AJ 58 - Community and Human Relations

Chapter 2 –

A History of

Community Policing

Historical Overview of Policing

Totalitarian Countries– The few impose will on the many

Democratic Society– People make laws through elected representatives

Challenge in U.S.– Police independence (from political corruption) vs.

public accountability (from citizenry)

Historical Shift from Informal to Formal Policing

Influencing factors… Population growth Change from agrarian to industrial society Unequal distribution of resources Crowding into cities Advances in technology

Evolution of Policing

Simple society = simple, self-policing Volunteer “night watchmen” Pay for watchman duties Motorized patrol replaced foot patrol With each of these “advances”, there was an

increased separation from the community!

British Roots of Modern Policing

Why did the King and his noblemen have a vested interest in keeping the peace and reducing crime and rebellion?

– Tax money collected during feudal system!

Self-policing citizens (800-900) Justice of the Peace (1300’s) Paid, professional police force (1800’s)

The British Industrial Revolution

Britain’s population doubled from six to twelve million Many moved to large cities for work, but machinery had

replaced many jobs Sudden, drastic increase in…

– Unemployment– Food shortages– Homelessness– Sewage and pollution– Riots and rebellion

Military troops called in to quell riots & uprisings

Sir Robert Peel

British Home Secretary (1822) Created Metropolitan Police Act (1829)

– Established first Police Office at Scotland Yard with paid constables

– “Bobbies” deployed by divisions, beats Hiring Process

– 12,000 applicants for 6,000 jobs– Many from other areas – High turnover during first year

Low pay Misconduct Public resistance

Early Problems and Successes

Citizens called for police force to disband after first year

Police persisted and gained respect despite ongoing riots

– Did not use excessive force– Did not resort to calling in military

As crime rate began to drop, respect for police grew– Pensions (1890)– Code of Professional Conduct (1918)

US Colonial Law Enforcement

1636 – Boston, night watch– Males 18+ expected to serve

1651 – New York, “scout and rattle”– Service as punishment

1705 – Philadelphia, night patrols– City divided into patrol areas, each with its own

Constable and volunteers

Regional Variations

South– Rural, agricultural– Relied on services of County Sheriff

West and Midwest– Elected Constables or Sheriffs

As cities and populations grew, so did crime-related problems– Similar to Industrial Revolution in Britain

Rise of Municipal Police

Early problems…– Night watch only– Erratic, inefficient enforcement– Questionable character/competence of

watchmen As police groups grew, so did corruption Riots in major cities in early 1800’s led

to formation of full-time police organizations by 1860’s

The Spoils Era“To the winner go the spoils”

Police officials acted above the law– Political corruption– Cronyism for selection/promotion– Bribery & Graft– Rigged elections– Racial harassment

Some efforts to reform, but most fell short– Philadelphia (1860), standardized police uniform

New York City Police Department, 1894– Pay to get hired/promoted

Vigilantism

Goes beyond citizens getting involved in aiding police

Operates in opposition to legal norms Injects emotion into process where reason

should prevail South Carolina “Regulators”, 1767

Rationale of Vigilantism

Self-preservation– Be prepared to kill-or-be-killed if the system fails

Right of Revolution– As valid a response as reform when the system

breaks down

Economics– Saving money for the criminal justice system

Inherent Problems with Vigilantism

Punishment without due process No external controls over vigilante group Overreaction to certain actions/groups Racial harassment May be ignored or condoned by law

enforcement

Policing in the Early 20th Century

Civil Service reform helped professionalize departments, but some still lacked positive, effective leadership

Chiefs and Commissioners were transient– NYPD had 12 in 19 years– London had 7 in 91 years

Hands tied by legislative constraints– Difficult to implement innovative programs

Volstead Act, 1919

Prohibition of alcohol largely unpopular, often ignored

Police lost respect, trust, cooperation due to enforcing unpopular law

Police Reform of the 1930’s

Led by Oakland Police Chief August Vollmer Principles of police reform

– Eliminate political corruption– Independent chief– Educated/trained, professional police– Judicious use of latest technology– Benefits of crime-prevention– Expanded role for women in police work– Different approaches for different areas– Role of public service in policing

Impact Areas of Vollmer’s Reforms

Authorization– Authority based on professionalism and law

Function– Crime control

Organizational Design– Centralized organization

Demand for Services– Mainly as crime fighters

Relationship to Environment– Professional aloofness to avoid corruption

Tactics & Technology– Motor patrols for more rapid response

Outcomes– Success based on crime control

More Reforms

Local police followed FBI lead– J. Edgar Hoover had made FBI more popular and respected

Some cities adopted civil service exams for chiefs Some chiefs received lifetime tenure, increasing

power and authority State police departments formed as link between

federal and local efforts

Police and Minorities

Historical clash between powerful and poor– Wealthy privileges in English feudal system– Political/media-created fear of minorities

European immigrants to U.S.– Fear of police oppression

Police mistreatment of minorities has sometimes been reflection of society

– Rich vs. poor– “Us vs. Them” mentality

Community-Outreach Efforts

Police reforms of 1930’s tended to professionalize departments but isolated Police from Community

Police-Community Relations efforts (1950’s)– Aimed high but fell short– Good intentions with limited scope

Goals of Police-Community Relations

Improve communication, reduce hostility Crime detection/prevention skills for all Equal protections Teamwork approach Positive officer attitude towards PCR Enhance mutual understanding Community involvement is necessary

Crime Prevention Units

Some departments created separate unit, some combine with PCR

Proactive approach to helping entire Community

Provided education for business community as well as residents to prevent victimization

Usually manned by Staff, not line personnel

The Challenge of the 1960’s

Decade began with optimistic/idealistic outlook– Peace Corps, civil rights movement– JFK, LBJ, MLK

Mid-1960’s saw political upheaval and civil unrest– Viet Nam, civil rights protests– Bonded racial groups

Conflict among protestors/philosophies– SDS vs. The Weathermen, leading to emergence of

other violent groups like SLA Democratic Convention, Chicago (1968)

– Violent police actions against protestors

Team Policing Model, 1970’s

Reaction to ineffectiveness of PCR and Crime-Prevention strategies

Placed permanent team of officers within same geographical area to increase consistent contact with community

Limitations and obstacles– Applied as a limited tactic– Lacked departmental commitment– Reactive to community needs– Challenged traditional police organizational standards

The Birth of Community Policing

Some transformation had to occur due to changes in political, economic, and social structures in society

Many contributing factors…– Advanced agendas of police & reformers– Increased funding for Community Policing programs– Alienation of Police from Community– Narrow Police mission of fighting crime– Over-reliance on efficiency and effectiveness– Reliance on technology vs. human interaction– Insulation of management from community accountability– Concerns over human-rights violations– Failure of previous models and methods

Learning from Past Mistakes

Problems arise when Police…– Become alienated from Community– Use overt or symbolic violence as means of

control

Creates “Us vs. Them” mentality on both sides

Community Policing uses best elements from past efforts