. Their psychological problems arise from their misperceptions and

mistaken cognitions about what they perceive; from their emotional under reactions or

overreactions to normal and unusual stimuli; and from their habitually dysfunctional

behavior patterns, which enable them to keep repeating non adjustive responses even

when they "know" that they are behaving poorly.

 

PHILOSOPHICAL CONDITIONING

REBT is based on the assumption that what we label our "emotional" reactions are

largely caused by our conscious and unconscious evaluations, interpretations, and

philosophies. Thus, we feel anxious or depressed because we strongly convince ourselves

that it is terrible when we fail at something or that we can't stand the pain of being

rejected. We feel hostile because we vigorously believe that people who behave unfairly

to us absolutely should not act the way they indubitably do, and that it is utterly

insufferable when they frustrate us.

Like stoicism, a school of philosophy which existed some two thousand years ago.

Rational emotive behavior therapy holds that there are virtually no good reasons why

human beings have to make them selves very neurotic, no matter what kind of negative

stimuli impinge on them. It gives them full leeway to feel strong negative emotions, such

as sorrow, regret, displeasure, annoyance, rebellion, and determination to change social

conditions. It believes, however, that when they experience certain self-defeating and

unhealthy emotions (such as panic, depression, worthlessness, or rage), they are usually

adding an unrealistic and illogical hypothesis to their empirically based view that their

own acts or those of others are reprehensible or inefficient and that something would

better be done about changing them.

IRRATIONAL IDEAS THAT CAUSE AND SUSTAIN NEUROSIS

Rational therapy holds that certain core irrational ideas, which have been clinically

observed, are at the root of most neurotic disturbance. They are:

1. The idea that it is a dire necessity for adults to be loved by significant others for almost

everything they do instead of their concentrating on their own self-respect, on winning

approval for practical purposes, and on loving rather than on being loved.

2. The idea that certain acts are awful or wicked, and that people who perform such acts

should be severely damned, instead of the idea that certain acts are self defeating or

antisocial, and that people who perform such acts are behaving stupidly, ignorantly, or

neurotically, and would be better helped to change. People's poor behaviors do not make

them rotten individuals.

3. The idea that it is horrible when things are not the way we like them to be, instead of

the idea that it is too bad, that we would better try to change or control bad conditions so

that they become more satisfactory, and, if that is not possible, we had better temporarily

accept and gracefully lump their existence.

4. The idea that human misery is invariably externally caused and is forced on us by

outside people and events, instead of the idea that neurosis is largely caused by the view

that we take of unfortunate conditions.

5. The idea that if something is or may be dangerous or fearsome we should be terribly

upset and endlessly obsess about it, instead of the idea that one would better frankly face

it and render it non-dangerous and, when that is not possible, accept the inevitable.

6. The idea that it is easier to avoid than to face life difficulties and self responsibilities

instead of the idea that the so called easy way is usually much harder in the long run.

7. The idea that we absolutely need something other or stronger or greater than our self

on which to rely, instead of the idea that it is better to take the risks of thinking and acting

less deepen dently.

8. The idea that we should be thoroughly competent, intelligent, and achieving in all

possible respects instead of the idea that we would better do rather than always need to do

well and accept our self as a quite imperfect creature, who has general human limitations

and specific fallibilities.

9. The idea that because something once strongly affected our life, it should indefinitely

affect it instead of the idea that we can learn from our past experiences but not be overly-

attached to or prejudiced by them.

10. The idea that we must have certain and perfect control over things, instead of the idea

that the world is full of probability and chance and that we can still enjoy life despite this.

11. The idea that human happiness can be achieved by inertia and inaction, instead of the

idea that we tend to be happiest when we are vitally absorbed in creative pursuits, or

when we are devoting ourselves to people or projects outside ourselves.

12.The idea that we have virtually no control over our emotions and that we cannot help

feeling disturbed about things instead of the idea that we have real control over our

destructive emotions if we choose to work at changing the musturbatory hypotheses

which we often employ to create them.

CLINICAL IMPLEMENTATION of REBT

CASEAfter becoming familiar with the client’s problems, the therapist presents the basic theory

of rational emotive behavior therapy so that the client can understand and accept it. The

following transcript is from a session with a young man who had inordinate fears about

speaking in front of the groups. The therapist guides the client to view his inferiority

complex in terms of the unreasonable things he may be telling himself. The therapist’s

thoughts during the interview are indicated in italics.

Client: My primary difficulty is that I become very uptight when I have to speak in front

of a group of people. I guess it’s just my own way inferiority complex.

Therapist: [I don’t want to get sidetracked at this point by talking about that

conceptualization of his problem. I’ll just try to finesse it and make a smooth transition to

something else.] I don’t know if I would call it an inferiority complex but I do believe

that people can in a sense bring on their own upset and anxiety in a certain kind of

situations. When you’re in a particular situation itself but rather the way in which you

interpret the situation what you tell yourself about the situation. For example, look at this

pen. Does this pen make you nervous?

Client: No

Therapist: Why not?

Client: it’s just an object. It’s just a pen.

Therapist: it can hurt you?

Client: No….

Therapist: it’s really not the object that creates emotional upset in people but rather what

you think about the object.[ hopefully, this Socratic like dialogue will the object bring

him to the conclusion that self statements can mediate emotional arousal.] Now this holds

true for …situations where emotional upset is caused by what a person tells himself about

the situation. Take, for example, two people who are about to attend the same social

gathering. Both of them may know exactly the same number of persons at the party, but

one person can be optimistic and relaxed about the situation, whereas the other one can

be worried about how they will appear, and consequently be very anxious. [I’ll try to get

him to verbalize the basic assumption that attitude or perception is most important here.]

So, when these two people walk into the place where the party is given, are their

emotional reactions at all associated with the physical arrangements at the party?

Client: No, obviously not.

Therapist: What determines their reactions, then?

Client: They obviously have different attitude toward the party.

Therapist: Exactly, and their attitudes the way in which they approach the situation

greatly influence their emotional reactions. (Gold fried & Davidson, 1994, pp. 163-165)

GOAL OF REBT

The goal of REBT is to help people change their irrational beliefs into rational beliefs.

Changing beliefs is the real work of therapy and is achieved by the therapist disputing the

client's irrational beliefs. For example, the therapist might ask, "Why must you win

everyone's approval?" "Where is it written that other people must treat you fairly?" "Just

because you want something, why must you have it?" Disputing is the D of the ABC

model. When the client tries to answer the therapist's questions, s/he sees that there is no

reason why s/he absolutely must have approval, fair treatment, or anything else that s/he

wants.

Albert Ellis contends that although we all think irrationally from time to time, we can

work at eliminating the tendency. It's unlikely that we can ever entirely eliminate the

tendency to think irrationally, but we can reduce the frequency, the duration, and the

intensity of our irrational beliefs by developing three insights:

1.We don't merely get upset but mainly upset ourselves by holding inflexible beliefs.  

2.No matter when and how we start upsetting ourselves, we continue to feel upset

because we cling to our irrational beliefs.  

3.The only way to get better is to work hard at changing our beliefs. It takes practice,

practice, practice.

Emotionally healthy human beings develop an acceptance of reality, even when reality is

highly unfortunate and unpleasant. REBT therapists strive to help their clients develop

three types of acceptance: (1) unconditional self-acceptance; (2) unconditional other-

acceptance; and (3) unconditional life-acceptance. Each of these types of acceptance is

based on three core beliefs:

Unconditional self-acceptance:

1.I am a fallible human being; I have my good points and my bad points.

2.There is no reason why I must not have flaws.

3.Despite my good points and my bad points, I am no more worthy and no less worthy

than any other human being.

Unconditional other-acceptance:

1. Other people will treat me unfairly from time to time.

2. There is no reason why they must treat me fairly.

3. The people who treat me unfairly are no more worthy and no less worthy than any

other human being.

Unconditional life-acceptance:

1. Life doesn't always work out the way that I'd like it to.

2. There is no reason why life must go the way I want it to

3.  Life is not necessarily pleasant but it is never awful and it is nearly always

bearable.

CRITICISM

REBT in general have a substantial and strong research base to verify and support both

its psychotherapeutic efficiency, effectiveness and its theoretical underpinnings. A great

quantity of scientific empirical studies has proven it to be an effective and efficient

treatment for many different kinds of psychopathology, conditions and problems. A vast

amount of outcome and experimental studies has shown to support the effectiveness of

REBT.

In general REBT is arguably one of the most investigated theories in the field of

psychotherapy and a large amount of clinical experience and a substantial body of

modern psychological research have validated and substantiated many of REBTs

theoretical assumptions on personality and psychotherapy. Some critiques have been

given on some of the clinical research that has been done on REBT both from within and

by others. For instance originator Albert Ellis has on occasions emphasized the difficulty

and complexity of measuring psychotherapeutic effectiveness, since many studies only

tend to measure whether clients merely feel better after therapy instead of them getting

better and staying better. Ellis has also criticized studies for having limited focus

primarily to cognitive restructuring aspects, as opposed to the combination of cognitive,

emotive and behavioral aspects of REBT. As REBT has been subject to criticisms during

its existence, especially in its early years, REBT theorists has a long history of publishing

and addressing those concerns.

Some have criticized REBT for being harsh, formulaic and failing to address deep

underlying problems. This have been cogently refuted by REBT theorists who have

pointed out that a careful study of REBT shows that it is both philosophically deep,

humanistic and individualized collaboratively working on the basis of the client’s point of

reference. Others have questioned REBTs view of rationality, both radical constructivists

who have claimed that reason and logic are subjective properties and those who believe

that reason can be objectively determined. In 1998 when asked what the main criticism

on REBT was, Albert Ellis replied that it was the claim that it was too rational and not

dealing sufficiently enough with emotions. Seen as a quite controversial figure in some

camps, Ellis has also received criticism that has arguably been more directed at him than

his psychotherapy. These include his use of four letter words and confrontational attitude.

In addition Ellis has himself in very direct terms criticized opposing approaches such as

psychoanalysis, transpersonal psychology. Prominent REBTers have promoted the

importance of high quality and programmatic research, including originator Ellis, a self-

proclaimed "passionate skeptic". He has on many occasions been open to challenges and

acknowledged errors and revised his theories and practices

CONCLUSIONSThe basic premise of rational emotive behavior therapy is that emotional suffering is due

primarily to the often non verbalized assumptions and demands that people carry around

with them as they negotiate their way in life. Demanding perfection from oneself and

from others is, Ellis hypothesizes, a principle cause of emotional distress. Expecting that

one has to be approved by every one and for every thing one does is another belief that

Ellis regards as irrational and that other writers have called unproductive or self

defeating. Therapy along rational emotive behavior lines involves the therapist’s

challenging these assumptions and persuading the patient that living a life without

imposing on oneself unattainable demands and goals will be less stressful and more

satisfying.

Several conclusions that can be offered on the outcome research on rational emotive

Rational emotive behavior therapy reduces self reports of general anxiety, speech anxiety

and test anxiety.

1. Rational emotive behavior therapy improves both self reports and behavior for

social anxiety.

2. Preliminary evidence suggests that rational emotive behavior therapy may be useful

in treating excessive anger, depression.

3. There is some preliminary evidence that rebt may be useful as a preventive measure

for untroubled people, that is, to help emotionally healthy people cope better with

everyday stress.

References

BOOKS:1: Organizational Psychology by Steve M. Jex2: Research in Psychology by C. James Goodwin 3: Understanding Psychology by Robert S. Goodwin

WEBSITES:1: http://www.wikipedia.org2: http://www.rebt.org3: http://www.rebtnetwork.org4: http://www.rational.org