• Mughal Conquest of India 1526-56 • Akbar's Tolerant Empire 1556-1605 • Jahangir and Shah Jahan 1605-58

• Aurangzeb's Intolerant Empire 1658-1707 • Kashmir and Tibet 1526-1707 • Southern India 1526-1707

• European Trade with Mughal India • Tulsidas and Maharashtra Mystics

• Sikhs 1539-1708

EMPEROR ZAHEERUDDIN BABAR

Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur (February 14, 1483 – December 26, 1530) was a Turko-Mongol Muslim conqueror from Central Asia who, following a series of setbacks, finally succeeded in laying the basis for

the Mughal dynasty in South Asia.

He was a direct descendant of Timur through his father, and a descendant also of Genghis Khan through his mother.

Babur identified his lineage as Timurid and Chaghatay-Turkic, while his origin, milieu, training, and culture were steeped in Persian culture and

so he was largely responsible for the fostering of this culture by his descendants, and for the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the

Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and historiographical results.

Conquest of the Lodhi Empire, first Battle of Panipat and battles against Rajputs were some highlights of his reigning period.

EMEPROR HUMAYUN Nasir ud-din Muhammad Humayun (7 March 1508– 17 January 1556) was the second Mughal Emperor who ruled present day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of norther India from 1530–1540 and again from 1555–1556. Like his father,Babur, he lost his kingdom early, but with Persian aid, he eventually regained an even larger one. On the eve of his death in 1556, the Mughal empire spanned one million square kilometers. He succeeded his father in India in 1530, while his half-brother Kamran Mirza, who was to become a rather bitter rival, obtained the sovereignty of Kabul andLahore, the more northern parts of their father's empire. He originally ascended the throne at the age of 22 and was somewhat inexperienced when he came to power. Humayun lost Mughal territories to the Pashtun noble, Sher Shah Suri, and, with Persian aid, regained them 15 years later. Humayun's return from Persia, accompanied by a large retinue of Persian noblemen, signaled an important change in Mughal court culture, as the Central Asian origins of the dynasty were largely overshadowed by the influences of Persian art, architecture, language and literature and also there are many stone carved and Persian language In India from the time of Humayun also thousands of Persian manuscript in India. Subsequently, in a very short time, Humayun was able to expand the Empire further, leaving a substantial legacy for his son, Akbar. His peaceful personality, patience and non-provocative methods of speech earned him the title Insan-i-Kamil, among the Mughals.

EMPEROR AKBAR Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar, also known as Shanshah Akbar-e-Azam or Akbar the Great (14 October 1542 – 27 October 1605), was the third Mughal Emperor. He was of Timurid descent; the son of Emperor Humayun, and the grandson of the Mughal Emperor Zaheeruddin Muhammad Babur, the ruler who founded the Mughal dynasty in India. At the end of his reign in 1605 the Mughal empire covered most of the northern and central India. He is most appreciated for having a liberal outlook on all faiths and beliefs and during his era, culture and art reached to zenith as compared to his predecessors. Akbar was 13 years old when he ascended the Mughal throne in Delhi (February 1556), following the death of his father Humayun. During his reign, he eliminated military threats from the powerful Pashtun descendants of Sher Shah Suri, and at the Second Battle of Panipat he decisively defeated the newly self-declared Hindu king Hemu. It took him nearly two more decades to consolidate his power and bring all the parts of northern and central India into his direct realm. He influenced the whole of the Indian Subcontinent as he ruled a greater part of it as an emperor. As an emperor, Akbar solidified his rule by pursuing diplomacy with the powerful Hindu Rajput caste, and by marrying Rajput princesses.

Akbar's reign significantly influenced art and culture in the country. He was a great patron of art and architecture He took a great interest in painting, and had the walls of his palaces adorned with murals. Besides encouraging the development of the Mughal school, he also patronised the European style of painting. He was fond of literature, and had several Sanskrit works translated into Persian and Persian scriptures translated in Sanskrit apart from getting many Persian works illustrated by painters from his court. During the early years of his reign, he showed intolerant attitude towards Hindus and other religions, but later exercised tolerance towards non-Islamic faiths by rolling back some of the strict sharia laws. His administration included numerous Hindu landlords, courtiers and military generals. He began a series of religious debates where Muslim scholars would debate religious matters with Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians and Portuguese Roman Catholic Jesuits. He treated these religious leaders with great consideration, irrespective of their faith, and revered them. He not only granted lands and money for the mosques but the list of the recipients included a huge number Hindu temples in north and central India, Christian churches in Goa. It is reported that he even formed his own religion, known as DIN E ILLAHI, which consisted of concepts from all faiths embedded into one. However, he eventually himself gave up practicing his religion and reverted back to Islam.

EMPEROR JAHANGIR Born as Prince Muhammad Salim, he was the third and eldest surviving son of Mughal Emperor Akbar. Akbar's twin sons, Hasan and Hussain, died in infancy. His mother was the Rajput Princess of Amber, Jodhabai (born Rajkumari Hira Kunwari, eldest daughter of Raja Bihar Mal or Bharmal, Raja of Amber, India). Jahangir was a child of many prayers. It is said to be by the blessing of Shaikh Salim Chisti (one of the revered sages of his times) that Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar's first surviving child, the future Jahangir, was born. He was born at the dargah of the Shaikh Salim Chisti, within the fortress at Fatehpur Sikri near Agra. The child was named Salim after the darvesh and was affectionately addressed by Akbar as Sheikhu Baba. Akbar developed an emotional attachment with the village Sikri (abode of Chishti). Therefore, he developed the town of Sikri and shifted his imperial court and residence from Agra to Sikri, later renamed as Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar ensured that his son received the best education possible. Salim started his studies at the age of four and was taught Farsi, Turkish, Arabic, Urdu, history, arithmetic, geography and other sciences by important tutors like Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, a renowned soldier and scholar.

Jahangir was responsible for ending a century long struggle with the state of Mewar.The campaign against the Rajputs was pushed so extensively that the latter were made to submit and that too with a great loss of life and property. Jahangir also thought of capturing the fort of Kangra, which Akbar had failed to do so. Consequently a siege was laid, which lasted for fourteen months, and the fort w The health of H.M Jahangir was completely shattered due on account of too much of drinking. He was trying to restore it by visiting Kashmir and Kabul. He went from Kabul to Kashmir but returned to Lahore on account of severe cold. H.M Jahangir died on the way in 1627 and buried in a tomb garden at Shahdara-Lahore, Pakistan. H.M Jahangir was succeeded by his third son, Prince Khurram who took the title of Shah Jahan. H.M Jahangir's elegant mausoleum is located in the Shahdara, Lahore now its become a popular tourist attraction in Lahore.

EMPEROR SHAH JAHAN He was the Founder of the magnificent monument Taj Mahal, Also associated with the Red Fort of Delhi, Jama Masjid of Delhi, Section of Agra Fort, the Wazir Khan Mosque and the Moti Masjid in Lahore, Pakistan Shah Jahan, his name along with the name of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, being synonymous with the existence and ever growing popularity of Taj Mahal, was a Mughal Emperor of the Southern Asia who reigned from 1627 to 1658. Born as Prince Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram in the Lahore, Pakistan of 1592, Shah Jahan was the son of Emperor Jahangir. His name Khurram, which means "joyful" in Persian, was given to him by his grandfather Akbar the Great. Displaying great military skills at an early age against numerous enemies including Mewar, the Lodi in the Deccan, and Kangra, impressed his father so much that Shah Jahan received the title "Shah Jahan Bahadur" from him. He wasn't just a sharp military leader, but also had an exceptional talent for building and proved it by re-designing buildings within the Agra fort. Among many titles he had earned, "The Builder of the Marvels" was one that was about to be proved the most deserving in the time to come.

The most significant part of Shah Jahan's life history began in 1607 when he was 15 and was betrothed to Arjumand Banu Begum, the granddaughter of a Persian noble and was just 14 at that time. After they got married in 1612, Arjumand became the unquestioned love of his life. Khurram, upon finding her appearance and character elect among all the women of the time, bestowed her with the title of Mumtaz Mahal, meaning "Jewel of the Palace". Although Mumtaz was one among the few wives Shah Jahan had had, according to the official court chronicler Qazwini, the relationship with his other wives "had nothing more than the status of marriage. The intimacy, deep affection, attention and favor which His Majesty had for the Cradle of Excellence (Mumtaz) exceeded by a thousand times what he felt for any other". She was his inseparable companion, accompanying him even on military ventures, a trusted confidante and their relationship was intense.

After she died in 1631 while giving birth to their 14th child, Shah Jahan undertook the work of constructing world's most beautiful monument in her memory. This monument, which entombs Mumtaz Mahal as well as Shah Jahan, came to be known as "Taj Mahal", the building of which took 22 years and 22000 laborers. It was in 1657 that Shah Jahan fell ill, and Dara, Mumtaz Mahal's eldest son assumed responsibility of his father's throne. His other son, Aurangzeb, accompanied by his younger brothers Shuja and Murad marched upon Agra to in order to claim their share. They defeated Dara's armies and declared their father Shah Jahan incompetent to rule and put him under house arrest in Agra Fort. After Shah Jahan died in 1666 in captivity, his body was taken quietly by two men and was laid beside Mumtaz. Apart from the Taj Mahal, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, the Red Fort of Delhi, Jama Masjid of Delhi, Section of Agra Fort, the Wazir Khan Mosque and the Moti Masjid in Lahore, Pakistan, are some of the noble structures associated with the name of Shah Jahan, meaning "King of the World" in Persian.

EMPEROR AURANGZEB Aurangzeb was the third son of the fifth emperor Shah Jahan and Arjumand Banu Begum (also known as Mumtaz Mahal). After a rebellion by his father, part of Aurangzeb's childhood was spent as a virtual hostage at his grandfather Jahangir's court. From the start of his reign up until his death, Aurangzeb engaged in almost constant warfare. He built up a massive army, and began a program of military expansion along all the boundaries of his empire. Aurangzeb pushed into the north-west — into the Punjab and what is now Afghanistan. He also drove south, conquering Bijapur and Golconda, his old enemies. He attempted to suppress the Maratha territories, which had recently been liberated by Chhatrapati Shivaji. But the combination of military expansion and religious intolerance had far deeper consequences. Though he succeeded in expanding Mughal control, it was at an enormous cost in lives and to the treasury. And, as the empire expanded in size, the chain of command grew weaker. The Sikhs of the Punjab grew both in strength and numbers in rebellion against Aurangzeb's armies. When the now weakened Muslim kingdoms of Golconda and Bijapur fell beneath Aurangzeb's might, the Marathas waged a war with Aurangzeb which lasted for 27 years.

Even Aurangzeb's own armies grew restive — particularly the fierce Rajputs, who were his main source of strength. Aurangzeb gave a wide berth to the Rajputs, who were mostly Hindu. While they fought for Aurangzeb during his life, on his death they immediately revolted against the Empire, an essential after-effect of Aurangzeb's Islamic fundamentalist policies. With much of his attention on military matters, Aurangzeb's political power waned, and his provincial governors and generals grew in authority. From the start of his reign up until his death, Aurangzeb engaged in almost constant warfare. He built up a massive army, and began a program of military expansion along all the boundaries of his empire. Aurangzeb pushed into the north-west — into the Punjab and what is now Afghanistan. He also drove south, conquering Bijapur and Golconda, his old enemies. He attempted to suppress the Maratha territories, which had recently been liberated by Chhatrapati Shivaji. But the combination of military expansion and religious intolerance had far deeper consequences. Though he succeeded in expanding Mughal control, it was at an enormous cost in lives and to the treasury. And, as the empire expanded in size, the chain of command grew weaker.

The Sikhs of the Punjab grew both in strength and numbers in rebellion against Aurangzeb's armies. When the now weakened Muslim kingdoms of Golconda and Bijapur fell beneath Aurangzeb's might, the Marathas waged a war with Aurangzeb which lasted for 27 years. Even Aurangzeb's own armies grew restive — particularly the fierce Rajputs, who were his main source of strength. Aurangzeb gave a wide berth to the Rajputs, who were mostly Hindu. While they fought for Aurangzeb during his life, on his death they immediately revolted against the Empire, an essential after-effect of Aurangzeb's Islamic fundamentalist policies. With much of his attention on military matters, Aurangzeb's political power waned, and his provincial governors and generals grew in authority.

Although his father's rule was generally peaceful, the empire was experiencing challenges by the end of his reign. Shah Jahan reversed this trend by putting down a [Islamic] rebellion in Ahmednagar, repulsing the Portuguese in Bengal, capturing the Rajput kingdoms of Baglana and Bundelkhand to the west and the northwest beyond the Khyber Pass. Shah Jahan's military campaigns drained the imperial treasury.[citation needed] Under his rule, the state became a huge military machine and the nobles and their contingents multiplied almost fourfold, as did the demands for more revenue from the peasantry. It was however a period of general stability — the administration was centralised and court affairs systematised. Historiography and the arts increasingly became instruments of propaganda, where beautiful artworks or poetry expressed specific state ideologies which held that central power and hierarchical order would create balance and harmony. The empire continued to expand moderately during his reign but the first signs of an imperial decline were seen in the later years.

Many subjects rebelled against Aurangzeb's policies, among them his own son, Prince Akbar. In 1667, the Yusufzai Pashtuns revolted near Peshawar and were crushed. In 1669, the Jats around Mathura revolted and led to the formation of Bharatpur state after his death. In 1670, Chhatrapati Shivaji had opened the war against the Mughals. He opposed Aurangzeb with full strength and stopped him from entering the Deccan. In 1672 the Satnamis, a Kabirpanthi sect concentrated in an area near Delhi, staged an armed revolt, taking over the administration of Narnaul, and defeating Mughal forces in an advance on Delhi. Aurangzeb sent an army of ten thousand, including his Imperial Guard, and put the rebellion down. Soon afterwards the Afridi Pashtuns in the north-west also revolted, and Aurangzeb was forced to lead his army personally to Hasan Abdal to subdue them.

When Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur died in 1679, a conflict ensued over who would be the next Raja. Aurangzeb's choice of a nephew of the former Maharaja was not accepted by other members of Jaswant Singh's family and they rebelled, but in vain. Aurangzeb seized control of Jodhpur. He also moved on Udaipur, which was the only other state of Rajputana to support the rebellion. There was never a clear resolution to this conflict, although it is noted that the other Rajputs, including the celebrated Kachhwaha Rajput clan of Raja Jai Singh, the Bhattis, and the Rathores, remained loyal. On the other hand, Aurangzeb's own third son, Prince Akbar, along with a few Muslim Mansabdar supporters, joined the rebels in the hope of dethroning his father and becoming emperor. The rebels were defeated and Akbar fled south to the shelter of the Maratha Chhatrapati Sambhaji, Chhatrapati Shivaji's successor.

Aurangzeb ruled India for 48 years. He was the only Mughal emperor to be seen at par with the Ottoman emperors in wealth and power. He brought a larger area under Mughal rule than ever before. He is generally regarded as the last Great Mughal ruler. His constant wars, however, left the empire dangerously overextended, isolated from its strong Rajput allies, and with a population that (except for the orthodox Sunni Muslim minority) was resentful, if not outright rebellious, against his reign. His last twenty five years were spent fighting in the Deccan till his death in 1707.

H.M Aurangzeb Alamgir led an extremely simple and pious life. He followed Muslim precepts with his typical determination, and even memorized the entire Qur'an. He knitted Haj caps and copied out the Qur'an throughout his life and sold these anonymously. He used only the proceeds from these to fund his modest resting place. He died in Ahmednagar on Friday, February 20 1707 at the age of 88, having outlived many of his children. His modest open-air grave in Khuldabad expresses his strict and deep interpretation of Islamic beliefs. His reign saw several rebellion movements like the SIKH REBELLION AND THE PASHTUN REBELLION. War against the MARAHTAS was also one of the most significant events of his reign.

REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE The Mughal Empire which had reached its zenith, began to decline after the reign of Aurangzeb. There were many causes for the downfall of the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb’s responsibility: Aurangzeb was largely responsible for the downfall of the Mughal Empire. His predecessors did a lot to win over the loyalty of his subjects, but Aurangzeb being a Fanatic could not tolerate the non-Muslims. He imposed jaziya and forbade the celebrations of Hindu Festivals. He thus lost friendship and loyalty with the Rajputs. His execution of the Sikh guru and his enmity with the Marathas forced them to raise forces against him. His excessive obsession with the Deccan destroyed Mughal army, treasure and also affected his health. Aurangzeb being a Fanatic Sunni Muslim, could not even tolerate the Shias. He laid too much of stress on simplicity and was against singing, dancing and drinking which were common habits of the Muslim nobles. Aurangzeb, thus ‘himself gave a green signal to the forces of decay’. After the death of Aurangzeb, the mighty empire disintegrated into smaller states. Weak successors: The successors of Aurangzeb were both weak and incompetent. They spent more time on their harems and pleasure and soon lost control of the state,

Poor Economy: The Economic condition of the Mughal Empire was ruined because of constant wars. They spent money lavishly on buildings and monuments. Finally the foreign invasions completely shattered the economy. Moral Degradation of Soldiers: The Mughal soldiers had wealth and luxury, which made them lazy, corrupt and inefficient. They were pleasure-giving and easygoing. Often they were also disloyal. They sometimes fought only for money and easily got succumbed to bribes. Rise of New Powers: New Powers such as the Sikhs, the Jhats and the Marathas came onto the scene. They broke off from the Mughal domination and established their independent states.

No Definite Law of Succession: There was no definite law of succession during the Mughal Empire. After the death of every Emperor, there ensued a bloody war of succession amongst his sons. Each one, used nobles and members of the royal household to get the throne. This created anarchy. This made the Mughal power weak and vulnerable. Coming of Europeans: The Europeans, especially British played a major role in putting an end to the Mughal Empire. They obtained a firman to trade with India. Gradually, the started interfering with Indian politics, gradually the established a British Empire in India which lasted for about 200 years. Foreign Invasions: The invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali proved fatal to the Mughal Empire. India also became an easy prey for foreign rulers.