Albert Einstein in 1921

7/27/2019 Albert Einstein in 1921

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Albert Einstein in 1921

Born:14 March 1879Ulm, Kingdom of Wrttemberg, German Empire

Died:18 April 1955 (aged 76)Princeton, New Jersey, United States

Known forGeneral relativity and special relativity

Photoelectric effect

Mass-energy equivalence

Theory of Brownian MotionEinstein field equations

BoseEinstein statistics

BoseEinstein condensate

BoseEinstein correlations

Unified Field Theory

EPR paradox Signature
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Albert Einstein 14 March 187918 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist. He

developed the general theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongsidequantum mechanics). He is best known for his massenergy equivalence formula E = mc2

(which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation"). He received the 1921 Nobel

Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law

of the photoelectric effect". The latter was pivotal in establishing quantum theory.

Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer

enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field.

This led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the

principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and with his subsequent

theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity. He

continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his

explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal

properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein

applied the general theory of relativity to model the large-scale structure of the universe

He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and, being Jewish,

did not go back to Germany, where he had been a professor at the Berlin Academy of Sciences.

He settled in the U.S., becoming an American citizen in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he

endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential development

of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type" and recommending that the U.S. begin similar

research. This eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project. Einstein supported

defending the Allied forces, but largely denounced the idea of using the newly discovered

nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell, Einstein signedthe RussellEinstein Manifesto, which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. Einstein was

affiliated with the Institute for Advance Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955.

Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works.

His great intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous

with genius.

http://en.wikipedia.org


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Sir Isaac Newton

(Godfrey Kneller's 1689 portrait of Isaac Newton (age 46).

Born: 25 December 1642[NS: 4 January 1643][1]

Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, England

Died :20 March 1727 (aged 84)OS: 20 March 1726

NS: 31 March 1727][1]

Kensington, Middlesex, England, Great Britain

Known forNewtonian mechanics

Universal gravitation

Calculus

Optics - Binomial series

Principia - Newton's method

Signature
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Sir Isaac Newton was an English physicist and mathematician (described in his own day as a "natural

philosopher") who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key

figure in the scientific revolution. His book Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("Mathematical

Principles of Natural Philosophy"), first published in 1687, laid the foundations for classical mechanics.

Newton also made seminal contributions to optics and shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the

invention of calculus.

Newton's Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which dominated scientists'

view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion

from his mathematical description of gravity, and then using the same principles to account for the

trajectories of comets, the tides, the precession of the equinoxes, and other phenomena, Newton

removed the last doubts about the validity of the heliocentric model of the cosmos. This work also

demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies could be described by the

same principles. His prediction that the Earth should be shaped as an oblate spheroid was later

vindicated by the measurements of Maupertuis, La Condamine, and others, which helped convince mostContinental European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian mechanics over the earlier system of

Descartes.

Newton also built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a theory of colour based on the

observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours of the visible spectrum. He

formulated an empirical law of cooling, studied the speed of sound, and introduced the notion of a

Newtonian fluid. In addition to his work on calculus, as a mathematician Newton contributed to the

study of power series, generalised the binomial theorem to non-integer exponents, and developed

Newton's method for approximating the roots of a function.

Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the

University of Cambridge. He was a devout but unorthodox Christian and, unusually for a member of the

Cambridge faculty of the day, he refused to take holy orders in the Church of England, perhaps because

he privately rejected the doctrine of the Trinity. Beyond his work on the mathematical sciences, Newton

dedicated much of his time to the study of biblical chronology and alchemy, but most of his work in

those areas remained unpublished until long after his death. In his later life, Newton became president

of the Royal Society. He also served the British government as Warden and Master of the Royal Mint.



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Max Born 1882

1970)

Born :11 December 1882Breslau, German Empire

Died:5 January 1970 (aged 87)Gttingen, West Germany

Known for:BornHaber cycle

Born rigidity

Born coordinates

Born approximation

Born probability

BornInfeld theory

BornOppenheimer approximation

Born's Rule

BornLand equation

BornHuang approximation Signature
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Bornvon Karman boundary condition

Born equation

Max Born (11 December 18825 January 1970) was a German-British physicist and

mathematician who was instrumental in the development of quantum mechanics. He also

made contributions to solid-state physics and optics and supervised the work of a number of

notable physicists in the 1920s and 30s. Born won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Physics for his

"fundamental research in Quantum Mechanics, especially in the statistical interpretation of the

wave function".

Born entered the University of Gttingen in 1904, where he found the three renowned

mathematicians, Felix Klein, David Hilbert and Hermann Minkowski. He wrote his Ph.D. thesis

on the subject of "Stability of Elastica in a Plane and Space", winning the University's Philosophy

Faculty Prize. In 1905, he began researching special relativity with Minkowski, and subsequently

wrote his habilitation thesis on the Thomson model of the atom. A chance meeting with Fritz

Haber in Berlin in 1918 led to discussion of the manner in which an ionic compound is formed

when a metal reacts with a halogen, which is today known as the BornHaber cycle.

In 1921, Born returned to Gttingen, arranging another chair for his long-time friend and

colleague James Franck. Under Born, Gttingen became one of the world's foremost centres for

physics. In 1925, Born and Werner Heisenberg formulated the matrix mechanics representation

of quantum mechanics. The following year, he formulated the now-standard interpretation of

the probability density function for in the Schrdinger equation, for which he was

awarded the Nobel Prize in 1954. His influence extended far beyond his own research. Max

Delbrck, Siegfried Flgge, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Lothar

Wolfgang Nordheim, Robert Oppenheimer, and Victor Weisskopf all received their Ph.D.

degrees under Born at Gttingen, and his assistants included Enrico Fermi, Werner Heisenberg,Gerhard Herzberg, Friedrich Hund, Pascual Jordan, Wolfgang Pauli, Lon Rosenfeld, Edward

Teller, and Eugene Wigner.

In January 1933, the Nazi Party came to power in Germany, and Born, who was Jewish, was

suspended. He emigrated to Britain, where he took a job at St John's College, Cambridge, where

he wrote a popular science book, The Restless Universe, and Atomic Physics, that soon became

a standard text book. In October 1936, he became the Tait Professor of Natural Philosophy at

the University of Edinburgh, where, working with German-born assistants E. Walter Kellermann

and Klaus Fuchs, he continued his research into physics. Max Born became a naturalised British

subject on 31 August 1939, one day before World War II broke out in Europe. He remained at

Edinburgh until 1952. He retired to Bad Pyrmont, in West Germany. He died in hospital inGttingen on 5 January 1970.



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Niels Bohr in 1922

Born: Niels Henrik David Bohr

7 October 1885

Copenhagen, Denmark

Died : 18 November 1962 (aged 77)

Copenhagen, Denmark

Known for :

Copenhagen interpretation

Complementarity

Bohr modelBohrSommerfeld quantization

Bohrvan Leeuwen theorem

SommerfeldBohr theory

BKS theory

BohrEinstein debates

Bohr magneton Signature
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Bohr radius

Hafnium

Niels Henrik David Bohr 7 October 188518 November 1962) was a Danish physicistwho made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory,

for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a

promoter of scientific research.

Bohr developed the Bohr model of the atom, in which he proposed that energy levels of

electrons are discrete, and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around the atomic

nucleus, but can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has

been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the

principle of complementarity: that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory

properties, like behaving as a wave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity

dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy.

Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, now

known as the Niels Bohr Institute, which opened in 1920. Bohr mentored and collaborated with

physicists including Hans Kramers, Oskar Klein, George de Hevesy and Werner Heisenberg. He

predicted the existence of a new zirconium-like element, which was named hafnium, after the

Latin name for Copenhagen, where it was discovered. Later, the element bohrium was named

after him.

During the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees from Nazism. After Denmark was occupied by

the Germans, he had a famous meeting with Heisenberg, who had become the head of theGerman nuclear energy project. In September 1943, word reached Bohr that he was about to

be arrested by the Germans, and he fled to Sweden. From there, he was flown to Britain, where

he joined the British Tube Alloys nuclear weapons project, and was part of the British mission to

the Manhattan Project. After the war, Bohr called for international cooperation on nuclear

energy. He was involved with the establishment of CERN and the Research Establishment Ris

of the Danish Atomic Energy Commission, and became the first chairman of the Nordic Institute

for Theoretical Physics in 1957.



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Stephen Hawking

Born : Stephen William Hawking

8 January 1942 (age 72)

Oxford, England

Fields: General relativity

Quantum gravity

Known for:

Hawking radiation

PenroseHawking theorems


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Stephen William Hawking born 8 January 1942) is an English theoretical physicist, cosmologist,

author and Director of Research at the Centre for Theoretical Cosmology within the University

of Cambridge.Among his significant scientific works have been a collaboration with Roger

Penrose on gravitational singularity theorems in the framework of general relativity, and the

theoretical prediction that black holes emit radiation, often called Hawking radiation. Hawking

was the first to set forth a cosmology explained by a union of the general theory of relativity

and quantum mechanics. He is a vocal supporter of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum

mechanics.

Hawking is an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, a lifetime member of the Pontifical

Academy of Sciences, and a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian

award in the United States. Hawking was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the

University of Cambridge between 1979 and 2009.

Hawking has achieved success with works of popular science in which he discusses his own

theories and cosmology in general; his A Brief History of Time stayed on the British Sunday

Times best-sellers list for a record-breaking 237 weeks.

Hawking has a motor neuron disease related to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a condition

that has progressed over the years. He is almost entirely paralysed and communicates through

a speech generating device. He married twice and has three children.



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Marie Skodowska Curie, c.1920

Born: Maria Salomea Skodowska

7 November 1867

Warsaw, Kingdom of Poland, then part of Russian Empire[1]

Died : 4 July 1934 (aged 66)

Passy, Haute-Savoie, France

Known for

-

Radioactivity- Polonium

-

Radium

Signature
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Marie Skodowska-Curie (7 November 18674 July 1934) was a Polish and naturalized-French

physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first

woman to win a Nobel Prize, the only woman to win in two fields, and the only person to win in

multiple sciences. She was also the first woman to become a professor at the University of

Paris, and in 1995 became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthon

in Paris.

She was born Maria Salomea Skodowska (pronounced *marja salma skwdfska]) in

Warsaw, in what was then the Kingdom of Poland, part of the Russian Empire. She studied at

Warsaw's clandestine Floating University and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw.

In 1891, aged 24, she followed her older sister Bronisawa to study in Paris, where she earned

her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work. She shared the 1903 Nobel

Prize in Physics with her husband Pierre Curie and with physicist Henri Becquerel. She won the

1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

Her achievements included a theory of radioactivity (a term that she coined), techniques for

isolating radioactive isotopes, and the discovery of two elements, polonium and radium. Under

her direction, the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms, using

radioactive isotopes. She founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and in Warsaw, which remain

major centres of medical research today. During World War I, she established the first military

field radiological centres.

While a French citizen, Marie Skodowska Curie (she used both surnames)* never lost her sense

of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to

Poland. She named the first chemical element that she discoveredpolonium, which she first

isolated in 1898after her native country.

Curie died in 1934 at the sanatorium of Sancellemoz (Haute-Savoie), France, due to aplastic

anemia brought on by exposure to radiationmainly, it seems, during her World War I service

in mobile X-ray units created by her



13/35

Richard Feynman

Born : Richard Phillips Feynman

May 11, 1918

New York City

Died : February 15, 1988 (aged 69)

Los Angeles, California

Known for

Manhattan Project Feynman propagator Quantum computing

Acoustic wave equation Feynman slash notation Quantum computingFeynman sprinkler Feynman point Quantum electrodynamics

BetheFeynman formula HellmannFeynman theorem Quantum hydrodynamics

Feynman checkerboard Feynman-Smoluchowski ratchet Quantum turbulence

Feynman diagrams Quantum cellular automata Universal quantum simulator

Feynman gauge Nanotechnology Shaft passer

FeynmanKac formula One-electron universe Sticky bead argument

Feynman Long Division Puzzles Parton Vortex ring model


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Feynman parametrization Path integral formulation

Signature

Richard Phillips Feynman (May 11, 1918February 15, 1988) was an American theoretical

physicist known for his work in the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics, the theory

of quantum electrodynamics, and the physics of the superfluidity of supercooled liquid helium,

as well as in particle physics (he proposed the parton model). For his contributions to the

development of quantum electrodynamics, Feynman, jointly with Julian Schwinger and Sin-Itiro

Tomonaga, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965. He developed a widely used pictorial

representation scheme for the mathematical expressions governing the behavior of subatomic

particles, which later became known as Feynman diagrams. During his lifetime, Feynman

became one of the best-known scientists in the world. In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists

worldwide by the British journal Physics World he was ranked as one of the ten greatest

physicists of all time.[2]

He assisted in the development of the atomic bomb during World War II and became known to

a wide public in the 1980s as a member of the Rogers Commission, the panel that investigated

the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. In addition to his work in theoretical physics, Feynman

has been credited with pioneering the field of quantum computing,[3][4] and introducing the

concept of nanotechnology. He held the Richard Chace Tolman professorship in theoretical

physics at the California Institute of Technology.

Feynman was a keen popularizer of physics through both books and lectures, notably a 1959

talk on top-down nanotechnology called There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom, and the three-

volume publication of his undergraduate lectures, The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Feynman

also became known through his semi-autobiographical books Surely You're Joking, Mr.

Feynman! and What Do You Care What Other People Think? and books written about him, such

as Tuva or Bust!.

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Galileo Galilei

Born: 15 February 1564

Pisa, Duchy of Florence, Italy

Died: 8 January 1642 (aged 77)

Arcetri, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Italy

Known for :

- Kinematics

- Dynamics

- Telescopic observational astronomy

- Heliocentrism

Signature
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Galileo Galilei (Italian pronunciation: [15 February 15648 January 1642), often known

mononymously as Galileo, was an Italian physicist, mathematician, engineer, astronomer, andphilosopher who played a major role in the scientific revolution. His achievements include

improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations and support for

Copernicanism. Galileo has been called the "father of modern observational astronomy", the

"father of modern physics",the "father of science",and "the Father of Modern Science".

His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases

of Venus, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his

honour), and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science

and technology, inventing an improved military compass and other instruments.

Galileo's championing of heliocentrism was controversial within his lifetime, when most

subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system. He met with opposition from

astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism due to the absence of an observed stellar parallax.

The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, which concluded that

heliocentrism was false and contrary to scripture, placing works advocating the Copernican

system on the index of banned books and forbidding Galileo from advocating heliocentrism.

Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which

appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII, thus alienating not only the Pope but also the Jesuits, who

had both supported Galileo up until this point. He was tried by the Holy Office, then found

"vehemently suspect of heresy", was forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house

arrest. It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he wrote one of his finest works, Two

New Sciences, in which he summarised the work he had done some forty years earlier, on the

two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials.



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James Clerk Maxwell 18311879)

Born: 13 June 1831Edinburgh, Scotland

Died: 5 November 1879 (aged 48)Cambridge, England

Known for :-

Maxwell's equations

- Maxwell distribution

- Maxwell's demon

- Maxwell's discs

-

Maxwell speed distribution

- Maxwell's theorem

-

Maxwell material

- Generalized Maxwell model

-

Displacement current

- Maxwell coil

Signature
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James Clerk Maxwell FRS FRSE (13 June 18315 November 1879) was a Scottish[mathematical

physicist. His most prominent achievement was to formulate a set of equations that describe

electricity, magnetism, and optics as manifestations of the same phenomenon, namely, the

electromagnetic field. Maxwell's achievements concerning electromagnetism have been called

the "second great unification in physics"after the first one realised by Isaac Newton.

With the publication of A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field in 1865, Maxwell

demonstrated that electric and magnetic fields travel through space as waves moving at the

speed of light. Maxwell proposed that light is in fact undulations in the same medium that is the

cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. The unification of light and electrical phenomenaled to the prediction of the existence of radio waves.

Maxwell helped develop the MaxwellBoltzmann distribution, a statistical means of describing

aspects of the kinetic theory of gases. He is also known for presenting the first durable colour

photograph in 1861 and for his foundational work on analysing the rigidity of rod-and-joint

frameworks (trusses) like those in many bridges.

His discoveries helped usher in the era of modern physics, laying the foundation for such fields

as special relativity and quantum mechanics. Many physicists regard Maxwell as the 19th-

century scientist having the greatest influence on 20th-century physics. His contributions to the

science are considered by many to be of the same magnitude as those of Isaac Newton and

Albert Einstein. In the millennium polla survey of the 100 most prominent physicists

Maxwell was voted the third greatest physicist of all time, behind only Newton and Einstein. On

the centenary of Maxwell's birthday, Einstein himself described Maxwell's work as the "most

profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of Newton".



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Erwin Schrdinger

Born: Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrdinger

12 August 1887

Vienna, Austria-Hungary

Died : 4 January 1961 (aged 73)

Vienna, Austria

Known for

Schrdinger equation

Schrdinger's cat

Schrdinger method

Schrdinger functional

Schrdinger group

Schrdinger picture

SchrdingerNewton equations

Schrdinger fieldRayleigh-Schrdinger perturbation

Schrdinger logics

Schrdinger's pure-affine theory

Coherent states

Energy level

Entropy and life

Interpretations of quantum mechanics

Qualia


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Quantum biology

Quantum superposition Signature

Subjectobject problem

Cat state

Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrdinger German: 12 August 18874 January 1961), a Nobel

Prize-winning Austrian physicist who developed a number of fundamental results in the field of

quantum theory, which formed the basis of wave mechanics: he formulated the wave equation

(stationary and time-dependent Schrdinger equation) and revealed the identity of his

development of the formalism and matrix mechanics. Schrdinger proposed an original

interpretation of the physical meaning of the wave function and in subsequent years repeatedly

criticized the conventional Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics (using e.g. the

paradox of Schrdinger's cat).

In addition, he was the author of many works in various fields of physics: statistical

mechanics and thermodynamics, physics of dielectrics, color theory, electrodynamics, general

relativity, and cosmology, and he made several attempts to construct a unified field theory. In

his book What Is Life? Schrdinger addressed the problems of genetics, looking at the

phenomenon of life from the point of view of physics. He paid great attention to the

philosophical aspects of science, ancient and oriental philosophical concepts, ethics, and

religion. He also wrote on philosophy and theoretical biology.

The philosophical issues raised by Schrdinger's cat are still debated today and

remain his most enduring legacy in popular science, while Schrdinger's equation is his most

enduring legacy at a more technical level. To this day, Schrdinger is known as the father of

quantum mechanics. The large crater Schrdinger, on the far side of the Moon, is named after

him. The Erwin Schrdinger International Institute for Mathematical Physics was established in

Vienna in 1993.

Schrdinger's portrait was the main feature of the design of the 198397 Austrian 1000-

Schilling banknote, the second-highest denomination.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger_signature.svg


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Werner Heisenberg

Born: Werner Karl Heisenberg

5 December 1901Wrzburg, Bavaria, German Empire

Died: 1 February 1976 (aged 74)

Munich, Bavaria, West Germany

Known for

Uncertainty Principle Heisenberg cut

Heisenberg's entryway to matrix mechanics

Heisenberg ferromagnet

Heisenberg group

Heisenberg limit

Heisenberg's microscope

Heisenberg model (classical)

Heisenberg model (quantum)

Heisenberg picture

Matrix mechanics

Euler-Heisenberg Lagrangian

Kramers-Heisenberg formula

Bootstrap model

C*-algebra

Exchange interaction

Isospin


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Mott problem

Quantum fluctuation Signature

Resonance (chemistry)

S-matrix

S-matrix theory

Werner Karl Heisenberg (5 December 19011 February 1976) was a German theoretical

physicist and one of the key creators of quantum mechanics. He published his work in 1925 in a

breakthrough paper. In the subsequent series of papers with Max Born and Pascual Jordan,

during the same year, this matrix formulation of quantum mechanics was substantially

elaborated. In 1927 he published his uncertainty principle, upon which he built his philosophy

and for which he is best known. Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1932

"for the creation of quantum mechanics".[1] He also made important contributions to the

theories of the hydrodynamics of turbulent flows, the atomic nucleus, ferromagnetism, cosmic

rays, and subatomic particles, and he was instrumental in planning the first West German

nuclear reactor at Karlsruhe, together with a research reactor in Munich, in 1957. Considerable

controversy surrounds his work on atomic research during World War II.

Following World War II, he was appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics,

which soon thereafter was renamed the Max Planck Institute for Physics. He was director of the

institute until it was moved to Munich in 1958, when it was expanded and renamed the Max

Planck Institute for Physics and Astrophysics.

Heisenberg was also president of the German Research Council, chairman of the Commission

for Atomic Physics, chairman of the Nuclear Physics Working Group, and president of the

Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.

Heisenbergs paper establishing quantum mechanics has puzzled physicists and historians. His

methods assume that the reader is familiar with Kramers-Heisenberg transition probability

calculations. The main new idea, noncommuting matrices, is justified only by a rejection of

unobservable quantities. It introduces the non-commutative multiplication of matrices by

physical reasoning, based on the correspondence principle, despite the fact that Heisenberg

was not then familiar with the mathematical theory of matrices. The path leading to these

results has been reconstructed in MacKinnon, 1977, and the detailed calculations are worked

out in Aitchison et al

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Michael Faraday, 1842

Born: 22 September 1791

Newington Butts, EnglandDied: 25 August 1867 (aged 75)

Hampton Court, Middlesex, England

Known for:

Faraday's law of induction

Electrochemistry

Faraday effect

Faraday cage

Faraday constant

Faraday cup

Faraday's laws of electrolysisFaraday paradox

Faraday rotator

Faraday-efficiency effect

Faraday wave

Faraday wheel

Lines of force


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Signature

Michael Faraday, FRS (22 September 179125 August 1867) was an English scientist whocontributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main discoveries

include those of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis.

Although Faraday received little formal education, he was one of the most influential scientists

in history. It was by his research on the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a direct

current that Faraday established the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in

physics. Faraday also established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was

an underlying relationship between the two phenomena. He similarly discovered the principle

of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and the laws of electrolysis. His inventions of

electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was

largely due to his efforts that electricity became practical for use in technology.

As a chemist, Faraday discovered benzene, investigated the clathrate hydrate of chlorine,

invented an early form of the Bunsen burner and the system of oxidation numbers, and

popularised terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion. Faraday ultimately

became the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great

Britain, a lifetime position.

Faraday was an excellent experimentalist who conveyed his ideas in clear and simple language;

his mathematical abilities, however, did not extend as far as trigonometry or any but the

simplest algebra. James Clerk Maxwell took the work of Faraday and others, and summarized itin a set of equations that is accepted as the basis of all modern theories of electromagnetic

phenomena. On Faraday's uses of the lines of force, Maxwell wrote that they show Faraday "to

have been in reality a mathematician of a very high orderone from whom the

mathematicians of the future may derive valuable and fertile methods." The SI unit of

capacitance, the Farad, is named in his honour.

Albert Einstein kept a picture of Faraday on his study wall, alongside pictures of Isaac Newton

and James Clerk Maxwell. Physicist Ernest Rutherford stated; "When we consider the

magnitude and extent of his discoveries and their influence on the progress of science and of

industry, there is no honour too great to pay to the memory of Faraday, one of the greatestscientific discoverers of all time".

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Max Planck

Born : Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck

April 23, 1858

Kiel, Duchy of Holstein

Died : October 4, 1947 (aged 89)

Gttingen, Lower Saxony, Germany

Known for :

Planck constant

Planck postulate

Planck's law of black body radiation

Signature
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Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck, FRS[ (April 23, 1858October 4, 1947) was a German theoretical physicist who

originated quantum theory, which won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918

Planck made many contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame rests primarily on his role as originator of the

quantum theory. This theory revolutionized human understanding of atomic and subatomic processes, just as

Albert Einsteins theory of relativity revolutionized the understanding of space and time. Together they constitute

the fundamental theories of 20th-century physics.http://en.wikipedia.org

Enrico Fermi

Born : 29 September 1901

Rome, Italy

Died : 28 November 1954 (aged 53)

Chicago, Illinois, United States

Known for:

Nuclear chain reaction

FermiDirac statistics

Theory of beta decay

Signature
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Enrico Fermi (29 September 190128 November 1954) was an Italian-American physicist, best

known for his work on Chicago Pile-1 (the first nuclear reactor), and for his contributions to the

development of quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics. He is one of the

men referred to as the "father of the atomic bomb". Fermi held several patents related to the use of

nuclear power, and was awarded the 1938 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on induced radioactivity

by neutron bombardment and the discovery of transuranic elements. He was widely regarded as one of

the very few physicists to excel both theoretically and experimentally.

Fermi's first major contribution was to statistical mechanics. After Wolfgang Pauli announced his

exclusion principle in 1925, Fermi followed with a paper in which he applied the principle to an ideal gas,

employing a statistical formulation now known as FermiDirac statistics. Today, particles that obey theexclusion principle are called "fermions". Later Pauli postulated the existence of an uncharged invisible

particle emitted along with an electron during beta decay, to satisfy the law of conservation of energy.

Fermi took up this idea, developing a model that incorporated the postulated particle, which he named

the "neutrino". His theory, later referred to as Fermi's interaction and still later as weak interaction,

described one of the four fundamental forces of nature. Through experiments inducing radioactivity

with recently discovered neutrons, Fermi discovered that slow neutrons were more easily captured than

fast ones, and developed the Fermi age equation to describe this. After bombarding thorium and

uranium with slow neutrons, he concluded that he had created new elements; although he was

awarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery, the new elements were subsequently revealed to be fission

products.

Fermi left Italy in 1938 to escape new Italian Racial Laws that affected his Jewish wife Laura. He

emigrated to the United States where he worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II. Fermi

led the team that designed and built Chicago Pile-1, which went critical on 2 December 1942,

demonstrating the first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction. He was on hand when the X-10

Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge, Tennessee went critical in 1943, and when the B Reactor at the Hanford

Site did so the next year. At Los Alamos he headed F Division, part of which worked on Edward Teller's

thermonuclear "Super" bomb. He was present at the Trinity test on 16 July 1945, where he used his

Fermi method to estimate the bomb's yield.

After the war, Fermi served under Oppenheimer on the influential General Advisory Committee,

which advised the Atomic Energy Commission on nuclear matters and policy. Following the detonation

of the first Soviet fission bomb in August 1949, he strongly opposed the development of a hydrogenbomb on both moral and technical grounds. He was among the scientists who testified on

Oppenheimer's behalf at the 1954 hearing that resulted in the denial of the latter's security clearance.

Fermi did important work in particle physics, especially related to pions and muons, and he speculated

that cosmic rays arose through material being accelerated by magnetic fields in interstellar space. Many

awards, concepts, and institutions are named after Fermi, including the Enrico Fermi Award, the Enrico

Fermi Institute, the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, the


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Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station, and the synthetic element fermium.


Paul Dirac

Born : Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac

8 August 1902

Bristol, England

Died : 20 October 1984 (aged 82)Tallahassee, Florida, USA

Known for

Dirac equation Dirac's theorem on cycles in k-connected graphs

Dirac comb KapitsaDirac effect

Dirac delta function Diracvon Neumann axioms

FermiDirac statistics AbrahamLorentzDirac force

FermiDirac integral EinsteinMaxwellDirac equations

Complete FermiDirac integral Dirac-Coulomb-Breit Equation

Dirac sea Canonical quantisation

Dirac bracket Canonical quantum gravity

Dirac spinor Exchange interaction

Dirac picture First class constraint

Dirac measure Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics

Dirac monopole Negative probability

Dirac notation Path integral formulation

Dirac adjoint Primary constraint

Dirac large numbers hypothesis Quantum electrodynamics

Dirac fermion Spin magnetic moment

Dirac field


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Dirac hole theory

Dirac spectrum

Dirac string

Dirac algebra

Dirac matrices

Dirac operator

Dirac constantDirac's theorem on Hamiltonian cycles

Dirac's theorem on chordal graphs

Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac OM FRS[2] (/drk/ di-RAK; 8 August 190220

October 1984) was an English theoretical physicist who made fundamental

contributions to the early development of both quantum mechanics and quantum

electrodynamics. He was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of

Cambridge, a member of the Center for Theoretical Studies, University of Miami, and

spent the last decade of his life at Florida State University.

Among other discoveries, he formulated the Dirac equation, which describes the

behaviour of fermions and predicted the existence of antimatter. Dirac shared the NobelPrize in Physics for 1933 with Erwin Schrdinger, "for the discovery of new productive

forms of atomic theory".[3] He also did work that forms the basis of modern attempts to

reconcile general relativity with quantum mechanics.

He was regarded by his friends and colleagues as unusual in character. Albert

Einstein said of him, "This balancing on the dizzying path between genius and madness

is awful",[4] referring to his autistic traits. His mathematical brilliance, however, means

he is regarded as one of the most significant physicists of the 20th century.

Gravity

He quantised the gravitational field, and developed a general theory of quantum field theories

with dynamical constraints, which forms the basis of the gauge theories and superstring theories of today.

The influence and importance of his work has increased with the decades, and physicists daily use the

concepts and equations that he developed.

Quantum theory

Dirac's first step into a new quantum theory was taken late in September 1925. Ralph Fowler, his

research supervisor, had received a proof copy of an exploratory paper by Werner Heisenberg in the

framework of the old quantum theory of Bohr and Sommerfeld, which leaned heavily on Bohr's

correspondence principle but changed the equations so that they involved directly observable quantities.

Fowler sent Heisenberg's paper on to Dirac, who was on vacation in Bristol, asking him to look into thispaper carefully.

Dirac's attention was drawn to a mysterious mathematical relationship, at first sight

unintelligible, that Heisenberg had reached. Several weeks later, back in Cambridge, Dirac suddenly

recognised that this mathematical form had the same structure as the Poisson Brackets that occur in the

classical dynamics of particle motion. From this thought he quickly developed a quantum theory that was

based on non-commuting dynamical variables. This led him to a more profound and significant general

formulation of quantum mechanics than was achieved by any other worker in this field.[46]


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Dirac noticed an analogy between the Poisson brackets of classical mechanics and the recently

proposed quantisation rules in Werner Heisenberg's matrix formulation of quantum mechanics. This

observation allowed Dirac to obtain the quantisation rules in a novel and more illuminating manner. For

this work, published in 1926, he received a PhD from Cambridge.

Ernest Rutherford

Born : 30 August 1871

Brightwater, Tasman District, New Zealand

Died : 19 October 1937 (aged 66)

Cambridge, England, UK

Known for

Father of nuclear physics

Rutherford model

Rutherford scattering

Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy

Discovery of proton


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Rutherford (unit)

Coining the term 'artificial disintegration'Signature

Louis de Broglie

Born : 15 August 1892

Dieppe, France

Died : 19 March 1987 (aged 94)

Louveciennes, France

Known for:Wave nature of electrons

De BroglieBohm theory

de Broglie wavelength

Louis-Victor-Pierre-Raymond, 7th duc de Broglie, (15 August 189219 March 1987) was a

French physicist who made groundbreaking contributions to quantum theory. In his

1924 PhD thesis he postulated the wave nature of electrons and suggested that all

matter has wave properties. This concept is known as wave-particle duality or the deBroglie hypothesis. He won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1929. The wave-like

behaviour of particles discovered by de Broglie was used by Erwin Schrdinger in his

formulation of wave mechanics. Louis de Broglie was the sixteenth member elected to

occupy seat 1 of the Acadmie franaise in 1944, and served as Perpetual Secretary of

the French Academy of Sciences.
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Joseph John Thomson

Born : 18 December 1856

Manchester, England

Died: 30 August 1940 (aged 83)

Cambridge, England

Known for:

Plum pudding model

Discovery of electron

Discovery of isotopes

Mass spectrometer invention

First m/e measurement

Proposed first waveguide

Thomson scattering

Thomson problem Signature

Coining term 'delta ray'

Coining term 'epsilon radiation'

Thomson (unit)

Sir Joseph John "J. J." Thomson, OM, FRS[1] (18 December 185630 August 1940) was a British physicist.

In 1897 Thomson showed that cathode rays were composed of a previously unknown negatively charged particle,

and thus he is credited with the discovery and identification of the electron; and, in a broader sense, with the

discovery of the first subatomic particle. Thomson is also credited with finding the first evidence for isotopes of a
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stable (non-radioactive) element in 1913, as part of his exploration into the composition of canal rays (positive

ions). He invented the mass spectrometer.

Thomson was awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of the electron and for his work

on the conduction of electricity in gases.


Wolfgang Pauli

Born: Wolfgang Ernst Pauli

25 April 1900

Vienna, Austria-Hungary

Died: 15 December 1958 (aged 58)

Known for :

Pauli exclusion principle

PauliVillars regularization

Pauli matrices

Pauli effect

Pauli equation

Pauli group

Pauli repulsionPauliLubanski pseudovector

Coining 'not even wrong'


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Wolfgang Ernst Pauli (25 April 190015 December 1958) was an Austrian theoretical

physicist and one of the pioneers of quantum physics.

In 1945, after having been nominated by Albert Einstein, Pauli received the Nobel Prize

in Physics for his "decisive contribution through his discovery of a new law of Nature, the

exclusion principle or Pauli principle." The discovery involved spin theory, which is the basis of

a theory of the structure of matter.


Pierre Curie

Born: 15 May 1859

Paris, France

Died: 19 April 1906 (aged 46)

Paris, France

Known for:

- Radioactivity

Pierre Curie ( 15 May 185919 April 1906) was a French physicist, a pioneer in crystallography,

magnetism, piezoelectricity and radioactivity. In 1903 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics

with his wife, Marie Skodowska Curie, and Henri Becquerel, "in recognition of the


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extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation

phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel".


rnest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson, OM FRS (30 August 187119 October 1937)

was a New Zealand-born British physicist who became known as the father of nuclear physics.

Encyclopdia Britannica considers him to be the greatest experimentalist since Michael

Faraday (17911867).

In early work he discovered the concept of radioactive half-life, proved that radioactivity

involved the transmutation of one chemical element to another, and also differentiated and

named alpha and beta radiationThis work was done at McGill University in Canada. It is the

basis for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry he was awarded in 1908 "for his investigations into the

disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances".

Rutherford moved in 1907 to the Victoria University of Manchester (today University of

Manchester) in the UK, where he and Thomas Royds proved that alpha radiation is heliumions

Rutherford performed his most famous work after he became a Nobel laureate. In 1911,

although he could not prove that it was positive or negative, he theorized that atoms have their

charge concentrated in a very small nucleus, and thereby pioneered the Rutherford model ofthe atom, through his discovery and interpretation of Rutherford scattering in his gold foil

experiment. He is widely credited with first "splitting the atom" in 1917 in a nuclear reaction

between nitrogen and alpha particles, in which he also discovered (and named) the proton.

Rutherford became Director of the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge University in 1919.

Under his leadership the neutron was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932 and in the same

year the first experiment to split the nucleus in a fully controlled manner, performed by

students working under his direction, John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton. After his death in

1937, he was honoured by being interred with the greatest scientists of the United Kingdom,

near Sir Isaac Newton's tomb in Westminster Abbey. The chemical element rutherfordium(element 104) was named after him in 1997.


Documents

Albert Einstein in 1921