Agricultural education at the crossroads: Present dilemmas and possible options for the future in sub-Saharan Africa

Pergamon

S0738-0593(96)00036-3

Int J EducaUonaIDevelopment, Vol 17, No. 1, pp. 27-39, 1997 Copyrtght © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Pnnted m Great Bfilam. All nghts reserved 0738-0593/97 $17 00 + 0 00

A G R I C U L T U R A L E D U C A T I O N A T T H E C R O S S R O A D S : P R E S E N T D I L E M M A S A N D P O S S I B L E O P T I O N S F O R T H E F U T U R E I N

S U B - S A H A R A N A F R I C A

IAN WALLACE

Agricultural Extension and Rural Development Department, University of Reading, Reading, U.K.

Abstract-- Agricultural Education and Training (AET) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) needs to respond to the many changes in the socio-economic and political environments witliin which it exists. In addition to these, there are marked changes in the concept of 'agriculture' itself, which is increasingly seen in terms of broader notions of renewable natural resource management, with increasing emphasis on integrated systems and sustainable production.

Traditional forms of AET are also challenged by new ideas about the process of teaching and learning, including soft-systems thinking, participatory rural appraisal and farmer-to-farmer extension; as well as the emergence of new modes of learning (including distance learning). Current moves towards privatisation also mean that there is increasing prominence given to new and more flexible providers such as NGOs, parastatal bodies and agribusinesses~ All these factors are leading to calls for adaptation, innovation and diversification in systems which have been marked by their lack of responsiveness in the past.

Dilemmas which now face the AET sector include changing patterns of donor support, the emergence of new training needs and new types of audiences. The paper examines a range of issues, including the lack of labour market and training needs identification studies, the need for more relevant and responsive curricula, the key role of staffdevelopment in creating 'learning organisations', the need for a strategy of developing linkages and learning webs or networks and for far more sustainable donor interventions, Finally there is a lack of a coherent policy framework for AET in most countries in the region.

A number of options are discussed, such as rationalisation, including achieving a better balance between public and private sector provision, the adoption of new aims and learning styles at all levels, catering for the needs of new target audiences and enhancing innovation and relevance in curriculum.

Some important prerequisites for such changes are highlighted and include political will and commitment, consensus and popular support, entrepreneurial leadership, a balance between responsiveness and stability and the targeting of financial and other forms of support to enable sustainable models of innovation to emerge. Copyright © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

INTRODUCTION

This paper has arisen from a long-standing research interest in the Agricultural Extension and Rural Development Department (AERDD) of the University of Reading in agricultural education systems in Africa. It draws both on current research being undertaken for the Natural Resources Policy and Advisory Department of ODA, of which a preliminary phase has recently been completed (Wallace et al., 1995), and on a background paper prepared for a broad study by the Food Studies Group at Oxford of the role of public and private institutions in the provision of rural services, for a recent ODA Natural Resources Advisers Confer- ence (Wallace and Mantzou, 1995). These studies have highlighted the fact that, as with so many

aspects of development, agricultural education in Africa (and elsewhere) now faces rapid and often perplexing changes in the environments in which it exists. It faces a variety of challenges and dilemmas, but also of new opportunities and possibilities. The situation confronting agricultural educators everywhere may be summed up in the phrase: 'Adapt or Perish'?

W H A T IS A G R I C U L T U R A L E D U C A T I O N ?

Changing concepts of agricultural education A s r e c e n t l y a s 1990, W h i t e s u g g e s t e d t h a t

a g r i c u l t u r a l e d u c a t i o n h a d :

tended to live in its own sturdy but isolated 'production only' farmhouse but [that] the era of production only and agricultural specialization is slowly giving way to the era

27

28 IAN WALLACE

of systems integration and sustainable agriculture. (White, 1990, p. 19)

It is a reflection of the present rate of change that only 5 years later, this statement seems inadequate to describe the present role and demands upon the agricultural education sector, either in the developed or less-developed parts of the world. A number of reasons for changing perspectives on agricultural education are explained below. A major factor is the growth of systems views which highlight interrelationships and linkages within broader agricultural knowledge and information systems (R61ing 1988), which are perhaps better termed 'rural knowledge systems'. 'Agriculture' itself is becoming an obsolete term, as the interest in Farming Systems Research and Development leads to broader concepts of the management of Renewable Natural Resources (RNR), which include notions of sustainable (or Low External Input) agriculture, social (or rural development) forestry, aquaculture and small-scale fisheries, wildlife conservation and management.

At the same time traditional concepts of teaching and learning in agricultural education are changing. This is due to a number of trends, including the influence of the 'soft-systems' think- ers (Bawden and Macadam, 1991), the impact of farmer-first approaches in extension and training (Chambers et al., 1989), the growth of interest in Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) (Richards, 1985) and, latterly, the increasing emphasis on the creation of 'learning organisations' in rural development (Pretty 1994), combined with Chambers' (1993) notion of the need for a 'new professionalism'- now being fostered by a global expansion of interest in the use of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA).

The contribution of AERDD's own research focus has included studies of agricultural education as a broad learning system, divided into formal and non-formal domains, with an important range of innovative activities which can occur at the formal/non-formal interface (Wallace 1990; 1992a). This concept, which is both theoretical and pragmatic, has been found to attune with the diversity of interests amongst international students coming to Reading to study on our full- time agricultural education courses. It has proved impossible (and undesirable) to separate out the teachers and educational administrators from the trainers, who work either in upgrading the skills of extension staff, or directly with the farmers and their households. Hence, in our own teaching in recent years, the term agricultural education has

been modified to 'agricultural education and training' (AET). 2 It is this term which will be applied to the whole sector throughout the remainder of this paper.

The situation in sub-Saharan Africa It is necessary to say a little about the range of

educational provision offered within AET in most countries in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). It provides for the learning needs of:

• rural producers and all their household members;

• adults in the 'off-farm' sector who support primary production through e.g. provision of rural craft skills, small-scale enterprises and marketing services;

• professionals and sub-professionals who service the rural sector through research, extension, agricultural teaching, banking, cooperatives and NGO management;

• children in primary and secondary schools who learn either 'about' agriculture, or who are taught basic production skills through subjects such as agriculture, agricultural science, rural or environmental sciences;

• young people who undergo some form of vocational education in preparation for a career in farming or the rural sector through e.g. vocational streaming in high schools, youth training centres and organisations such as brigades and national youth services, or through some form of apprenticeship (Wallace et al., 1995, p. 11).

Thus the sector covers the teaching of agriculture and other RNR disciplines in universities, colleges and training institutes, the training of rural producers and those employed in 'off- farm' activities in the rural areas through residential or non-residential training centres; distance learning programmes; extension and a host of other non-formal programmes; children in primary and secondary schools (as well as the training of their teachers) and the various forms of vocational programmes for school leavers (and 'drop-outs') listed above. 3

Almost all of the tertiary and farmer-training provision in SSA (and elsewhere in the developing world) has been the responsibility of the public sector, at least until the start of the present decade. However, this pattern has already been changing, especially with the growth of NGO involvement in farmer training. This is but one of many

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AT THE CROSSROADS 29

changes now occurring in the AET sector. The main factors leading to these changes will be discussed in the following section.

new approaches such as 'integrated pest management' (IPM), alley-cropping and other forms of agroforestry.

CURRENT FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DIRECTION OF AET

Social and economic change in the wider environment

The past decade has seen rapid social and economic change in much of SSA. In many of the countries this is accompanied by marked political change as well. Some of the changes have been induced by direct donor interventions. The debt crisis of the 1980s led to the introduction of structural adjustment programmes (SAPs), which have generally caused the constriction of public sector services, and the start of moves towards privatisation. The effects of these programmes have often accentuated the deprivation of more vulner- able groups, but have also helped to stimulate the rural economies of some countries. The improving economic health of Uganda is an example of what can be achieved where strict application of an SAP is combined with the restoration of government based on a more democratic process: and where civil strife is brought under firm control.

Such economic and political .~hanges are being accompanied by social change as well. In many African states the UN decade for women has had an effect; the role and status of women is seen to be improving, even if slowly. Rural-urban migra- tion has tended to accelerate, sometimes with disastrous effects. However the rapid growth of rural towns and the expansion of urban food markets have increased demand for agricultural products, while creating new employment opportunities in off-farm activities. Other notable changes have included rapid environmental degradation on one hand, and the emergence of community wildlife management and 'ecotour- ism' (Cater, 1994) on the other.

Another policy trend which has affected AET is the stress on national, regional and household food security (Wallace, 1993), which has led to renewed interest in research into subsistence (as opposed to export) crops, the development of sustainable farming systems and, most recently, in Africa a growing interest in organic farming. Sustainability concerns, combined with the failure of high input technologies (such as use of pesticides) are also leading to the introduction of

Changing roles in the public and private sectors For many years NGOs have been involved in

the provision of training, particularly for end- users/rural households, through the development of rural training centres (e.g. the establishment of farmers training centres and village polytechnics in Kenya), and through non- formal educational activities such as extension programmes, training for women's groups and rural youth movements. However, following the budget- ary restrictions on public sector training institutions, as a result of the declining economies of the 1980s and the introduction of SAPs, there has been an increasing scope for the involvement, not only of NGOs, but also of cooperatives, farmers' organisations, parastatal bodies and even com- mercial firms. The role of NGOs is stimulated by the increase in donor emphasis on joint funding (such as ODA's joint funding scheme), often providing matching grants towards NGO involvement in training.

Changing patterns of demand Changes in the rural milieu will always influ-

ence the patterns of demand for AET (White, 1992). One major effect of SAPs in SSA is a reduc- tion in the size of public sector services such as extension and research. Already by the mid- 1980s, countries such as Kenya were producing far more technical staff (i.e. certificate and diploma holders from colleges and institutes) than the employing ministries were able to absorb. Recur- rent budgets were increasingly dominated by the need to pay the salaries of new recruits into the services (Wallace, 1986).

At the same time the privatisation of services, combined with demands for more transferable and marketable skills, were creating new demands and opportunities for the universities and middle- level institutions (Wallace and Mantzou, 1995). In general, the present climate requires a far more vocational approach, based on labour-market studies and the assessment of actual training needs. As discussed below, this has created one of the major dilemmas. Except in a few instances, AET is proving inflexible, slow to adapt to new patterns of demand and lacking proper mechanisms for either the identification of emerging needs or the reform of curricula to meet them (Wallace et

30 IAN WALLACE

al., 1995). We will return to consider this further in the sections below.

Changing perceptions of 'learning' in agricultural education

As indicated above, several strands of thinking have come together to change perceptions about the nature of learning, and hence of teaching and training in agricultural education. The work of Bawden and Macadam (1991) at West Sydney University (formerly Hawkesbury Agricultural College) has challenged traditional concepts of the structure of curricula and the modes of delivery in agricultural education, and has ultimately led to the restructuring of the whole faculty to represent a far more learner-centred, experiential and interdisciplinary approach, where learning contracts are negotiated, courses become project-based and rooted in the solution of real- life problems with real-life people, and assess- ments are based almost entirely upon reports of individual and group problem-solving exercises. Rather than the force-feeding of facts, future agriculturalists learn for themselves how to become efficient seekers and processors of information.

This approach to agricultural education is increasingly being adopted elsewhere, and has spin-offeffects in the design of extension and training programmes (Macadam, 1988). Furthermore, it is coalescing with the other streams of thought already mentioned, such as farming systems research, the development of farmer-first approaches in extension, farmer participatory research (Okali et al., 1994) and, most recently, a growing interest in farmer-to-farmer extension (Scoones and Thompson, 1994). All of these approaches represent reversals of traditional views of education as a top-down, expert-controlled process. They are leading to interesting innovations in AET, such as the ODA-funded project at Wenchi Training Institute in Ghana, which focuses upon both curriculum development and staff development, through practical, hands-on farming systems research and development, using newly-learnt PRA skills. The project is in effect a piece of action-research which challenges many previous conceptions about the nature and role of a training institution in rural Africa (Kevin Gager, private communication).

Alongside these movements there is a growing appreciation of the importance of experiential learning in any type of AET. For many years universities and colleges have run outreach programmes, or included periods of work place-

ment in their curricula (Lugeye, 1989; Wallace, 1992a). However these have frequently proved unable to deliver 'success', either in terms of the learning provided to trainees from the formal institutions, or in promoting rural development among local communities, due to lack of real political commitment which results in inadequate resourcing, (including a lack of dedicated, entrepreneurial leadership), or insufficient col- laboration between teaching institutions and the extension services (Wallace et al., 1995).

DILEMMAS CURRENTLY FACING AET IN SSA

The current situation has created a number of dilemmas, both in the wider environment and within AET itself. Recent policy-related research has highlighted a host of issues, and in this section we discuss briefly those which seem to be of greatest importance for consideration of some options and prospects for the future.

Changing patterns of support and provision In the period following independence in most

African states, both national governments and the major donor agencies provided a great deal of support for the development of AET programmes and institutions. A few examples are:

• the USAID-supported institution-building projects, which resulted in the establishment of agricultural universities and faculties in Nigeria and Cameroon (Goldsmith, 1990; Johnson and Okigbo, 1989);

• the construction of farmers' training centres in almost every district in Kenya during the 1960s and 1970s (undertaken largely by the Kenya government with UK and other bilateral support, but also by a number of church- based NGOs under the National Christian Council of Kenya);

• the strengthening of agricultural faculties through funded links with UK universities [e.g. the long-standing link between Bunda Col- lege, Malawi and the University of Wales, supported by ODA (Green, 1993)];

• the development by national governments of middle-level training institutions such as the many agricultural colleges in Nigeria (Harris et al., 1995) and the Ministry of Agriculture Training Institutes (MATIs) in Tanzania (Acker, 1984; Diamond, 1994).


Thus, in most cases, a complex infrastructure of institutions has been established and impressive numbers of people have been trained, mainly for public sector employment, but also for end- user activities through vocational and farmer training programmes. In most countries, recent economic changes have resulted in over-supply of trained personnel for a shrinking public sector, and considerable cuts in both capital and recur- rent funding. Farmer training centres in Kenya (and elsewhere) have suffered particularly because of the diversion of donor funding into the training and visits (T&V) system of extension, promoted widely by the World Bank throughout the 1980s (Wallace, 1986; Moris, 1991).

Emerging training needs Not only is there a strong financial constraint,

both on institutional development and on the absorptive capacity of the public sector, but the changes described above are leading to quite different patterns of demand. In higher- and middle- level institutions, many students now face uncertain career pathways, which will often mean moving out of traditional 'production-oriented' agriculture into more managerial, entrepreneurial or non- agricultural occupations. They may also expect to have less stable careers, with a number of job changes in their working lives. They are looking for more transferable and marketable skills which imply the need for radical re-thinking on curriculum issues.

The demands of rural producers also adapt to the changing realities of their own environments. Traditional courses in production methods are insufficient for people who are likely to earn as much income off the farm as from it, and who need to be able to innovate, to understand markets and to operate in more entrepreneurial ways. Furthermore, many of the NGOs have demonstrated that while rural people need specific skills, they are also seeking education for life; there is much interest in training which emphasises leadership development, confidence building and problem solving, such as the DELTA training which has proved so popular amongst church groups in Kenya, Zimbabwe and Sierra Leone (Goold, 1994).

Lack of knowledge about training needs The development of AET has suffered from a

lack of knowledge of the training needs of its target groups, and of the whole labour market in the rural sector. With a few exceptions (such as

the work of the Southern Africa Centre for Cooperation in Agricultural Research and Train- ing (SACCAR) labour-market studies have been absent, or have been delayed to the extent that they have not been available in time to inform curriculum reviews. A case in point is the curriculum development work for the agricultural colleges in Namibia, for which AERDD provided consultancy services. An elaborate labour-market study was designed, but results were delayed beyond the point at which the new curriculum had to be introduced (Wallace, 1992b; Northridge and Taylor, 1993).

In the same way, frequently the needs of rural producers are not identified as a basis for the design of training programmes, which then fail to respond to their particular interests. In addition the recent research has shown that there are particular needs for identifying new rural audiences (including e.g. the resource poor, marginalised communities, refugee settlements, etc.) and that the particular needs of women are frequently overlooked (in some countries in SSA women not only provide much of the labour for agriculture, but also manage half or more of all agricultural holdings).

A further weakness is that even where needs are identified, the process is lacking in consultation with local communities - participation is an important ingredient for needs identification, which in turn provides a relevant basis for curriculum review and development. 5

Curriculum issues Curriculum development is often a popular area

for intervention in AET. It is part of the 'stock- in-trade' of agricultural educators around the world, and leads to fairly stable innovation. However, experience indicates that it is beset by the danger of irrelevance, of clinging to familiar models from the past and from a lack of sensitiv- ity to ongoing changes, which is needed for dynamic adaptation. The rigidly departmentalised structures of institutions, combined with the security of the 'tried and trusted' mean that often the degree of change accepted is insufficient to meet the true needs of the situation itself.

Amongst the weaknesses noted are the failure to embrace emerging global issues (e.g. sustainability, the environment, gender, farming systems development) and slowness in incorporating more transferable skills (such as languages, computer studies, communication, marketing and entrepreneurship). Frequently inadequate time, resources or staff commitment are allocated to

32 IAN WALLACE

strategies for experiential learning (such as outreach and work placement), and weaknesses are noted in the management and use of teaching farms (Harris et al., 1995). As indicated above, there is also a common failure to ensure wide participation in the curriculum process; including representatives of rural producers and local communities, as well as employers and other opinion leaders from the rural sector.

Needs for staff development Change in AET always implies the need for a

dynamic strategy for staff development (White, 1992). In much of SSA this is an area of weakness, and in some cases may be entirely lacking. The public sector has often suffered from 'bureaucratic' recruitment into AET - people are 'posted' to teach or train, either to 'plug gaps', or as a solution to the problems they have created in a previous post in extension or research! Where proper selection procedures are followed (as is generally the case in universities) there is often an over-emphasis on research capability and commitment (not restricted to Africa!), leading to low institutional capacity to provide good training in applied fields, or to develop meaningful outreach activities. An interesting case study of this is that of the University of Benin (Daane and Fanou, 1989). If institutions are going to become 'learning organisations', there is a need to develop new repertoires of skills, such as those of interacting with rural people: listening, appreciating and learning from ITK and of using PRA methodologies (Pretty, 1994).

Developing a strategy for staff development implies the need to take a view of the whole range of skill requirements in an institution or training organisation, but also to be able to see the potential for use of a wide range of training opportunities. Too often in the past people have been sent overseas for opportunistic reasons, without adequate thought about the particular needs of the individual or the institution. There is a need to map out possible routes and opportunities for staff development, which may include a mix of local and overseas training, split-site training for postgraduates, attachments, in-house workshops and seminars (possibly facilitated by a training consultant), mentoring, use of distance learning materials, etc.

Problems with donor support The research highlighted a number of dilem-

mas around donor support for AET. These

included the need to structure projects in order to achieve sustainability rather than dependency, that support needed to be maintained consist- ently throughout the life of a project, and the need for coordination amongst different donors sup- porting the same institution or programme. In some instances support has proved ineffective because it failed to create a 'critical mass' of staff with a change-orientation, because the whole area of capacity building was neglected or because goals were neither clearly enough specified, nor developed through the sort of consultation with the beneficiary institutions which can lead to mutual understanding about each other's 'hid- den agendas' (Wallace et al., 1995).

Inflexible systems and lack of linkages AET systems everywhere, built around

established patterns of formal institutions, tend to be inflexible and slow to adapt to changes in the external environment. The research showed that linkages between the various institutions are often weak, and individual universities, colleges or training centres relatively isolated. Furthermore links across the formal/non-formal interface are often lacking, and AET institutions fail to establish dialogue with local communities, NGOS, primary and secondary schools and other local organisations. The isolation, and lack of dynamism in the system is frequently accentuated by lack of strong links between teaching institutions, research institutes and the extension services. Thus, in many countries, the rural knowledge system is unable to operate effectively. For AET institutions this often means that the vital inputs of learning about the rural environment: its problems, opportunities and potential solutions are lacking. The scope for experiential learning for students, and the potential to contribute to local development through the sharing of knowledge and expertise are limited.

Lack o f strategic planning and management skills

While private sector (including NGO) training institutions frequently develop a high level of planning and management capacity, those in the public sector are often constrained by bureaucratic norms and procedures, and are discouraged from developing more entrepreneurial talents amongst their leadership (Goldsmith, 1990). In order to adapt to the changing economic and social realities around them, AET managers need to be able to


carry out strategic planning, including the development of mission statements and the setting of goals and aims for their institutions, the development of project proposals (including project logical frameworks and budgets), and the operation of monitoring, evaluation and reporting systems. All these are often found to be weak. Innovative solutions in future will require a more entrepreneurial approach, as indicated below. These factors sug- gest that the building of capacities for leadership and management is a key factor in the future development of AET in Africa.

Need for a coherent poficy framework for AET It is clear that for most of the countries there

is no coherent policy framework for AET. One of the main reasons is that the normal pattern is for responsibility in the sector to be shared amongst various implementing ministries, e.g. agriculture, other NR ministries (livestock, forestry, wildlife, etc.), and education. In some countries, aspects of vocational training (such as village polytechnics, youth services, etc.) fall under yet another ministry, and rural women's interests another again. There is often poor communication among all these implementing agencies and between them and the various international donors involved (Wallace et al., 1995). The lack of synergy between training policies in NR ministries and those of the Ministry of Education are a particular weakness in many cases. Again NGOs, the donors who support them, parastatal and com- mercial training programmes, often operate fairly independently, and as a consequence there maybe overlapping functions and even competition in some areas. As indicated above, even within one ministry, such as agriculture, there may be little dialogue, and even less understanding between the training, research and extension wings. The formal/ non-formal boundary within AET is often well- nigh impenetrable.

The failures of synergy and communication result in a lack of a coherent policy framework for AET. In the past [e.g. Kenya in 1967, Namibia in 1990 (Angula et al., 1990)], there have been sector-wide reviews leading to integrated policies, but there is little evidence of such broad- based studies, or of effective coordinating mechanisms today. 6 While innovation and adaptation are facilitated by a fair degree of autonomy, there is obviously a need for AET to be treated as an integrated system, and for some strategic thinking to be done by all involved, including

implementing agencies and donors, together with ultimate beneficiaries' and employers' representatives.

OPTIONS FOR THE FUTURE

Rationalisation It is very clear that for most countries a proc-

ess of rationalisation is needed throughout the AET sector. This will be difficult to achieve without the development of a coherent policy framework based on sector-wide reviews, and the establishment of coordinating mechanisms. Rationalisation also needs to be underpinned by labour-market studies, and the identification of training needs at all levels, and for all the potential audiences (including those not traditionally reached by AET in the past, see 'Lack of knowledge about training needs', above). Amongst other things rationalisation is likely to imply:

• Adjustments in the level and type of provision in tertiary level institutions and in vocational training. There is clear evidence that in some countries there is an over-supply of middle- level institutions - economics of scale will only be achieved if some are closed, or their functions changed radically to address new needs and audiences.

• The balance between public and private sector provision will probably need to adjust in favour of the private; in some cases with greater donor support than at present. It is clear that NGOs (for instance) are often better placed to provide broad-based training at the grass- roots than cumbersome government systems built around residential centres, many of which are now becoming obsolete (Wallace, 1986; Moris, 1991).

• Alternative sources of funding need to be tapped. Wallace and Mantzou (1995) have sug- gested that where the acquisition of marketable skills is stressed, private rates of return will exceed public, and there is a case for partial cost recovery, provided that the imposition of fees is not allowed to exclude the more deprived sections of rural society. Other areas discussed include the need for teaching farms to be made commercially viable (for both economic and didactic reasons) (Harris et al., 1995); and for tertiary institutions to be enabled to raise revenues through participation in research and consultancy contracts. (These carry the implica- tion of requiring positive staff development,

34 IAN WALLACE

leading to strong track records and impressive CVs, to be adopted as a strategy for AET reform).

• There will often be scope for diversification of functions in AET institutions. A case in point is the Botswana College of Agriculture (now the Faculty of Agriculture of University of Botswana), which has recently opened a Centre of Inservice and Continuing Education (CICE) to provide short courses, seminars and confer- ences for ex-graduates and others working in the industry, and where all academic staff are now required to give a part of their teaching time (van den Bor, 1994; Wallace, 1994a). In some cases, diversification may involve the development of new teaching modes, such as the introduction of distance learning programmes (see 'Innovations in curriculum and teaching' below). Another fruitful area is to work across the formal/non-formal boundaries; as for example, the development (USAID funded) of farmer training wings as part of outreach programmes by the MATIS in Tanzania (Acker, 1984).

Developing new aims and 'learning styles" Recent literature highlights the need for train-

ing institutions to become 'learning organisations', with all that implies in term .s,of interaction and the so-called 'new professionalism' (Pretty, 1994; Chambers, 1993). The idea is, however, somewhat older. For instance, President Samora Machel, at the opening of the Eduardo Mond- lane University in Mozambique in 1976, proclaimed the importance of university-based extension, stating:

The university will teach there (i.e. in the countryside) and together with the labourers will work on the solution of new problems; learn new techniques, born in practices of daily life; learn to know the importance and the real value of work. Getting to know the people...

(van der Laan and Pereira, 1989, p. 292)

Eroser identified the first objective of the outreach programme at Bukura Institute of Agriculture in Kenya to be:

providing information for drawing up the scope, objectives and content of the curriculum.

(Eroser, 1977, p. 60)

As indicated above (see 'Needs for staff development'), to bring about the change to a learning organisation is not an easy task. It involves reversals in learning, requiring new repertoires of skills, an appreciation of indigenous knowledge and

farmer-first approaches, and a corporate willing- ness to make commitments to outreach and interaction, often at the expense of more conventional types of research activity. Such changes are unlikely to occur unless backed by political will, specially earmarked resources and leadership enthusiastic for such innovations.

Reaching new audiences Some implications of the need for adaptation

to change and for the sort of learning reversals mentioned above, are that the target audiences for AET need to be redefined.Some possibilities have already been discussed (see 'Lack of knowledge about training needs', above), but it is worth reiterat- ing that in order to maximise impact upon issues such as food security, sustainability, RNR management and the environment, as well as for reasons of equity, training needs to be available to marginalised and deprived rural groups, which may include the resource-poor, the remote, nomadic and semi-nomadic groups, ethnic minorities, refugee settlements and the various categories of disabled rural producers. In addition, the research indicates a male-bias in much formal and non- formal AET through most of SSA. This appears quite perverse, given the predominance of female labour in agriculture, and in the management of farms and the marketing of products in many of the countries. While some attempts are being made to address gender bias in recruitment into middle- level institutions, and NGOs have generally proven more sensitive to the training needs of rural women, much remains to be done particularly in public sector AET institutions (Ilon, 1994).

Innovations in curriculum and teaching There is often an interest in curriculum develop-

ment amongst agricultural educators. As discussed in 'Curriculum issues', above, the reality is that the introduction of innovations is often constrained as much by prevalent attitudes as by lack of skills, and requires both broad participation and consensus building if it is to become institutionalised. The danger is that where this is achieved, there is often a lack of dynamic adaptation - curriculum needs constantly to be adjust- ing to the changing realities of the socio-economic environment. As indicated, it often proves difficult to get emerging global issues into the curriculum in any meaningful sense. It is also hard to convince seasoned educationists from basic and applied disciplines of the need to allocate suf- ficient time for experiential and learner-centred


activities, as well as inter-disciplinary innovations such as outreach and real-life problem solving. These methods form part of the new patterns of teaching and learning needed if graduates are to perform effectively in a constantly changing career environment.

Other areas of change which need to be ad- dressed are the use of new teaching modes, in both the formal and non-formal domains. For instance, some of the new audiences listed above may be better reached through the use of distance learning. The literature provides some useful models from Africa (Best, 1986. Vivon, 1985; Young et al., 1980). There are many examples from other parts of the world which may be worth explor- ing. At the tertiary level, one adjustment to declining budgets would be to move to mixed mode teaching, combining elements of formal teaching, use of distance learning materials, 7 self- learning projects, etc.

Developing learning webs and networks The deficiency in linkages and the need to

develop an integrated AET system, has already been stressed. What is really needed is a restructuring of AET so that in any state it provides an effective learning web, with strong links between all the components of the system at different levels, including across the formal/non-formal divide, but also between the teaching, research and extension functions; and providing for meaningful interaction and learning reversals between the institutions and the rural people themselves. Wal- lace (1994b) has shown that these interactions can become more effective where local NGOs, rural peoples' organisations, cooperatives, schools, etc. act as intermediaries, facilitating exchanges and bridging cultural gaps. A recent example (from Gujarat in India) is the work of the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme which linked the extension programmes of both government and the state agricultural university with 'relevant village institutions' in order to 'promote and catalyse community participation in natural resources management'. The participatory methodology developed in the field was introduced to 34 agricultural training institutes in the state through 'exposure workshops', where farmers acted as resource persons (Shah and Mane, 1993).

The other aspect of building learning webs is the need for AET institutions to develop links with other organisations involved in the rural sector (e.g. agribusiness firms, banks, marketing cooperatives and farmers' unions), and with formal and

non-formal training institutions in other disciplines which relate to the RNR sector (e.g. community health, nutrition, small business development, cot- tage industries).

Human resource development All the options presented above will depend

upon the availability of leaders, managers and trainers equipped with the appropriate skills and positive attitudes towards innovation. Thus, all attempts to reform AET need to be accompanied by programmes of HRD targeted at different levels in the system. Most of the link programmes reported on in the research have included training components, both overseas and in-country. There is obviously room for both, and increasingly existing training opportunities are to be found either in-country or in-region. However, there is a place for tailor-made programmes both in leadership/management and in the training of trainers. The value of creating a 'critical mass' of change-oriented staff has been highlighted in a recent evaluation of the Middle-Level Agricultural Education Project in Nigeria for ODA. The project also demonstrated the potential for 'cascading' innovations from each of the originally targeted institutions to a further three through local training workshops (Harris et al., 1995).

Rationalisation and reform requires imagina- tive approaches to succeed. In the same way HRD needs to be tackled imaginatively. Some of the other approaches that may be appropriate include in-country and in-region study tours; staff exchanges between training institutions, or between training, research and/or extension; shadowing training consultants or participation in mentoring schemes; secondment to consultancy work or attachments in agribusiness for a period; enrol- ment in distance learning programmes. In the case of leadership, overseas study tours and courses can often help to provide vision (and even inspira- tion); enhancing professionalism can be achieved through opportunities such as split-site Ph.D.s.

Strengthening regional or inter-regional organisations and networks

Already there are a number of organisations which link AET institutions and policy makers in various regions of SSA. Amongst the most ac- tive are the Southern Africa Centre for Coopera- tion in Agricultural Research and Training (SACCAR), which has sought to formulate regional policies for manpower development for agriculture in the SADCC region (Albrecht, 1990;

36 IAN WALLACE

Williams et al., 1989). The Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Africa (CIRDAFRICA) recently worked with FAO in organising a series of round-table meetings on AET in Anglophone, Francophone and Lusophone Africa. FAO sponsored round-tables were also held in other parts of the world, and all culminated in an expert consultation on strategy options for higher agricultural education, held in Rome in 1991 (CIRDAFRICA, 1992; FAO, 1993; FAO, 1994). Other regional organisations do exist in both An- glophone and Francophone Africa.

Since most of the issues raised in this paper are of general application, and the dilemmas facing AET are widely shared across the continent, there is a case for enabling regional organisations to address sector-wide problems, and to play a role in the dissemination of successful experiences and models. It is clear that, apart from the FAO round- tables (which resulted in rather general recom- mendations at a level of global application), almost nothing has been done to facilitate sharing about AET between the three major language regions (see above). This would appear to be a particularly fruitful area for exchange, which needs to be exploited for the mutual benefit of all parties, s

PREREQUISITES FOR REFORM OF AET IN SSA

The development of appropriate strategies requires certain conditions if they are to become realities, rather than just paper exercises. It is sug- gested that the main prerequisites for innovation will be:

• Political commitment to creation of an integrated and dynamic learning system.

• The building of consensus and popular support for a new kind of AET.

• Entrepreneurial leadership and high levels of professionalism.

• Relevance to clearly identified needs of particular target groups, and of the rural sector in general.

• A balance of responsiveness and stability. • Well targeted financial and other resources.

Developing political commitment will undoubt- edly be difficult to achieve in many situations; but without it, it is difficult to see how the development of a coherent policy framework and the necessary coordination and linkages can be put in place. There is here, perhaps, a role for

international bodies such as FAO, IFAD, World Bank, working through regional organisations and national governments at the highest level.

Building consensus and popular support will partly flow from the policy level, but needs to be backed up by the commitment of all those involved in the implementation of AET to consult widely, to involve representatives from target groups, employers, etc. in decision making through e.g. representation on advisory boards or councils; to 'popularise' the work of AET by well-targeted publicity through channels such as radio, TV, newspapers, as well as through field days and other events for the public.

The case for strong 'entrepreneurial' leadership has been made several times in this paper. Reform of an important sector such as AET will be exciting, but it involves some risks and the sacrifice of some 'sacred cows'. It is unlikely to occur where bureaucratic procedures and strict adherence to tradition is the norm. Appropriate leadership needs to be selected, developed and supported in the challenging process of innovation and adaptation. Working partnerships between public and private sector institutions may help to make the process easier.

Change and innovation will be more likely to succeed where it is accompanied by high levels of professionalism. Resistance to change is often rooted in lack of self-confidence. This can be altered by the sort of strategies proposed for HRD above ( 'Human resource development'), together with the provision of adequate support and facili- ties and other incentives to increase levels of motivation amongst those expected to bear the brunt of promoting innovation.

It is clear that AET policies, curricula, teaching methods, management styles and structures, etc. need to be kept relevant to the needs and expectations of its audiences. As they live and work in the real world, which is in constant flux, this implies a great deal of listening and learning about new challenges, opportunities and trends, and their translation into processes of dynamic adaptation. It also requires that trainers spend time identifying new target audiences and understanding their needs. AET needs to become more 'market oriented' in order to survive.

Responsiveness to change needs to be bal- anced by stability. The over-cautious approach leads to 'ossification'. The opposite can lead to trendiness and trivialisation. Neither will satisfy the target audiences. AET leadership and professionals need to exercise wisdom and to make good


use of peer review, broad consultation and constant monitoring in order to ensure that they 'get it right' in terms of what is offered for each situation and time.

It is unrealistic to expect unlimited resources to be available for AET development in future. In many cases, adequate infrastructure is in place, but requires some modification or updating in order to meet the emerging needs. Support with finance, training, teaching materials, etc. needs to be carefully targeted at critical points in the system, and where other prerequisites have already been met. Significant investment may be needed in some instances (e.g. in order to develop a distance learning programme). In such cases prior assistance should be provided as necessary for pre-appraisal, project planning, establishment of monitoring and evaluation and development of other managerial skills.

CONCLUSIONS

(1) There is an urgent need for broad reviews of AET in many countries in SSA, leading to the development of coherent policy frameworks and integrated systems which ensure more efficient use of scarce resources, and mutual exchanges of information and learning.

(2) AET institutions at all levels from university faculties down to farmers' training centres need to diversify their functions through the targeting of newly identified target groups; interaction with research, extension and local communities; developing new learning modes and materials; involvement (where appropriate) in contract research, consultancy, interaction with NGOs, etc.

(3) The identification of needs should be seen as a prerequisite for both policy and curriculum reform. Trainers should be encouraged to undertake/assist in labour market studies and training needs assessment and analysis, leading to the development of realistic sets of aims and objectives as the basis for new/revised curricula.

(4) Staff in AET institutions need to be encouraged to interact with rural producers, either directly or through the use of intermediary organisations such as NGOs. Not only should they seek to provide 'innovative thrust' to rural audiences, but also to benefit from 'reverse learning', in order to enrich their own knowledge and understanding of the rural milieu, and to ensure the relevance of their

teaching. (5) Policy makers and leaders in institutions in

any country need to work together to ensure that AET becomes an integrated learning web, providing a central role in the rural knowledge system, and interacting with other parts of that system (including non-formal programmes, other disciplines, agribusinesses, etc.).

(6) Research into AET in SSA (and elsewhere) appears to be rather sparse and little documentation is available. There is a case for a more concentrated research effort in the area. There needs to be a wider interest in research into AET policy-related themes, both in EU/ U.K. institutions and, particularly, amongst academic researchers in SSA itself.

(7) There need to be strategies to ensure wider dissemination of research results, and information about the successful innovations in AET amongst donors, implementing agencies and institutions in SSA, and in other parts of the world. There is also a particular need for development of mechanisms to facilitate sharing between researchers coming from the An- glophone, Francophone and Lusophone regions of sub-Saharan Africa.

NOTES

I. An earlier study by a former colleague at AERDD, Jill White, highlighted similar dilemmas and possibilities facing the agricultural colleges in the U.K. at the start of the present decade (White, 1995).

2. AERDD offers both Diploma and MSc courses in Agricultural Education and Training.

3. The recent research for the ODA NR Policy and Advisory Department has been restricted to studies of tertiary (higher and middle level) agricultural education and the training offered to rural producers and their households, commonly labelled 'farmer training'.

4. Even though still a 'one-party' state.

5. Two examples of a positive consultative process are the Wenchi Training Project (see 'Changing perceptions of "learning" in agricultural education', above), and the use of FSR/D as a basis for curriculum development in the link between the College of Dryland Agriculture and Natural Resources in Ti- gray, Ethiopia and the Centre for Arid Zone Studies (CAZS), Bangor; where curriculum development is being based initially on consultation with the local community (Wallace et a l , 1995).

6. Note, however, the recent broad-based review of AET in South Africa by Gebede et al., 1995.

7. Such as the use of some of the modules from the Wye College External Programme in rural development. For example, the agricultural extension service in Zimbabwe (AG- RITE)() already has an agreement with Wye to use some of the materials in their in-service training programmes.

38 IAN WALLACE

8. The recent issue of The Rural Extension Bulletin (published by AERDD) is, in fact, a theme issue on 'Franco- phone Perspectives in Rural Development', written mainly by French researchers with expert knowledge of Francophone Africa. A French language issue on Anglophone perspectives is now in preparation.

REFERENCES

Acker, D. G. (1984) Tanzania Farmer Training and Produc- tion Project- Final Report. Publication no. 9, West Virginia University.

Albrecht, H. (1990) Postgraduate training in agriculture in the SADCC: regional co-operation in manpower and human resources development in Southern Africa. In Agricultural Restructuring in Southern Africa. (Edited by Csaki, C., Dams, Th. J., Mertzer, D. and Van Zyl, J.), pp. 272- 282. International Association of Agricultural Economists, Windhoek, Namibia.

Angula, L. M., Hoppers, W., de Jager, T., Jorgensen, P., Shi- weda, A., Sjodahl, T. (1990) Agricultural Education and Training in Independent Namibia. Report prepared for the Ministry of Education, Culture, Youth and Sport, and the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Water and Rural Develop- ment, Windhoek, World University Service, Denmark.

Bawden, R. and Macadam, R. (1991) Action researching systems - extension reconstructed. Proceedings of the International Workshop Agricultural Knowledge Systems and the Role of Extension. 21-24 May, pp. 368-386. Bad Boil, Germany.

Best, J. (1986) Nigeria: training and demonstration - a system to meet a need: an interview with Richard China. RRDC Bulletin 20, 15-22.

Cater, E. (1994) Product or principle? Sustainable ecotour- ism in the third world: problems and prospects RuralExten- sion Bulletin 5, 3-10.

Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Africa (CIRDA- FRICA) (1992) A Report on FAOICIRDAFRICA roundta- ble: Strategies for Agricultural Education and Training in English-Speaking African Countries. vol. 1, Arusha, Tanzania, 24 pp.

Chambers, R. (1993) Challenging the professions: frontiers for rural development. IT Publications, London.

Chambers, R., Pacey, A. and Thrupp, L. A. (1989) Farmer First: Farmer Innovation and Agricultural Research. Intermediate Technology Publications, London.

Daane, J. R. V. and Fanou, J. A. (1989) Faculty-building in a small francophone African state: the case of Benin. In South- North Partnership in Strengthening Higher Education in Agriculture (edited by van den Bor, W., Shute, J. C. M. and Moore, G. A. B.), pp. 153-178. Wageningen, Pudoc, The Netherlands.

Diamond, J. E. (1994) Agricultural and Livestock Manpower Assessment and Training Project: Individual Consultancy Report. Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development and Cooperatives, Dares Salaam, Tanzania.

Eroser, S. (1977) Extension Training for Rural Development: The Case of Bukura Institute of Agriculture, Kenya. FAO/ PBFC, Nairobi.

Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) (1993) Report of the Expert Consultation on Strategy Options for Higher Education in Agriculture, Rome, Italy, FAO, Rome.

Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United States (FAO) (1994) Rapport de Synthese de la Table Ronde Regionale sur les Strategies pour l'Enseignement et la Formation Ag-

ricoles en Afrique Occidentale et Centrale, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, FAO, Rome.

Gebede, Z., Nhlapo, A., van Niekerk, A., Taylor, P. and Un- derwood, M. (1995) Agricultural Education and Training in South Africa: Report of a Consultancy for the Land and Agriculture Policy Centre, Johannesburg, Republic of South Africa. 24 August-18 September, LAPC, Johannesburg.

Goldsmith, A. A. (1990) Building agricultural institutions: transferring the land-grant model to India and Nigeria. West- view Press, Boulder, CO.

Goold, E. (1994) Sierra Leone: DELTA dilemmas - hierarchy and tradition, participation and change. Rural Extension Bulletin vol. 6, pp. 18-24, AERDD, Reading.

Green, D. A. G. (1993) The university as a supportive component of rural infrastructure: review and analysis of the Malawi case. In Regional food security and rural infrastructure, vol. II, (edited by Thimm, H. and Hahn, H.), International Symposium, Giessen/Rauischholzhausen, 3-6 May, pp. 49-65. LIT Verlag Munster-Hamburg, Hamburg.

Harris, A. G., Brown, D., Ene, L. S. O. and Norman, L. (1995) Nigeria: middle Level Agricultural Education - End of Project Review and Preliminary Seoping Mission. Report to ODA. ODA, London.

Ilon, L. (1994) Structural adjustment and education: adapting to a growing global market. International Journal of Educational Development 14(2), 95-108.

Johnson, G. L. and Okigbo, B. N. (1989) Institution-building lessons from USAID's Agricultural Faculty Development projects in Nigeria. American Journal of Agricultural Econom- ics 1, 1211-1218.

Lugeye, S. (1989) Tanzania: reaching towards better training - the role of 'outreach' in extension training. AERDD Bul- letin 26, 16-22.

Macadam, R. (1988) Systems agriculture- An alternative approach to agricultural education, research and extension for rural development. Perspectives in Education 4(3), 3-11.

Moris, J. R. (1991) Extension Alternatives in Tropical Africa. ODI, London.

Northridge, J. and Taylor, P. (1993) Report of a further follow-up visit to Namibia, 3--25 May. AERDD, Reading.

Okali, C., Sumberg, J. and Farrington, J. (1994) Farmer Participatory Research: rhetoric and reality. IT Publica- tions for Overseas Development Institute, London.

Pretty, J. N. (1994) Editorial: training for learning RIM Notes Number 19." special lssue on Training. pp. 5-17. International Institute for Environment and Development, London.

R ichards, Paul (1985) Indigenous Agricultural Revolutiotr Ecol- ogy and Food Production in West Africa. Hutchinson, London.

R61ing, N. (1988) Extension Science: information systems in agricultural development. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Seoone~ I. and J. Thompson (1994) Beyond Farmer First." Rural People's Knowledge, Agricultural Research and Extension Practice. IT publications, London.

Shah, E and Mane, E M. (1993) The Aga Khan rural support project (AKRSP): participatory approaches to agricultural training. In Non-governmental Organisations and the State in Asia." Rethinking Roles in Sustainable Agricultural Development (edited by Farrington, J. and Lewis, D. J.), pp. 130-135. Routledge, London.

Taylor, P. (1993) Furthering the development of the common curriculum for the three-year diploma in agriculture: report of a further follow-up visit to Namibia, 2-25 August, University of Reading, Reading.


van den Bor, W. (1994) Institutional development at BCA and international co-operation. Report of a Mission to the BCA, Gaborone, Botswana, November 1994. Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlandg

van der Laan, J. and Pereira, J. R. (1989) Higher agricultural education in a country at war: the case of Mozambique. In South-north Partnership in Strengthening Higher Education in Agriculture (edited by van der Bor, Wout, Shute, J. C. M. and Moore, G. A. B.), pp. 198-217. Wageningen, The Netherland~

Vivon, P. (1985) Training for farmers: does it form part of agricultural extension or should it be furnished separately? Agricultural extension and its link with research in rural development, p. 14, INADES formation, Abidjan, Ivory Coast.

Wallace, I. (1986) Report of a Visit to Kenya, August- September 1986. AERDD, Reading (mimeo).

Wallace, I. (1990) Aspects of agricultural education in Africa: innovations at the formal/non-formal interface. In Agricultural Restructuring in Southern Africa (edited by Csaki, C., Dams, Th. J., Mertzer, D. and Van Zyl, J.), pp. 291- 305. International Association of Agricultural Economists, Windhoek, Namibia.

Wallace, I. (1992a) Agricultural education as a learning system in Africa: enhancing effectiveness through innovations at the formal/nonformal interface. International Journal of Educational Development 12(1), 51-64.

Wallace, I. (1992b) Furthering the Development of a Com- mon Curriculum for the Diploma in Agriculture: report of a follow-up visit to Namibia, 1-19 September, AERDD, Reading.

Wallace, I. (1993) Enhancing the contribution of agricultural training institutions to regional food security in Africa. In Regional Food Security and Rural Infrastructure (Vol. ll)(edited by Thimm, H. and Hahn, H.), pp. 13-29. International Symposium, Giessen/Rauisehholzhausen, May 3~5. LIT Verlag Munster-Hamburg, Hamburg.

Wallace, I. (1994a) Report on a Visit to Botswana and Natal, 23 February-8 March 1994. AERDD, Reading (mimeo).

Wallace, I. ( 1 9 9 4 b ) Creating learning networks between formal institutions and rural people: the potential role of local non-government organisations as intermediaries. European Journal of Agricultural Education and Exten- sion 1(2), 1-13.

Wallace, I. and Mantzou, K. (1995) Background Paper No. 8: Agricultural education and training. In Overseas Develop- ment Administration, Report of the Natural Resource Advis- ers Conference Sparsholt College, Winchester 9-12 July 1995, Annex 1 - Crossroads in the Delivery of Rural Services: The Role of Public and Private Institutions in the Provision of Rural Services and the Development of the RNR Sector, pp. 154-159. London, Overseas Develop- ment Administration.

Wallace, I., Taylor, P. and Mantzou, K. (1995) The Policy Implications of Revitalizing Agricultural Education and Train- ing in Sub-Saharan Africa. vol. I and II (version 2). Report to the ODA Natural Resources Policy and Advisory Depart- ment. AERDD, Reading.

White, J. M. (1990) 'For' agriculture or 'about' agriculture? the role of agricultural education in secondary schools RRDCBulletin vol. 29, pp. 17-20. AERDD, Reading.

White, J. M. (1995) Adapting to change: The response of further education in England and Wales to a changing rural economy, and the implications for staffdevelopment. Rural Extension and Education Report No. 4. AERDD, Reading.

Williams, J., Davis, R., Reimers, E and Hanson, J. (1989) Sup- ply and Demand for Trained Agriculture Manpower in the SADCC countries. Southern African Centre for Co- operation in Agricultural Research, SADCC.

Young, M., Perraton, H., Jenkins, J. and Dodds, T. (1980) Distance Teaching for the Third World." The Lion and the Clockwork Mouse. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.

Documents

Agricultural education at the crossroads: Present dilemmas and possible options for the future in sub-Saharan Africa