IMPROVINGLIVESTHROUGHAGRICULTURALRESEARCH

Sargassum Seaweed and its use in crop andlivestock production:

possible agri-business opportunities

POLICY BRIEFPOLICY BRIEF

SummarySargassum natans and Sargassum �uitans are the two main species identi�ed in the large masses of seaweeds washed up on shores across the Caribbean in recent years. Sargassum seaweed provides an important habitat for marine life; however the recent in�ux of the seaweed on the shores of a few Caribbean Islands has created a number of challenges. Proposed approaches to address the current seaweed in�ux include the use of the seaweed as inputs for crop and livestock production systems. Discussions and dialogue are currently being engaged.

About SeaweedThe Sargassum species (spp.) of seaweed belong to the group of brown alga. These algal plants provide a habitat for migratory species of �sh and other marine animals and are of importance to the stability of shores and the nourishment of beaches (Doyle and Franks 2015; Trott et al. 2011). Sargassum spp. are commonly found close to the shores of land masses in warm tropical and subtropical waters worldwide (McHugh 2003). This seaweed is naturally found in small quantities on the shores of Caribbean countries, however, in 2011, 2014 and 2015, these quantities increased signi�cantly in a number of the islands including Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados and Dominica (Doyle and Franks 2015; Williams 2015 ). Sargassum natans and Sargassum �uitans are the two main species that have been identi�ed in the large masses of seaweeds washed up on shores across the Caribbean region (Doyle and Franks 2015). Compared to other Sargassum species, S. �uitans and S. natans are free �oating and never attach to the seabed (Trott et al. 2011). Sargassum usually originate in the Gulf of Mexico and Sargasso Sea, however, it is believed that these recent blooms of Sargassum originate in the Atlantic Ocean, east of Brazil (Lee Lum 2015).

Problems associated with seaweedConcerns have since been raised on the associated negative impacts on �shing, other coastal activities and tourism. Problems include bad odour as a result of the decomposition of the seaweed over time (Doyle and Franks 2015; Oyesiku and Egunyomi 2014); the obstruction of boats and other �shing vessels as well as waterways and; a general decline in aesthetics and recreational activities in beaches in the tourist areas.

What is being done in the regionSo far, Barbados has formed a working group on sargassum seaweed in order to address research, commercial and educational opportunities (Lavine 2015). Additionally, in some parts of Barbados, seaweed from the seashore is collected and dried to form composted media that is marketed to the public through local supermarkets and agro shops (BGIS 2011; Lavine 2015).

Other islands have implemented beach cleanups associated with the deposition of large amounts of seaweed along their shores. For some areas, the low cost approach has been to leave Sargassum on the shores where it is eventually washed away or buried in the next storm or with waves (Doyle and Franks 2015).

Sargassum and Sargassum ProductsSargassum spp. has the potential to be used as an input for crop production systems (Sutharsan et al. 2014; Salma et al. 2014; Simoons 1991). Apart from improving crop productivity, Sargassum inputs have improved the resilience and resistance to harsh environmental conditions and pests respectively (Salma et al. 2014; N’Yeurt and Iese 2014). Sargassum spp. can be used as raw material for liquid fertilizers and fertilizer amendments in crop as well as in the form

of compost for boosting crop productivity (Mohanty et al. 2013). Of all the potential seaweed products such as raw or dried seaweed, seaweed meal and seaweed extracts, extracts have been found to be most practical in its application to crop production. According to Kumar et al. (2012), seaweed meal and seaweed extracts are currently, the two main forms of seaweed products used globally in the agricultural sector.

Uses of Sargassum - Crops Seaweed extracts are important in crop production and are used in several ways, such as foliar applications and soil drenches during transplantation (Mohanty et al. 2013) as well as seed treatments (Kalaivanan and Venkatesalu 2012). Extracts allow for variations in concentration of the �nal product; are also easy to dilute and tend to have rapid e�ects on targeted crop species. Although liquid extracts are the most commonly used seaweed product, application, concentration and extraction methods have not be standardized (Mohanty et al. 2013).

Evidence suggests that the e�ectiveness of foliar seaweed extract sprays on plants is dependent on the concentration of the seaweed. For instance, foliar sprays with 20 percent Sargassum extracts compared to other concentrations (0%, 10%, 50%, 100%) resulted in increased growth, yield and improvements in the quality of tomato plants (Sutharsan et al. 2014). In critical food crops such as legumes, seaweed extract improved the vigor and productivity of legumes in the midst of harsh soil conditions (Salma et al. 2014). Also with its rich content of zinc, copper and manganese, seaweed extract application has impacted positively on fruit formation in tomato (Sutharsan et al. 2014).

Globally, seaweed is commonly used as manure in coastal areas (Kumar et al. 2012). Additionally, Sargassum based fertilizers used within di�erent crop production systems have resulted in increased crop productivity (N’Yeurt and Iese 2014; Crouch and Van Staden 1993). Seaweed, according to Salma et al. (2014), contains major and minor plant nutrients; organic compounds such as auxins, gibberellins and; precursors such as ethylene and betaine that once applied appropriately, has the potential to stimulate plant growth. For instance Crouch and Van Staden (1993) in their studies observed faster fruit ripening rates, a 17% increase in the weight of fresh fruit and approximately 10% increase in the amount of fruits harvested. According to Chapman and Chapman (1980) as cited by Simoons (1991), their high potash content makes them quite suitable for fertilizing root crops and other crops. For instance, in parts of China, Sargassum spp. are seen as a low cost fertilizer in sweet potato production (Simoons 1991).

In the application of seaweed in the raw or composted form, soil salinity is a major issue. Composts produced from plants originating from sea sources such as Sargassum seaweeds are known to have a high salt content and therefore limits potential use as composts in agricultural crop production (Vallini et al. 1993). Composting requires that excessive salts be removed either prior to/ or during the composting process. Due to the high salt and sand content of starting material (seaweed), Eyras et al. (1998) had to alter their composting process and added water periodically to reduce salts and sand. The process of removing the excessive salt and sand can be expensive (Vallini et al. 1993) if consideration is made that fresh water is needed to remove the salts. The use of water to wash out excessive salts may also be counter-productive due to the washing out of bene�cial nutrients that can be found in the seaweed compost.

Uses of Sargassum – LivestockFeeds have been identi�ed as being critical for the development of small ruminant production systems (Mason 1980) in the Caribbean. With the low quality and low growth rates of local forages, scarcity of land resources, high importation of costly commercial feeds and instability of world grain supply and prices, local feed development for small ruminant production is critical (Salem & Smith 2008). One major approach to feed development is the evaluation of novelty or indigenous materials as alternative feeds for livestock (Crawshaw 2001). Sargassum spp. can be found in abundance in sub-tropical and tropical waters and there is potential for its use as an alternative feed in livestock systems in the form of seaweed meal (Marin et al. 2009; Mora Castro et al. 2009; Gojon-Baez et al. 1998).

Sargassum is rich in carbohydrates and some essential amino-acids like arginine, tryptophane and phenylalanine (Carrillo et al. 2002; Casas-Valdez et al. 2006, cited by Marin 2009), displaying equivalent quality to forages, such as sorghum and barley that are commonly used as high quality livestock feed. It is also rich in beta-carotene and vitamins. Research has shown where its inclusion in diets increased digestibility and allowed for large amounts of algal nutrients to be readily available to animals on the Sargassum seaweed diet (Gojon-Baez et al. 1998).

Sargassum seaweed is also known for its low anti-nutrient content, i.e. the presence of substances that do not contribute nutrients to the diets of animals (Carrillo et al. 2002; Casas-Valdez et al. 2006, cited by Marin 2009), which gives it an advantage over other novelty or alternative feeds. Additionally, the characteristically high mineral content of Sargassum spp. has positive implications for goats as mineral de�ciency is a key concern for these animals (Casas-Valdez et al. 2006).

ReferencesBarbados Government Information Services (BGIS). 2011. Sargassum seaweed from problem to pro�t. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6nkRU0-4Kf8

Carrillo S, Casas M, Pérez-Gil F R and Sánchez I. 2002. Algas marinas de Baja California Sur, México: Valor nutrimental. Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición 52:400-405 (cited by Marin 2009)

Casas-Valdez M, Hernández-Contreras H, Marín-Álvarez A, Aguila-Ramírez R N, Hernández-Guerrero C J, Sánchez-Rodríguez I and Carrillo-Domínguez S. 2006. El alga marina Sargassum (Sargassaceae): una alternativa tropical para la alimentación de ganado caprino. Revista de Biología Tropical 54:83-92 (cited by Marin 2009)http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=44920186010

Chapman V J and Chapman D J. 1980. Seaweeds and their uses, 3rd edn. London: Chapman & Hall. Crawshaw R. 2001. Co-product feeds: animal feeds from the food and drinks industries. Nottingham: Nottingham University Press

Crouch I J and van Staden J. 1993. Evidence for the presence of plant growth regulators in commercial seaweed products. Plant Growth Regulation 13:21-29http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00207588

Doyle E and Franks J. 2015. Sargassum Fact Sheet. Florida, USA: Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute. http://www.gc�.org/Publications/GCFISargassumFactSheet.pdf

Eyras M C, Rostagno C M and Defossé G E. 1998. Biological evaluation of seaweed composting. Compost Science & Utilization 6:74-81

Gojon-Báez H H, Siqueiros-Beltrones D A and Hernández-Contreras H. 1998. In Situ ruminal digestibility and degradability of Macrocystis Pyrzjka and Sargassum spp. in bovine livestock. Ciencias Marinas 24:463-481http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/480/48024406.pdf

The high water intake associated with sargassum inclusion in diets along with the characteristically lower degradability of soluble polysaccharides, encourages a more neutral rumen environment. A lower rumen pH reduces methane emissions which may be an indication of the potentially higher energy e�ciency of Sargassum spp. as a feed (Gojon-Baez et al. 1998). This is critical as more energy e�cient feeds direct more energy into production and thus less energy is wasted in methane emission.

Agriculture contributes 60% of the anthropogenic emission of methane with the leading source being enteric fermentation which contributes 33% (80 million tonnes) of total (245 million tonnes) agricultural emissions. Further the production of red meat was 150% more greenhouse gas intensive than the production of other meats (Weber and Matthews 2008). Therefore sargassum has important implications for the development of more sustainable and climate smart feed options for the small ruminant sector.

The Way ForwardThe development of a regional surveillance system aimed at monitoring the movement of Sargassum spp. across the region in order to predict and monitor in�uxes and subsequently coordinate removal of the seaweed from the shores of the Caribbean region is of immediate importance. Since Sargassum spp. has importance in the stability and nourishment of beaches, any attempt to remove sargassum seaweed from shores must be coordinated and monitored in such a way that adverse environmental e�ects on the beach are lessened (Doyle and Franks 2015). Therefore, best practices should be examined and used in the removal of Sargassum seaweed from shores in order for any sort of agricultural or non-agricultural use.

E�orts should also be made to explore the use and standardization of extracts from Sargassum spp. and to conduct research into the speci�c use of Sargassum natans and Sargassum �uitans in terms of the e�ect of such extracts on roots and tubers, vegetable crops, and small ruminants within the context of the Caribbean region. According to Kumar et al. (2012), variations in the e�ects of di�erent species of Sargassum on aspects of plant growth and productivity suggests that it is important that seaweeds be tested for suitability as land plant fertilizers before their release and use. The need to test for the suitability of the Sargassum products for use on small ruminants and other animals would also be of great importance. The use of Sargassum spp. as mulches and compost is also of some immediate interest to Caribbean countries.

ConclusionIt is evident that Sargassum spp. can be successfully utilized in both crop and livestock production. However, factors a�ecting agribusiness opportunities include but are not limited to 1) the availability of the seaweed in terms of the di�culty of extracting the seaweed both from the sea shore and the sea (Doyle and Franks 2015); 2) the consistency of supply and; 3) high transportation costs to move seaweed from the seashore to another site for drying or other types of processing. These limitations have to be addressed if the sargassum seaweed is to be successfully and feasibly exploited.

Kalaivanan C and Venkatesalu V. 2012. Utilization of seaweed Sargassum myriocystum extracts as a stimulant of seedlings of Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research 10:466-470http://revistas.inia.es/index.php/sjar/article/viewFile/3061/1668

Kumar N A, Vanlalzarzova B, Sridhar S and Baluswami M. 2012. E�ect of liquid seaweed fertilizer of Sargassum wightii grev. on the growth and biochemical content of green gram (Vigna radiate (L.) R. wilczek). Recent Research in Science and Technology 4:40-45http://recent-science.com/index.php/rrst/article/view/10066http://recent-science.com/index.php/rrst/article/view/10066/6369

Lavine G. 2015. Sargassum seaweed and extracts: evaluation of their potential use in crop production systems in Barbados. [Barbados: Ministry of Agriculture]http://www.agriculture.gov.bb/agri/images/Seaweed/seaweed_review.pdf

Lee Lum L. 2015. Changing the status quo on Sargassum seaweed. Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago: Institute of Marine A�airs. http://www.ima.gov.tt/home/what-new/253-changing-the-status-quo-on-sargassum-seaweed-.html

Marín A, Casas-Valdez M, Carrillo S, Hernández H, Monroy A, Sanginés L and Pérez-Gil F. 2008. The marine algae Sargassum spp. (Sargassaceae) as feed for sheep in tropical and subtropical regions. Revista de Biología Tropical 57:1271-1281http://www.scielo.sa.cr/pdf/rbt/v57n4/a30v57n4.pdf

Mason I L. 1980. Proli�c tropical sheep. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

McHugh D J. 2003. A guide to the seaweed industry. Rome: United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nationshttp://www.fao.org/3/a-y4765e.pdf

Mohanty, D. Adhikary, S.P. and Chattopadhyay, G. N. 2013.Seaweed Liquid Fertilizer (SLF) and its role in Agriculture Productivity. The Ecoscan Special issue 3:147-155http://www.theecoscan.in/JournalPDF/Spl2013_v3-21%20D.%20Mohanty.pdf

Mora Castro N, Casas Valdez M, Marín Álvarez A, Aguila Ramírez R N, Sánchez Rodríguez I, Hernández Contreras H and Sanginés García L. 2009. The kelp Macrocystis pyrifera as nutritional supplement for goats. Revista Cientí�ca 19:63-70http://www.scielo.org.ve/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0798-22592009000100010&lng=en&nrm=iso&ignore=.html

N’Yeurt A D and Iese V. 2014. Sustainable agro - fertilizers from marine plants in Paci�c small island developing states (SIDS). Suva, Fiji: Paci�c Center for Environment and Sustainable Development, The University of the South Paci�chttp://repository.usp.ac.�/7618/http://repository.usp.ac.�/7618/1/N'Yeurt_%26_Iese_2014_Sustainable_agro-fertilizers_from_marine_plants.pdf

Oyesiku O O and Egunyomi A. 2014. Identi�cation and chemical studies of pelagic masses of Sargassum natans (Linnaeus) Gaillon and S. �uitans (Borgessen) Borgesen (brown algae), found o�shore in Ondo State, Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology. 13:1188-1193

Salem H B and Smith T. 2008. Feeding strategies to increase small ruminant production in dry environments. Small Ruminant Research 77:174-194 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2008.03.008

Salma L, Aymen E M, Maher S, Hassen A, Chérif H. Halima C and Mimoun E. 2014. E�ect of seaweed extract of Sargassum vulgare on germination behavior of two bean cultivars (Phaseolus vulgaris L) under salt stress. IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science 7(2) Ver.1:116-120http://iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/vol7-issue2/Version-1/T0721116120.pdf

Simoons F J. 1991. Food in China: a cultural and historical inquiry. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC press

Sutharsan S, Nishanthi S and Srikrishnah S. 2014. E�ects of foliar application of seaweed (Sargassum crassifolium) liquid extract on the performance of Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. in Sandy Regosol of Batticoloa district Sri Lanka. American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences 14:1386-1396http://www.idosi.org/aejaes/jaes14%2812%2914/9.pdf

Trott T M, McKenna S A, Pitt J M, Hemphill A, Ming F W, Rouja P, Gjerde K M, Causey B, and Earle S A. 2010. E�orts to enhance protection of the Sargasso Sea. In: Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute Meeting, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1-5 November, 2010, pp. 282–288 http://nsgl.gso.uri.edu/�sgp/�sgpw10002/data/papers/052.pdfhttp://www.gc�.org/proceedings/sites/default/�les/procs/GCFI_63-52.pdfhttp://www.gc�.org/proceedings/

Vallini G, Pera A, Cecchi F, Valdrighi M M and Sicurani M A. 1993. Compost Stabilization of Algal Biomass Drawn In Eutrophic Lagoon Ecosystems. Compost Science & Utilization 1:49-53http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1065657X.1993.10757872?journalCode=ucsu20#.VeVd_H1kpGk

Weber C L and Matthews H S. 2008. Food-miles and the relative climate impacts of food choices in the United States. Environmental science & technology 42:3508-3513http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es702969f

Williams E. 2015. THA declares sargassum seaweed a natural disaster. Trinidad and Tobago Express Newspapers, 3 August 2015 http://www.trinidadexpress.com/20150803/news/tha-declares-sargassum-seaweed-a-natural-disaster#main

Issue: 01September 2015

SummarySargassum natans and Sargassum �uitans are the two main species identi�ed in the large masses of seaweeds washed up on shores across the Caribbean in recent years. Sargassum seaweed provides an important habitat for marine life; however the recent in�ux of the seaweed on the shores of a few Caribbean Islands has created a number of challenges. Proposed approaches to address the current seaweed in�ux include the use of the seaweed as inputs for crop and livestock production systems. Discussions and dialogue are currently being engaged.

About SeaweedThe Sargassum species (spp.) of seaweed belong to the group of brown alga. These algal plants provide a habitat for migratory species of �sh and other marine animals and are of importance to the stability of shores and the nourishment of beaches (Doyle and Franks 2015; Trott et al. 2011). Sargassum spp. are commonly found close to the shores of land masses in warm tropical and subtropical waters worldwide (McHugh 2003). This seaweed is naturally found in small quantities on the shores of Caribbean countries, however, in 2011, 2014 and 2015, these quantities increased signi�cantly in a number of the islands including Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados and Dominica (Doyle and Franks 2015; Williams 2015 ). Sargassum natans and Sargassum �uitans are the two main species that have been identi�ed in the large masses of seaweeds washed up on shores across the Caribbean region (Doyle and Franks 2015). Compared to other Sargassum species, S. �uitans and S. natans are free �oating and never attach to the seabed (Trott et al. 2011). Sargassum usually originate in the Gulf of Mexico and Sargasso Sea, however, it is believed that these recent blooms of Sargassum originate in the Atlantic Ocean, east of Brazil (Lee Lum 2015).

Problems associated with seaweedConcerns have since been raised on the associated negative impacts on �shing, other coastal activities and tourism. Problems include bad odour as a result of the decomposition of the seaweed over time (Doyle and Franks 2015; Oyesiku and Egunyomi 2014); the obstruction of boats and other �shing vessels as well as waterways and; a general decline in aesthetics and recreational activities in beaches in the tourist areas.

What is being done in the regionSo far, Barbados has formed a working group on sargassum seaweed in order to address research, commercial and educational opportunities (Lavine 2015). Additionally, in some parts of Barbados, seaweed from the seashore is collected and dried to form composted media that is marketed to the public through local supermarkets and agro shops (BGIS 2011; Lavine 2015).

Other islands have implemented beach cleanups associated with the deposition of large amounts of seaweed along their shores. For some areas, the low cost approach has been to leave Sargassum on the shores where it is eventually washed away or buried in the next storm or with waves (Doyle and Franks 2015).

Sargassum and Sargassum ProductsSargassum spp. has the potential to be used as an input for crop production systems (Sutharsan et al. 2014; Salma et al. 2014; Simoons 1991). Apart from improving crop productivity, Sargassum inputs have improved the resilience and resistance to harsh environmental conditions and pests respectively (Salma et al. 2014; N’Yeurt and Iese 2014). Sargassum spp. can be used as raw material for liquid fertilizers and fertilizer amendments in crop as well as in the form

of compost for boosting crop productivity (Mohanty et al. 2013). Of all the potential seaweed products such as raw or dried seaweed, seaweed meal and seaweed extracts, extracts have been found to be most practical in its application to crop production. According to Kumar et al. (2012), seaweed meal and seaweed extracts are currently, the two main forms of seaweed products used globally in the agricultural sector.

Uses of Sargassum - Crops Seaweed extracts are important in crop production and are used in several ways, such as foliar applications and soil drenches during transplantation (Mohanty et al. 2013) as well as seed treatments (Kalaivanan and Venkatesalu 2012). Extracts allow for variations in concentration of the �nal product; are also easy to dilute and tend to have rapid e�ects on targeted crop species. Although liquid extracts are the most commonly used seaweed product, application, concentration and extraction methods have not be standardized (Mohanty et al. 2013).

Evidence suggests that the e�ectiveness of foliar seaweed extract sprays on plants is dependent on the concentration of the seaweed. For instance, foliar sprays with 20 percent Sargassum extracts compared to other concentrations (0%, 10%, 50%, 100%) resulted in increased growth, yield and improvements in the quality of tomato plants (Sutharsan et al. 2014). In critical food crops such as legumes, seaweed extract improved the vigor and productivity of legumes in the midst of harsh soil conditions (Salma et al. 2014). Also with its rich content of zinc, copper and manganese, seaweed extract application has impacted positively on fruit formation in tomato (Sutharsan et al. 2014).

Globally, seaweed is commonly used as manure in coastal areas (Kumar et al. 2012). Additionally, Sargassum based fertilizers used within di�erent crop production systems have resulted in increased crop productivity (N’Yeurt and Iese 2014; Crouch and Van Staden 1993). Seaweed, according to Salma et al. (2014), contains major and minor plant nutrients; organic compounds such as auxins, gibberellins and; precursors such as ethylene and betaine that once applied appropriately, has the potential to stimulate plant growth. For instance Crouch and Van Staden (1993) in their studies observed faster fruit ripening rates, a 17% increase in the weight of fresh fruit and approximately 10% increase in the amount of fruits harvested. According to Chapman and Chapman (1980) as cited by Simoons (1991), their high potash content makes them quite suitable for fertilizing root crops and other crops. For instance, in parts of China, Sargassum spp. are seen as a low cost fertilizer in sweet potato production (Simoons 1991).

In the application of seaweed in the raw or composted form, soil salinity is a major issue. Composts produced from plants originating from sea sources such as Sargassum seaweeds are known to have a high salt content and therefore limits potential use as composts in agricultural crop production (Vallini et al. 1993). Composting requires that excessive salts be removed either prior to/ or during the composting process. Due to the high salt and sand content of starting material (seaweed), Eyras et al. (1998) had to alter their composting process and added water periodically to reduce salts and sand. The process of removing the excessive salt and sand can be expensive (Vallini et al. 1993) if consideration is made that fresh water is needed to remove the salts. The use of water to wash out excessive salts may also be counter-productive due to the washing out of bene�cial nutrients that can be found in the seaweed compost.

Uses of Sargassum – LivestockFeeds have been identi�ed as being critical for the development of small ruminant production systems (Mason 1980) in the Caribbean. With the low quality and low growth rates of local forages, scarcity of land resources, high importation of costly commercial feeds and instability of world grain supply and prices, local feed development for small ruminant production is critical (Salem & Smith 2008). One major approach to feed development is the evaluation of novelty or indigenous materials as alternative feeds for livestock (Crawshaw 2001). Sargassum spp. can be found in abundance in sub-tropical and tropical waters and there is potential for its use as an alternative feed in livestock systems in the form of seaweed meal (Marin et al. 2009; Mora Castro et al. 2009; Gojon-Baez et al. 1998).

Sargassum is rich in carbohydrates and some essential amino-acids like arginine, tryptophane and phenylalanine (Carrillo et al. 2002; Casas-Valdez et al. 2006, cited by Marin 2009), displaying equivalent quality to forages, such as sorghum and barley that are commonly used as high quality livestock feed. It is also rich in beta-carotene and vitamins. Research has shown where its inclusion in diets increased digestibility and allowed for large amounts of algal nutrients to be readily available to animals on the Sargassum seaweed diet (Gojon-Baez et al. 1998).

Sargassum seaweed is also known for its low anti-nutrient content, i.e. the presence of substances that do not contribute nutrients to the diets of animals (Carrillo et al. 2002; Casas-Valdez et al. 2006, cited by Marin 2009), which gives it an advantage over other novelty or alternative feeds. Additionally, the characteristically high mineral content of Sargassum spp. has positive implications for goats as mineral de�ciency is a key concern for these animals (Casas-Valdez et al. 2006).

ReferencesBarbados Government Information Services (BGIS). 2011. Sargassum seaweed from problem to pro�t. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6nkRU0-4Kf8

Carrillo S, Casas M, Pérez-Gil F R and Sánchez I. 2002. Algas marinas de Baja California Sur, México: Valor nutrimental. Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición 52:400-405 (cited by Marin 2009)

Casas-Valdez M, Hernández-Contreras H, Marín-Álvarez A, Aguila-Ramírez R N, Hernández-Guerrero C J, Sánchez-Rodríguez I and Carrillo-Domínguez S. 2006. El alga marina Sargassum (Sargassaceae): una alternativa tropical para la alimentación de ganado caprino. Revista de Biología Tropical 54:83-92 (cited by Marin 2009)http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=44920186010

Chapman V J and Chapman D J. 1980. Seaweeds and their uses, 3rd edn. London: Chapman & Hall. Crawshaw R. 2001. Co-product feeds: animal feeds from the food and drinks industries. Nottingham: Nottingham University Press

Crouch I J and van Staden J. 1993. Evidence for the presence of plant growth regulators in commercial seaweed products. Plant Growth Regulation 13:21-29http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00207588

Doyle E and Franks J. 2015. Sargassum Fact Sheet. Florida, USA: Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute. http://www.gc�.org/Publications/GCFISargassumFactSheet.pdf

Eyras M C, Rostagno C M and Defossé G E. 1998. Biological evaluation of seaweed composting. Compost Science & Utilization 6:74-81

Gojon-Báez H H, Siqueiros-Beltrones D A and Hernández-Contreras H. 1998. In Situ ruminal digestibility and degradability of Macrocystis Pyrzjka and Sargassum spp. in bovine livestock. Ciencias Marinas 24:463-481http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/480/48024406.pdf

The high water intake associated with sargassum inclusion in diets along with the characteristically lower degradability of soluble polysaccharides, encourages a more neutral rumen environment. A lower rumen pH reduces methane emissions which may be an indication of the potentially higher energy e�ciency of Sargassum spp. as a feed (Gojon-Baez et al. 1998). This is critical as more energy e�cient feeds direct more energy into production and thus less energy is wasted in methane emission.

Agriculture contributes 60% of the anthropogenic emission of methane with the leading source being enteric fermentation which contributes 33% (80 million tonnes) of total (245 million tonnes) agricultural emissions. Further the production of red meat was 150% more greenhouse gas intensive than the production of other meats (Weber and Matthews 2008). Therefore sargassum has important implications for the development of more sustainable and climate smart feed options for the small ruminant sector.

The Way ForwardThe development of a regional surveillance system aimed at monitoring the movement of Sargassum spp. across the region in order to predict and monitor in�uxes and subsequently coordinate removal of the seaweed from the shores of the Caribbean region is of immediate importance. Since Sargassum spp. has importance in the stability and nourishment of beaches, any attempt to remove sargassum seaweed from shores must be coordinated and monitored in such a way that adverse environmental e�ects on the beach are lessened (Doyle and Franks 2015). Therefore, best practices should be examined and used in the removal of Sargassum seaweed from shores in order for any sort of agricultural or non-agricultural use.

E�orts should also be made to explore the use and standardization of extracts from Sargassum spp. and to conduct research into the speci�c use of Sargassum natans and Sargassum �uitans in terms of the e�ect of such extracts on roots and tubers, vegetable crops, and small ruminants within the context of the Caribbean region. According to Kumar et al. (2012), variations in the e�ects of di�erent species of Sargassum on aspects of plant growth and productivity suggests that it is important that seaweeds be tested for suitability as land plant fertilizers before their release and use. The need to test for the suitability of the Sargassum products for use on small ruminants and other animals would also be of great importance. The use of Sargassum spp. as mulches and compost is also of some immediate interest to Caribbean countries.

ConclusionIt is evident that Sargassum spp. can be successfully utilized in both crop and livestock production. However, factors a�ecting agribusiness opportunities include but are not limited to 1) the availability of the seaweed in terms of the di�culty of extracting the seaweed both from the sea shore and the sea (Doyle and Franks 2015); 2) the consistency of supply and; 3) high transportation costs to move seaweed from the seashore to another site for drying or other types of processing. These limitations have to be addressed if the sargassum seaweed is to be successfully and feasibly exploited.

Kalaivanan C and Venkatesalu V. 2012. Utilization of seaweed Sargassum myriocystum extracts as a stimulant of seedlings of Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research 10:466-470http://revistas.inia.es/index.php/sjar/article/viewFile/3061/1668

Kumar N A, Vanlalzarzova B, Sridhar S and Baluswami M. 2012. E�ect of liquid seaweed fertilizer of Sargassum wightii grev. on the growth and biochemical content of green gram (Vigna radiate (L.) R. wilczek). Recent Research in Science and Technology 4:40-45http://recent-science.com/index.php/rrst/article/view/10066http://recent-science.com/index.php/rrst/article/view/10066/6369

Lavine G. 2015. Sargassum seaweed and extracts: evaluation of their potential use in crop production systems in Barbados. [Barbados: Ministry of Agriculture]http://www.agriculture.gov.bb/agri/images/Seaweed/seaweed_review.pdf

Lee Lum L. 2015. Changing the status quo on Sargassum seaweed. Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago: Institute of Marine A�airs. http://www.ima.gov.tt/home/what-new/253-changing-the-status-quo-on-sargassum-seaweed-.html

Marín A, Casas-Valdez M, Carrillo S, Hernández H, Monroy A, Sanginés L and Pérez-Gil F. 2008. The marine algae Sargassum spp. (Sargassaceae) as feed for sheep in tropical and subtropical regions. Revista de Biología Tropical 57:1271-1281http://www.scielo.sa.cr/pdf/rbt/v57n4/a30v57n4.pdf

Mason I L. 1980. Proli�c tropical sheep. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

McHugh D J. 2003. A guide to the seaweed industry. Rome: United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nationshttp://www.fao.org/3/a-y4765e.pdf

Mohanty, D. Adhikary, S.P. and Chattopadhyay, G. N. 2013.Seaweed Liquid Fertilizer (SLF) and its role in Agriculture Productivity. The Ecoscan Special issue 3:147-155http://www.theecoscan.in/JournalPDF/Spl2013_v3-21%20D.%20Mohanty.pdf

Mora Castro N, Casas Valdez M, Marín Álvarez A, Aguila Ramírez R N, Sánchez Rodríguez I, Hernández Contreras H and Sanginés García L. 2009. The kelp Macrocystis pyrifera as nutritional supplement for goats. Revista Cientí�ca 19:63-70http://www.scielo.org.ve/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0798-22592009000100010&lng=en&nrm=iso&ignore=.html

N’Yeurt A D and Iese V. 2014. Sustainable agro - fertilizers from marine plants in Paci�c small island developing states (SIDS). Suva, Fiji: Paci�c Center for Environment and Sustainable Development, The University of the South Paci�chttp://repository.usp.ac.�/7618/http://repository.usp.ac.�/7618/1/N'Yeurt_%26_Iese_2014_Sustainable_agro-fertilizers_from_marine_plants.pdf

Oyesiku O O and Egunyomi A. 2014. Identi�cation and chemical studies of pelagic masses of Sargassum natans (Linnaeus) Gaillon and S. �uitans (Borgessen) Borgesen (brown algae), found o�shore in Ondo State, Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology. 13:1188-1193

Salem H B and Smith T. 2008. Feeding strategies to increase small ruminant production in dry environments. Small Ruminant Research 77:174-194 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2008.03.008

Salma L, Aymen E M, Maher S, Hassen A, Chérif H. Halima C and Mimoun E. 2014. E�ect of seaweed extract of Sargassum vulgare on germination behavior of two bean cultivars (Phaseolus vulgaris L) under salt stress. IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science 7(2) Ver.1:116-120http://iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/vol7-issue2/Version-1/T0721116120.pdf

Simoons F J. 1991. Food in China: a cultural and historical inquiry. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC press

Sutharsan S, Nishanthi S and Srikrishnah S. 2014. E�ects of foliar application of seaweed (Sargassum crassifolium) liquid extract on the performance of Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. in Sandy Regosol of Batticoloa district Sri Lanka. American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences 14:1386-1396http://www.idosi.org/aejaes/jaes14%2812%2914/9.pdf

Trott T M, McKenna S A, Pitt J M, Hemphill A, Ming F W, Rouja P, Gjerde K M, Causey B, and Earle S A. 2010. E�orts to enhance protection of the Sargasso Sea. In: Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute Meeting, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1-5 November, 2010, pp. 282–288 http://nsgl.gso.uri.edu/�sgp/�sgpw10002/data/papers/052.pdfhttp://www.gc�.org/proceedings/sites/default/�les/procs/GCFI_63-52.pdfhttp://www.gc�.org/proceedings/

Vallini G, Pera A, Cecchi F, Valdrighi M M and Sicurani M A. 1993. Compost Stabilization of Algal Biomass Drawn In Eutrophic Lagoon Ecosystems. Compost Science & Utilization 1:49-53http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1065657X.1993.10757872?journalCode=ucsu20#.VeVd_H1kpGk

Weber C L and Matthews H S. 2008. Food-miles and the relative climate impacts of food choices in the United States. Environmental science & technology 42:3508-3513http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es702969f

Williams E. 2015. THA declares sargassum seaweed a natural disaster. Trinidad and Tobago Express Newspapers, 3 August 2015 http://www.trinidadexpress.com/20150803/news/tha-declares-sargassum-seaweed-a-natural-disaster#main

SummarySargassum natans and Sargassum �uitans are the two main species identi�ed in the large masses of seaweeds washed up on shores across the Caribbean in recent years. Sargassum seaweed provides an important habitat for marine life; however the recent in�ux of the seaweed on the shores of a few Caribbean Islands has created a number of challenges. Proposed approaches to address the current seaweed in�ux include the use of the seaweed as inputs for crop and livestock production systems. Discussions and dialogue are currently being engaged.

About SeaweedThe Sargassum species (spp.) of seaweed belong to the group of brown alga. These algal plants provide a habitat for migratory species of �sh and other marine animals and are of importance to the stability of shores and the nourishment of beaches (Doyle and Franks 2015; Trott et al. 2011). Sargassum spp. are commonly found close to the shores of land masses in warm tropical and subtropical waters worldwide (McHugh 2003). This seaweed is naturally found in small quantities on the shores of Caribbean countries, however, in 2011, 2014 and 2015, these quantities increased signi�cantly in a number of the islands including Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados and Dominica (Doyle and Franks 2015; Williams 2015 ). Sargassum natans and Sargassum �uitans are the two main species that have been identi�ed in the large masses of seaweeds washed up on shores across the Caribbean region (Doyle and Franks 2015). Compared to other Sargassum species, S. �uitans and S. natans are free �oating and never attach to the seabed (Trott et al. 2011). Sargassum usually originate in the Gulf of Mexico and Sargasso Sea, however, it is believed that these recent blooms of Sargassum originate in the Atlantic Ocean, east of Brazil (Lee Lum 2015).

Problems associated with seaweedConcerns have since been raised on the associated negative impacts on �shing, other coastal activities and tourism. Problems include bad odour as a result of the decomposition of the seaweed over time (Doyle and Franks 2015; Oyesiku and Egunyomi 2014); the obstruction of boats and other �shing vessels as well as waterways and; a general decline in aesthetics and recreational activities in beaches in the tourist areas.

What is being done in the regionSo far, Barbados has formed a working group on sargassum seaweed in order to address research, commercial and educational opportunities (Lavine 2015). Additionally, in some parts of Barbados, seaweed from the seashore is collected and dried to form composted media that is marketed to the public through local supermarkets and agro shops (BGIS 2011; Lavine 2015).

Other islands have implemented beach cleanups associated with the deposition of large amounts of seaweed along their shores. For some areas, the low cost approach has been to leave Sargassum on the shores where it is eventually washed away or buried in the next storm or with waves (Doyle and Franks 2015).

Sargassum and Sargassum ProductsSargassum spp. has the potential to be used as an input for crop production systems (Sutharsan et al. 2014; Salma et al. 2014; Simoons 1991). Apart from improving crop productivity, Sargassum inputs have improved the resilience and resistance to harsh environmental conditions and pests respectively (Salma et al. 2014; N’Yeurt and Iese 2014). Sargassum spp. can be used as raw material for liquid fertilizers and fertilizer amendments in crop as well as in the form

of compost for boosting crop productivity (Mohanty et al. 2013). Of all the potential seaweed products such as raw or dried seaweed, seaweed meal and seaweed extracts, extracts have been found to be most practical in its application to crop production. According to Kumar et al. (2012), seaweed meal and seaweed extracts are currently, the two main forms of seaweed products used globally in the agricultural sector.

Uses of Sargassum - Crops Seaweed extracts are important in crop production and are used in several ways, such as foliar applications and soil drenches during transplantation (Mohanty et al. 2013) as well as seed treatments (Kalaivanan and Venkatesalu 2012). Extracts allow for variations in concentration of the �nal product; are also easy to dilute and tend to have rapid e�ects on targeted crop species. Although liquid extracts are the most commonly used seaweed product, application, concentration and extraction methods have not be standardized (Mohanty et al. 2013).

Evidence suggests that the e�ectiveness of foliar seaweed extract sprays on plants is dependent on the concentration of the seaweed. For instance, foliar sprays with 20 percent Sargassum extracts compared to other concentrations (0%, 10%, 50%, 100%) resulted in increased growth, yield and improvements in the quality of tomato plants (Sutharsan et al. 2014). In critical food crops such as legumes, seaweed extract improved the vigor and productivity of legumes in the midst of harsh soil conditions (Salma et al. 2014). Also with its rich content of zinc, copper and manganese, seaweed extract application has impacted positively on fruit formation in tomato (Sutharsan et al. 2014).

Globally, seaweed is commonly used as manure in coastal areas (Kumar et al. 2012). Additionally, Sargassum based fertilizers used within di�erent crop production systems have resulted in increased crop productivity (N’Yeurt and Iese 2014; Crouch and Van Staden 1993). Seaweed, according to Salma et al. (2014), contains major and minor plant nutrients; organic compounds such as auxins, gibberellins and; precursors such as ethylene and betaine that once applied appropriately, has the potential to stimulate plant growth. For instance Crouch and Van Staden (1993) in their studies observed faster fruit ripening rates, a 17% increase in the weight of fresh fruit and approximately 10% increase in the amount of fruits harvested. According to Chapman and Chapman (1980) as cited by Simoons (1991), their high potash content makes them quite suitable for fertilizing root crops and other crops. For instance, in parts of China, Sargassum spp. are seen as a low cost fertilizer in sweet potato production (Simoons 1991).

In the application of seaweed in the raw or composted form, soil salinity is a major issue. Composts produced from plants originating from sea sources such as Sargassum seaweeds are known to have a high salt content and therefore limits potential use as composts in agricultural crop production (Vallini et al. 1993). Composting requires that excessive salts be removed either prior to/ or during the composting process. Due to the high salt and sand content of starting material (seaweed), Eyras et al. (1998) had to alter their composting process and added water periodically to reduce salts and sand. The process of removing the excessive salt and sand can be expensive (Vallini et al. 1993) if consideration is made that fresh water is needed to remove the salts. The use of water to wash out excessive salts may also be counter-productive due to the washing out of bene�cial nutrients that can be found in the seaweed compost.

Uses of Sargassum – LivestockFeeds have been identi�ed as being critical for the development of small ruminant production systems (Mason 1980) in the Caribbean. With the low quality and low growth rates of local forages, scarcity of land resources, high importation of costly commercial feeds and instability of world grain supply and prices, local feed development for small ruminant production is critical (Salem & Smith 2008). One major approach to feed development is the evaluation of novelty or indigenous materials as alternative feeds for livestock (Crawshaw 2001). Sargassum spp. can be found in abundance in sub-tropical and tropical waters and there is potential for its use as an alternative feed in livestock systems in the form of seaweed meal (Marin et al. 2009; Mora Castro et al. 2009; Gojon-Baez et al. 1998).

Sargassum is rich in carbohydrates and some essential amino-acids like arginine, tryptophane and phenylalanine (Carrillo et al. 2002; Casas-Valdez et al. 2006, cited by Marin 2009), displaying equivalent quality to forages, such as sorghum and barley that are commonly used as high quality livestock feed. It is also rich in beta-carotene and vitamins. Research has shown where its inclusion in diets increased digestibility and allowed for large amounts of algal nutrients to be readily available to animals on the Sargassum seaweed diet (Gojon-Baez et al. 1998).

Sargassum seaweed is also known for its low anti-nutrient content, i.e. the presence of substances that do not contribute nutrients to the diets of animals (Carrillo et al. 2002; Casas-Valdez et al. 2006, cited by Marin 2009), which gives it an advantage over other novelty or alternative feeds. Additionally, the characteristically high mineral content of Sargassum spp. has positive implications for goats as mineral de�ciency is a key concern for these animals (Casas-Valdez et al. 2006).

ReferencesBarbados Government Information Services (BGIS). 2011. Sargassum seaweed from problem to pro�t. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6nkRU0-4Kf8

Carrillo S, Casas M, Pérez-Gil F R and Sánchez I. 2002. Algas marinas de Baja California Sur, México: Valor nutrimental. Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición 52:400-405 (cited by Marin 2009)

Casas-Valdez M, Hernández-Contreras H, Marín-Álvarez A, Aguila-Ramírez R N, Hernández-Guerrero C J, Sánchez-Rodríguez I and Carrillo-Domínguez S. 2006. El alga marina Sargassum (Sargassaceae): una alternativa tropical para la alimentación de ganado caprino. Revista de Biología Tropical 54:83-92 (cited by Marin 2009)http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=44920186010

Chapman V J and Chapman D J. 1980. Seaweeds and their uses, 3rd edn. London: Chapman & Hall. Crawshaw R. 2001. Co-product feeds: animal feeds from the food and drinks industries. Nottingham: Nottingham University Press

Crouch I J and van Staden J. 1993. Evidence for the presence of plant growth regulators in commercial seaweed products. Plant Growth Regulation 13:21-29http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00207588

Doyle E and Franks J. 2015. Sargassum Fact Sheet. Florida, USA: Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute. http://www.gc�.org/Publications/GCFISargassumFactSheet.pdf

Eyras M C, Rostagno C M and Defossé G E. 1998. Biological evaluation of seaweed composting. Compost Science & Utilization 6:74-81

Gojon-Báez H H, Siqueiros-Beltrones D A and Hernández-Contreras H. 1998. In Situ ruminal digestibility and degradability of Macrocystis Pyrzjka and Sargassum spp. in bovine livestock. Ciencias Marinas 24:463-481http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/480/48024406.pdf

The high water intake associated with sargassum inclusion in diets along with the characteristically lower degradability of soluble polysaccharides, encourages a more neutral rumen environment. A lower rumen pH reduces methane emissions which may be an indication of the potentially higher energy e�ciency of Sargassum spp. as a feed (Gojon-Baez et al. 1998). This is critical as more energy e�cient feeds direct more energy into production and thus less energy is wasted in methane emission.

Agriculture contributes 60% of the anthropogenic emission of methane with the leading source being enteric fermentation which contributes 33% (80 million tonnes) of total (245 million tonnes) agricultural emissions. Further the production of red meat was 150% more greenhouse gas intensive than the production of other meats (Weber and Matthews 2008). Therefore sargassum has important implications for the development of more sustainable and climate smart feed options for the small ruminant sector.

The Way ForwardThe development of a regional surveillance system aimed at monitoring the movement of Sargassum spp. across the region in order to predict and monitor in�uxes and subsequently coordinate removal of the seaweed from the shores of the Caribbean region is of immediate importance. Since Sargassum spp. has importance in the stability and nourishment of beaches, any attempt to remove sargassum seaweed from shores must be coordinated and monitored in such a way that adverse environmental e�ects on the beach are lessened (Doyle and Franks 2015). Therefore, best practices should be examined and used in the removal of Sargassum seaweed from shores in order for any sort of agricultural or non-agricultural use.

E�orts should also be made to explore the use and standardization of extracts from Sargassum spp. and to conduct research into the speci�c use of Sargassum natans and Sargassum �uitans in terms of the e�ect of such extracts on roots and tubers, vegetable crops, and small ruminants within the context of the Caribbean region. According to Kumar et al. (2012), variations in the e�ects of di�erent species of Sargassum on aspects of plant growth and productivity suggests that it is important that seaweeds be tested for suitability as land plant fertilizers before their release and use. The need to test for the suitability of the Sargassum products for use on small ruminants and other animals would also be of great importance. The use of Sargassum spp. as mulches and compost is also of some immediate interest to Caribbean countries.

ConclusionIt is evident that Sargassum spp. can be successfully utilized in both crop and livestock production. However, factors a�ecting agribusiness opportunities include but are not limited to 1) the availability of the seaweed in terms of the di�culty of extracting the seaweed both from the sea shore and the sea (Doyle and Franks 2015); 2) the consistency of supply and; 3) high transportation costs to move seaweed from the seashore to another site for drying or other types of processing. These limitations have to be addressed if the sargassum seaweed is to be successfully and feasibly exploited.

Kalaivanan C and Venkatesalu V. 2012. Utilization of seaweed Sargassum myriocystum extracts as a stimulant of seedlings of Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research 10:466-470http://revistas.inia.es/index.php/sjar/article/viewFile/3061/1668

Kumar N A, Vanlalzarzova B, Sridhar S and Baluswami M. 2012. E�ect of liquid seaweed fertilizer of Sargassum wightii grev. on the growth and biochemical content of green gram (Vigna radiate (L.) R. wilczek). Recent Research in Science and Technology 4:40-45http://recent-science.com/index.php/rrst/article/view/10066http://recent-science.com/index.php/rrst/article/view/10066/6369

Lavine G. 2015. Sargassum seaweed and extracts: evaluation of their potential use in crop production systems in Barbados. [Barbados: Ministry of Agriculture]http://www.agriculture.gov.bb/agri/images/Seaweed/seaweed_review.pdf

Lee Lum L. 2015. Changing the status quo on Sargassum seaweed. Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago: Institute of Marine A�airs. http://www.ima.gov.tt/home/what-new/253-changing-the-status-quo-on-sargassum-seaweed-.html

Marín A, Casas-Valdez M, Carrillo S, Hernández H, Monroy A, Sanginés L and Pérez-Gil F. 2008. The marine algae Sargassum spp. (Sargassaceae) as feed for sheep in tropical and subtropical regions. Revista de Biología Tropical 57:1271-1281http://www.scielo.sa.cr/pdf/rbt/v57n4/a30v57n4.pdf

Mason I L. 1980. Proli�c tropical sheep. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

McHugh D J. 2003. A guide to the seaweed industry. Rome: United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nationshttp://www.fao.org/3/a-y4765e.pdf

Mohanty, D. Adhikary, S.P. and Chattopadhyay, G. N. 2013.Seaweed Liquid Fertilizer (SLF) and its role in Agriculture Productivity. The Ecoscan Special issue 3:147-155http://www.theecoscan.in/JournalPDF/Spl2013_v3-21%20D.%20Mohanty.pdf

Mora Castro N, Casas Valdez M, Marín Álvarez A, Aguila Ramírez R N, Sánchez Rodríguez I, Hernández Contreras H and Sanginés García L. 2009. The kelp Macrocystis pyrifera as nutritional supplement for goats. Revista Cientí�ca 19:63-70http://www.scielo.org.ve/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0798-22592009000100010&lng=en&nrm=iso&ignore=.html

N’Yeurt A D and Iese V. 2014. Sustainable agro - fertilizers from marine plants in Paci�c small island developing states (SIDS). Suva, Fiji: Paci�c Center for Environment and Sustainable Development, The University of the South Paci�chttp://repository.usp.ac.�/7618/http://repository.usp.ac.�/7618/1/N'Yeurt_%26_Iese_2014_Sustainable_agro-fertilizers_from_marine_plants.pdf

Oyesiku O O and Egunyomi A. 2014. Identi�cation and chemical studies of pelagic masses of Sargassum natans (Linnaeus) Gaillon and S. �uitans (Borgessen) Borgesen (brown algae), found o�shore in Ondo State, Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology. 13:1188-1193

Salem H B and Smith T. 2008. Feeding strategies to increase small ruminant production in dry environments. Small Ruminant Research 77:174-194 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2008.03.008

Salma L, Aymen E M, Maher S, Hassen A, Chérif H. Halima C and Mimoun E. 2014. E�ect of seaweed extract of Sargassum vulgare on germination behavior of two bean cultivars (Phaseolus vulgaris L) under salt stress. IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science 7(2) Ver.1:116-120http://iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/vol7-issue2/Version-1/T0721116120.pdf

Simoons F J. 1991. Food in China: a cultural and historical inquiry. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC press

Sutharsan S, Nishanthi S and Srikrishnah S. 2014. E�ects of foliar application of seaweed (Sargassum crassifolium) liquid extract on the performance of Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. in Sandy Regosol of Batticoloa district Sri Lanka. American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences 14:1386-1396http://www.idosi.org/aejaes/jaes14%2812%2914/9.pdf

Trott T M, McKenna S A, Pitt J M, Hemphill A, Ming F W, Rouja P, Gjerde K M, Causey B, and Earle S A. 2010. E�orts to enhance protection of the Sargasso Sea. In: Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute Meeting, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1-5 November, 2010, pp. 282–288 http://nsgl.gso.uri.edu/�sgp/�sgpw10002/data/papers/052.pdfhttp://www.gc�.org/proceedings/sites/default/�les/procs/GCFI_63-52.pdfhttp://www.gc�.org/proceedings/

Vallini G, Pera A, Cecchi F, Valdrighi M M and Sicurani M A. 1993. Compost Stabilization of Algal Biomass Drawn In Eutrophic Lagoon Ecosystems. Compost Science & Utilization 1:49-53http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1065657X.1993.10757872?journalCode=ucsu20#.VeVd_H1kpGk

Weber C L and Matthews H S. 2008. Food-miles and the relative climate impacts of food choices in the United States. Environmental science & technology 42:3508-3513http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es702969f

Williams E. 2015. THA declares sargassum seaweed a natural disaster. Trinidad and Tobago Express Newspapers, 3 August 2015 http://www.trinidadexpress.com/20150803/news/tha-declares-sargassum-seaweed-a-natural-disaster#main

Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute

HEADQUARTERS CONTACT INFORMATIONP.O. Bag 212University of the West IndiesSt. Augustine CampusSt. AugustineTrinidad and Tobago

Email: infocentre@cardi.orgWebsite: www.cardi.orgFax: 1.868.645.1208Tel: 1.868.645.1205/8120

PSC# HQ/011/15

ReferencesBarbados Government Information Services (BGIS). 2011. Sargassum seaweed from problem to pro�t. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6nkRU0-4Kf8

Carrillo S, Casas M, Pérez-Gil F R and Sánchez I. 2002. Algas marinas de Baja California Sur, México: Valor nutrimental. Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición 52:400-405 (cited by Marin 2009)

Casas-Valdez M, Hernández-Contreras H, Marín-Álvarez A, Aguila-Ramírez R N, Hernández-Guerrero C J, Sánchez-Rodríguez I and Carrillo-Domínguez S. 2006. El alga marina Sargassum (Sargassaceae): una alternativa tropical para la alimentación de ganado caprino. Revista de Biología Tropical 54:83-92 (cited by Marin 2009)http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=44920186010

Chapman V J and Chapman D J. 1980. Seaweeds and their uses, 3rd edn. London: Chapman & Hall. Crawshaw R. 2001. Co-product feeds: animal feeds from the food and drinks industries. Nottingham: Nottingham University Press

Crouch I J and van Staden J. 1993. Evidence for the presence of plant growth regulators in commercial seaweed products. Plant Growth Regulation 13:21-29http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00207588

Doyle E and Franks J. 2015. Sargassum Fact Sheet. Florida, USA: Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute. http://www.gc�.org/Publications/GCFISargassumFactSheet.pdf

Eyras M C, Rostagno C M and Defossé G E. 1998. Biological evaluation of seaweed composting. Compost Science & Utilization 6:74-81

Gojon-Báez H H, Siqueiros-Beltrones D A and Hernández-Contreras H. 1998. In Situ ruminal digestibility and degradability of Macrocystis Pyrzjka and Sargassum spp. in bovine livestock. Ciencias Marinas 24:463-481http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/480/48024406.pdf

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