AestheticStudiesConference,RoyalAsiaticSociety,Colombo,SriLanka,30‐31March2012

AnalogForestryasanArtForm

“Artisnotwhatyousee,butwhatyoumakeotherssee”,EdgarDegas(1834­1917)

RanilSenanayake

Abstract:

AnalogForestry(Senanayake1987)arosefromaneedtoexpandhabitatforbiodiversitywithinanthropogenic(humanmanaged)ecosystems.Itisaformofecologicalrestorationthatseekstodesignecosystemsprocessesandstructuresthatmimictheoriginal.Itisanintentionalactivitythatinitiatesoracceleratestherecoveryofanecosystemwithrespecttoitshealth,integrityandsustainabilityasdefinedbyEcologicalRestoration(SER2004)buthasalsobeendescribedascontainingelementsthatcouldlenditselfasanartform(SenanayakeandPalihawadana1999).Indeedinthetraditionsofmodernart,attentiontothedesignsinnatureinaconceptualwayhasgivenrisetoconceptualartwheretheideaorconceptisthemostimportantaspectofthework.Whenanartistusesaconceptualformofart,itmeansthatalloftheplanninganddecisionsaremadebeforehandandtheexecutionisaperfunctoryaffair(LeWitt1967).Theideabecomesamachinethatmakestheart.Often,anaturalprocessisunderstoodasart,onlywhenitisfrozenintimeandappearsinamuseum.WorksofArt,evenconceptualworks,tendtobeembeddedinsomeformofobjectorstructure.ThedepictionofSriLankainthe‘LagoonCycle’(Harrison1986)isacaseinpoint AnalogForestryrequirescreativityfromthedesignersothatamonotonyofformandfunctiondoesnotmanifest.Theknowledgeofthevariousphysicalandecologicalattributesallowingthedesignertoselectforcolor,texture,presenceofbirds,butterfliesetc.inadditiontoutilitarianfunctionssuchasprovisionoffood,medicines,fiberetc.(SenanayakeandJack1998).Itrequiresthedesignertoconsiderthetextureoftheforestbyconsiderationssuchastherelativeproportionsofemergent,canopyorsub‐canopyspeciesinthedesignorthepresenceandproportionsofgrowthformssuchasepiphytesorlianas.Itrequiresthedesignertoconsiderthecapacityofthedesigntosustainpopulationsofnativebiodiversityetc.,butitalsorequiresthedesignertobecreative.Aspectssuchascolorandplacementdependmuchonthevisionofthedesigner,especiallyasthefulldesignmaynotmanifestformanyyearsafterestablishment.Thisdesign,beinganalogoustonaturewouldseemtoproduceaestheticallyandfunctionallysuperiorlandscapes.AnalogForestryprovidesatoolwithwhichtodoso.

Keywords:LandscapeAesthetics,AnalogForestry,andConceptualArt

Introduction:AnalogForestry,isasystemofrestoringthetreedominatedecosysteminanyarea,mimickingthestructureandfunctionsoftheoriginal‘forest’thatonceexistedinthatarea(Senanayake2004).Thedesignisguidedbytwelveprinciples(Table1)ofwhichthemostpertinenttothisdiscussionisprinciple12:‘Respondcreatively’.Thissuggestsboththecreativeuseoftheotherelevenandfreedomtoexpressthegenerationofaestheticsonthelandscape.ItreliesgreatlyontheabilityofnaturetorespondtotheimperativeofmaturingintoaforestAsHarrison(2011)notes:‘Tobegin,youhaveanidea,baseduponalotofknowledge,thatwhenyouapplyitinaconstructlikeananalogforest,natureactingopportunistically,willuseittoself‐complicate.Thereforethereisatheoryofhownaturebehavesthatpermitsanalogforestrytowork.”Table1.

PrinciplesofAnalogForestry.

Principle 1 Observe and Record Thematureecosystemofanyarearepresentstheoutcomeofeonsofexperienceindealingwiththeclimateandimpactsatthatplace.Recordthespeciesandecosystemspresentintheareaundertreatment.Theinitialdatawillassistinsettingabaselineagainstwhichfutureobservationstheirchangescanbeevaluated.Recordingisalsoofimportanceinevaluatingthestructureandtextureoftheoriginal,whichprovidesthemodeltowardswhichwemustdesign.Aphysiognomicformulaofthevegetationtypesontheland.IdentifyingthestructureofthesystemwilldemonstrateawiderangeofdifferentarchitecturalresponsesvaryingfromtreestolianasandpointtowardstheendgoalindesignPrinciple 2 Understand and Evaluate Understandtheecosystembeingobservedinasmanyperspectivesaspossible.Asynthesisofmanyvariableswillalwaysyieldbetterchoicesofthespeciesandpatternstobeusedindesign.Thisiswhentheobservationsandrecordsmustbesynthesizedwithasmuchscientificandtraditionalinformationaspossible.Thegenerationofthedatabaseonthevegetationspeciesthatare(were)presentintheareaandthepotentialnewspeciestobeconsideredisacriticalpartofrecordingandshouldbeinitiatedattheinceptionoftheproject.

Principle 3 know your land Apowerfultool,inunderstandingthelandisacarefullydrawnoutmapthatidentifiesthemostpertinentfeaturesoftheland.Mappingthelandisbestdoneifdevelopedasaseriesofoverlays.Oncethephysicalboundarieshavebeenmapped,overlaysthatdemarcatethecontours,thehedges,fencelines,vegetation,soils,winddirectionandwaterflowaresomeusefulvariables.ThelandscapemaportheForestGardenFarmPlan(FGFP)shouldreflectnotonlythecurrentsituationbutalsothedesiredfuturecondition.

Principle 4 identify levels of yield Theyieldrequiredwilldifferdependingontheprioritiesofthelandownerormanager.Ifthegoalisconservationtheyieldwillbemeasuredbyincreasesinthetargetspecies,ifthegoaliseconomicgaintheyieldwillbemeasuredintermsofincomeorproduction.Ifthedemandforyieldisfocusedonasinglecropthehighertheyieldrequiredthemoretheproductionsystemwouldmovetowardsasinglespeciesmonoculture

Principle 5. Map out flow and reservoir systems Everylandscapehasflowsystems,solid,liquid,gasandgeneticthatproducesdistinctpatterns.Usuallythedirectionofflowinsolids,liquidsandgassesisgovernedbygravity,resultingintheverycharacteristicdrainagepattersofwaterorsoilflowingonland.Similarlywindmovingacrossthelandscapeproducesomesignificantpatterns,whilegenesusuallyfollowexistingcorridorsofecosystemsconduciveforthatspecies.

Theunderstandingoftheflowsystemsacrossthefarmorlandareatobemanagedisimportanttosettingthedesign.Cuttingacrossflowsystemsisusuallynotproductive.Following,augmentingoramelioratingflowsystemstoenhancetheecosystemundermanagementwillimproveproductivity. Principle6Reduceratioofexternalenergyinproduction

Allecosystemsuseenergytomaintaintheiridentity.Inagriculturalecosystems,productivityisagoalandenergyisexpendedatmeetingthisgoal.Oftenenergysubsidiesfromoutsidethefarmhavetobeprovided.Asanincreaseintheflowofenergytendstoorganizeandsimplifythesystem,increasesinexternalenergyinputsimpactbothbiodiversityandsustainability.Increasesofenergytoanecosystemrepresentameasurebywhichecosystemmodificationcanbeaddressed.

Principle7beguidedbylandscapeneeds.

Allfarminglandwillbeapartofanaturallandscape.Theboundariesofwhichareoftensetbydefinition.Acommoncriteriontodelineatealandscapeisonawatershedbasis.Onceidentified,eachlandscapeisdividedintovariousreplicatingunits,suchasopenfields,treecoveredareas,homesteads,roads,streamsetc.Alandscapewilloftenhavemanyvegetationcomponentsrangingfrommaturenativevegetationtoopenmeadows.Thepatchesofremnantvegetationoftenbeingtheonlyhabitatleftfornativebiodiversity.

Indesign,definingthespeciesoftreetobeusedinarevegetationcontextandknowingitsecologicalroleensuresthatthespecieschosenwillbearesourceforanothergroupoforganismsnotaddressedbymererevegetationneeds.Asimilarrecognitionofthevalueofhierarchicalstructuringusingabiotic,bioticandculturalsubsystemscanprovideaplanningframework.

Principle8Followecologicalsuccession

Inthedevelopmentofaforestsystemmaturitybringschangesinthetrophicweb,whicharedemonstratedbychangesinspeciescomposition.Thesesuccessionalseriesallmaintainaboutanequallevelofspeciesateachlevel,butthecompositionofthespeciesrepresentedchangeswiththechangeinvegetation.

Indesigningforstructure,theseralstagethatisbestsuitedforthecropschosenprovidesthemodel.Thus,ifthecropsinquestionareannuals,suchascerealgrain,beans,squashesetc.thepioneerstagesprovidethemodel.Ifthecropsinquestionareperennialssuchascoffee,fruitetc,thelaterseralstagesprovidethemodel.Thepioneerstagesinmostecosystemsarediverseandincorporatearangeofplanttypescapableofhighproductivity,apatternoftenreflectedintraditionalagriculture.Theearlyseralstagesofforestecosystems,providethenextgrowthorbuildingupphase

Principle 9 Utilize ecological processes Incorporationofecologicalprocessesintodesignalwayscontributestofurtherstability.Allecosystemsaredrivenbyaseriesofprocessessomeofwhicharesignificantimportantandcontributetomaintainingstabilityandproductivity.Ecologicalprocessesineveryecosystem,allowforincreasesinefficiencythroughmanagement.

Theidentificationofkeyecologicalprocessessuchasedgeeffects,wheretheecotoneortheboundarybetweentwoecosystemsfacilitatesahigherbiodiversitymeasure.Keystonespeciesreferringtospeciesonwhichthepersistenceofalargenumberofotherspeciesontheecosystemdependsandwhoseimpactsaregreaterthanwouldbeexpectedfromitsrelativeabundanceortotalbiomass.Theuseofindicatorspecies,organismsthatcorrespondtoacertainlevelorstateofbiodiversity,areprocessesthatwillenablethedesignofaneffectiveandelegantmodel.

Principle10ValueBiodiversity

Biodiversityhasbeenperceivedinmanywaysovertheages.Itreflectsthepatternwroughtinbiomass.Itprovidesthevarietyofourlivingworldandhasbeenthesourceofhumaninspirationacrossculturesandages.Biodiversityprovidesboththematerialaswellastheindicatorsforsustainablelandmanagement.Inmoderntimesitisinvaluableasamanagementtool,asthelevelofbiodiversityisaneffectivemeasureofthehealthofecosystems.Biodiversitymeasureshavealsobeencorrelatedwithenvironmentalstabilityaswellasthesustainabilityofagriculturalandforestrypractices.

Biodiversityisanissuetoday,becausethathumaninspirationcannotbeappreciatedbyanon‐humansystem.Thebeautyandwonderofthelivingworldcannothavemeaninginthemarketplace,oneconsequence,isthatbiodiversityhasretreatedbeforetheonslaughtofthemonoculturesofeconomicexpediency.

Principle 11 Respect Maturity Maturityistheendconditionallecosystemstendtodeveloptowards.Itrepresentstheabilitytostaysustainableinagivengeographicalsite.Seralsuccessionorthegradualchangingofspeciesandstructuresinanecosystemasitmovestowardsmaturityisasingularlyimportantconsiderationindesign.Maturityisaprocessmorethananendcondition.Matureecosystemsareusuallyhigherinbiomass,thoughnotnecessarilyinbiodiversitythanmoreimmaturesystems.Asmaturityconfersstability,everyelementofalandscapethatcanmatureshouldbeencouragedtodoso.

Principle 12 Respond creatively Naturedoesnotproduceidenticalpatternsatanecosystemiclevel.Everylandscapeanditsassociatedecosystemshaveuniquecharacteristics,someatalevelsignificantfordesign,othersnot.Everylandscape,everyecosystemhasnestledwithinitmanymore.Workingatthevegetationscale,everydesignercanbeanartistwhoselimitationisthepaletteathand.Thedatabasemaybeincomplete,therangeofspeciesavailablemaybepoor,dataontheregionmaybelacking.Familiaritywiththelandscapeorecosystemisoftensuperiortopoordata.Thechoiceofspeciesandtheirpatternofplacementwillreflectonlandscapeaestheticsaswellasbiodiversitydistribution.Allthisrequiresthedesignertorespondskillfullyandcreatively.

Inpractice,allecosystemrestorationshouldbeapproachedwithaspatiallyexplicitlandscapeperspectiveinordertoensurethesuitabilityofflows,interactionsandexchangeswithcontiguousecosystems(SER2004).Asystematicunderstandingofalandscapeisessentialtothisendeavor.Therecentworkon'LandscapeEcology'(Foreman&Godron,1986)suggeststhattherearemanywaysofperceivingthelandscapeinplanningprocessesandprovidesusefuldefinitions.But,asobservedbyRackham(1991)therearefashionsinlanduse,whichtendtogeneratefashionsinlandscape.However,astheselandscapesdependonthegrowthoftreesandotherlong‐livedplants,theycannevercatchupwithafashionbeforeitchanges.The'newlandscapesof1970forinstance,arenolongernewin1990,butwearesaddledwiththemfortherestofourlives(Rackhamop.cit.).Thisconsiderationinlandscapeplanningshouldentaila

resistancetofashionandhigherconcentrationonmeaning.Movingtoachievemeaninginlandscapedesignismovementtowardsart.Howeverthereisthethornyissueofaesthetics.AestheticswaswelldefinedbyEmanuelKantwhenheapplieditinaccordancewithitsclassicalmeaning"thephilosophyofsensuousperception"(anon1966).Butthemeaninghasbeennarrowedintoday’susetodenotesomeelementofbeauty(anon1973a,b).Oftenthelandscapeofone’soriginsetstheyardstickofbeauty.

InAustralia,theancienttraditionssuggestwaystointerpretsuchmeaning.Thelandisanentityandcommunicatesitsstatustothehumanobserver.AnexperiencerecountedbyjournalistMichealLeunig(2008)illustratesthis.Onreturningtotriballandsthathadtobeabandonedforgovernmentuse,aPitjanjarraeldercommented'Ohyoupoorbugger'.Thecommentwasmadethreetimes,onceatabillabong(waterhole)thatwaschokedwithdebris,onceinagrasslandthickwithAcasiathornscrubandoncewhenhecameacrossanumberofKangaroossomeofwhichwereverysick.Whenquestionedaboutthecommentandwhomitwasdirectedat,itbecameevidenthewasspeakingtothelandscape.Whenhewasahunterontheland,hewouldclearanydebrisandrubbishfromthebillabongmakingiteasierforhimtohunt,itwouldalsoallowanimalseasyaccesstothewater,nowitwaschokedandsick:similarly,hewouldburnthegrasslandtostimulategrowthofgrassandfoodplantswhilediscouragingtheestablishmentofwoody,thornscrub,ashewouldtakeouttheslowanimalslongbeforesicknesscouldsetin.Hehadanawarenessoflandscapehealthandwoulduseindicatorspeciesorstatestoidentifyitscondition.

Itisplain;ecosystemsconditionthevaluesofsocietiesthatarefoundwithin.Traditionalsocietiesfindbeautyintheexpressionofnaturalecosystems.Modernsocietywithitsanthropogeniclandscapesreflectthisappreciationofbeautyinthebioticexpressionbutoftenthisconceptofbeautyisrootedinoursocio‐culturalbackgroundsandmay,asoftenasnot,produceunwantedeffectsonthenewlandscape.

EuropeansarrivinginAustraliasetaboutcuttingthenativeforesttoproduce,open,meadows,muchlikethoseinEngland.Despiterecordsoftraditionalcustodianscommenting"Weareworried.Weneedourland.Wewantittostayspotless.Wedon’twanttoseeatreecutdown..."Davis(1983).Inasimilarvein,whenindigenouspeopleandfarmersweretakentotheplantationsofPinusatLake

EildoninAustraliatheycommentedontheuglinessoftheforestandbemoanedthelackofnativewildlife.HoweverwhenagroupofnewimmigrantsfromnorthernItalyweretakentheretheywereastoundedbythebeautyofthesamelandscape.Thisseemstoconfirmthatlandscapesofonesformativepleasantexperiencesoftensetaestheticstandards.

Thusaestheticlandscapingrequiresextendingourconceptofcommunitytoincludeallthespeciesoflife,ouraestheticinformedbytheecosystemsaroundus.AsLeopoldputit‐‐'Quitthinkingaboutdecentlanduseassolelyaneconomicproblem,butexamineeachquestionintermsofwhatisethicallyandaestheticallyright,aswellaswhatiseconomicallyviable.Athingisrightwhenittendstopreservetheintegrity,stabilityandbeautyofthebioticcommunity.Itiswrongwhenittendsotherwise'(Leopold1949).

Landscapeshavebeendefinedasheterogeneouslandareascomposedofclustersofinteractingecosystemsthatrepeatsinsimilarformthroughout.Landscapedevelopmentorformationisaresultofthreemechanismsoperatingonthelandscapeboundary;specificgeomorphologicprocessestakingplaceoveralongtime,colonizationpatternsoforganismsandlocaldisturbancesofindividualecosystemsoverashortertime(ForemanandGodron1986).InconsideringconservationofecosystemsinSriLanka,twootherdefinitionsareofutility.Oneisa'pleisoclimaticlandscape',containingecosystemsthathavematuredwithouttheinfluenceofman;thesecondis,'anthropomorphiclandscapes',containingecosystemsthathavebeenmodifiedorformedbytheinfluenceofman.

Thisallowsaddressingthelandscapeasadistinctmeasurableunitdefinedbyitsrecognizableandspatiallyrepetitiveclustersofinteractingecosystemswiththeirgeomorphology,disturbanceregimesandhistory.Thesignificantcharacteristicsofalandscapeare:

1)Structure,orthespatialrelationshipsamongthedistinctiveecosystemsor'elements'ofalandscape,forexample,thedistributionofenergy,materialsandspeciesinrelationtothesizes,shapes,numbers,kindsandconfigurationsoftheseecosystems.

2)Function,ortheinteractionbetweenthesespatialelements,forexample,theflowsofenergy,materialsorspeciesamongthecomponentsofthelandscape.

3)Change,orthealterationintheecologicalmosaicovertimeinrelationtostructureandfunction

AnalogForestryembodiesthesecharacteristicsandseekstodesign,demonstratingknowledgeofstructure,functionandmaturity(change)indesign.Italwayslooksatthematurenaturalecosystemasaguideanddevelopsanideaorconceptofhow;somethingclosetonaturalecosystemcouldbeestablished.Thisdesignmustincludeelementsofproduction,conservationandaesthetics.Itrequiresanunderstandingoftheecosystemsandtheindividualspeciesthatoneisworkingwithatthegreatestdepth,Here,allplanninganddecisionsaremadebeforehandandtheexecutionisaperfunctoryaffair,usuallytakingyearstodevelopintothemanifestationoftheconcept.

LandscapeaestheticsisafundamentaldesigngoalinAnalogForestry,Howeveranalogforestryoftenproducesa‘hybrid’ecosystemcomprisedofbothnativeandexoticspecies.Theactivityofecologicalrestorationhasbeencriticizedonthegroundsthatthisactivityisakintoartforgery.Justasacopiedartworkcouldnotreproducethevalueoftheoriginal,restorednaturecouldnotreproducethevalueofnature.(Elliott1995)

Gunn(1991)suggeststhattheremightbetwotypesofrestorativeactionmaliciousandbenevolentbringingintoquestionthegoalsofthat‘restorative’action.Howeverinbenevolentrestoration,iftherestoredbitofnaturewerearestorativecomponentofalargerecosystem,itwouldhavesomeformofnaturalvalueinitselfbeyonditsinstrumentalvalue.Inthiswaythevalueoftheoriginalbenevolentrestoration—ismorelikeartrestorationthanartforgery(Light2011).

Thoughtheartoflandscapingisanancienthumanendeavor,themimickingofnatureaslandscapingcanbeattributedtoLancelotBrown(1716‐1783)whoseworkwasdescribedasthe"judiciousmanipulationofitscomponentsaddingatreehereoraconcealedheadofwaterthere.Hisartattendedtotheformalpotentialofground,water,andtreesandsogavetoEnglishlandscapeitsidealforms.Thedifficultywasthatlesscapableimitatorsandlesssophisticatedspectatorsdidnotseenatureperfected...theysaw

simplywhattheytooktobenature"(Wikepedia).Infactcriticismofhisworkfocusedonthefactthatit‘differedverylittlefromcommonfields,socloselyisnaturecopiedinmostofthem(Chambers1772)"

However,themodernplacingofplantsonalandscapespecificallyasartwasinitiatedbyBurleMarx(1909‐1994)whoorganizednativeplantsinaccordancewiththeaestheticprinciplesoftheartisticvanguardofthetime,especiallyCubismandAbstractionism.Hecreatedanewandmoderngrammarforinternationallandscapedesign(Rothner2009).Thus,whenplacingvegetationonalandscapeforrestorativefunctions,inclusionoftheaestheticprinciplesofartbecomesanobviousextension.

Consideringitssignificancetoartinthismanner,itmustbepointedoutthattherestorationofaforestecosystem,canneverattainexactlythesameproportionofspeciesnortheidenticalpatternsofwhatexistedbefore,inthissense,therestorationofaforestisnotdonetocopyexactlythatwhichwaslost,itisdonetorestorethestructureandfunctionsthatwerelost.Theadditionofaestheticsreflectsthedesignerspersonality,withtheconsiderationthatnaturealwaysmovesadisturbedareatomaturethroughecologicalsuccessionwheneverpossible(Ricklefs1999).Theseconsiderationsprovidethefutureplan.Thustherestorationofthetree‐dominatedelementofanylandscapeusingAnalogForestrymustbeseenasadynamicdesignthatunfoldsasitmatures.Eachpredictedexpressionbeingmeaningfultotheecosystemthatitisin,butunique,reflectingtheartofthedesigner.

Forinstance,Thedesignandplantingofamonocultureofevenaged,earlymaturingEucalyptus,toreplacealostnaturalforestdemonstratesaextremelynarrowunderstandingoftheconceptoftheforestthatwaslostanditsrestoration;Itbearslittleresemblancetotheecosystemthatitreplaced.Incontrast,thedesignandplantingofananalogforestrequiresawealthofknowledgeonmanyspeciesandthebroadestapproachtorestoration.Thereismeaningreflectedateachtropiclevel.Asdesigngoals,theformerseeksuniformitywhilethelatterseeksdiversity.

Fig1NaturalForestwith100%nativespecies

Fig2AnalogForestresponsewith90%exoticspecies

ButdoesanalogforestryinthewordsofDegas‘makeotherssee’?Harrison(2011)questionstheideafurther,heasks,‘whatistheworkofthework?Sowhatistheworkofananalogforest?’Heoffersthefollowinglist(Table2)

Table2

1. Itisdesignedasanactofcompensationperhapsforanabusedarea.

2. Itisdesignedfromaperspectiveofarchitecture,withoverstory,understoryetc.

3. ItisdesignedfromanunderstandingthatNaturewillself‐complicate,giventheopportunity.

4. Itisdesignedspeculatively,baseduponbestunderstandings.5. Itsdesignreflectsthepersonalaestheticpreferencesofthe

designer.Forinstance,anotherdesigner,withthesameknowledge,mightwellcreateasomewhatdifferentforest,butthathadthesameoutcomesasanotheranalogforestdesigner.

6. Itisdesignedasapieceofeco‐socialwork.Bythisitismeantthat,thespeciesselectedthatinduecourse,self‐complicate,aredesignedtobeofusetosociety,withtheexpressintentionofgivingsocietythetaskofprotecting,enhancingandbenefitingfromthisactofcreativity.

7. Itcreatesanewclassoflaborinsociety.Bythisismeant,apersonwhoissimultaneously,consciouslyeducatedtobebothtoppredatorandtopconserver.(Harrison2002‐2009)

8. Theprincipalactofconservation,theunderstandingbuiltintotheeducationofthenewclassofpeople,isthattheharvestpreservesthesystem(Harrison1986).

9. Therefore,theveryactofmaintainingananalogsystem,beitaquatic,open‐canopyforest,grassandshrublands,oranymixture,includingclosed‐canopyforest,hassimilarpropertiesintheircreationandintheirmaintenance.

10. Thiskindofworkandthiskindofhusbandryprecludesbothmonoculturalactivitiesonthegroundandaboveallthekindofsocietythatcreatesmonocultureofthemind.

InAnalogForestrythedesignerusesthelandscapefeaturesasthecanvasandplacesvariousplantspeciestoobtainproduction,function,textureandcolor.Creativityisencouraged,butthereference,mustbetheoriginalmatureecosystem.AnexamplecanbeseeninanAFdesigninSriLanka

TorestorethelostforestsoftheMirahawatteareaofCentralSriLanka,themodelofthematureforestwastakenfromKnuckles

mountains(Figure1).Inthismontaneforestallofthevegetationisnative,ithasnotbeendisturbedandisinamaturestate.ThestructureandfunctionsofthisforestwereassumedtobesimilartothatofthelostforestsofMirahawatte,whichisatasimilarelevation.AnAFdesignwasdevelopedandplantingwasbegunin1983.Thedesignreflectedtheneedforfloweringemergentspeciesasseeninthenaturalforest,risingfromaclosedcanopy.Theemergentinturn,taketimetoriseabovethecanopyandthissignalsmaturity.EmergentspeciesareessentialforlargeraptorsandtheLargeForestBee(Apisdorsata)whoseactivitiesarecriticalinmaintainingpollinationoftheforesttrees.Therewasalsotheneedtocreatesplashesofcolorthatwouldlightthecanopy.Inthiscasethedesignerchoseabrightyellowinsteadofthewhiteofthemodel.Thedesigncalledforacanopyofnitrogenfixingtreesasthepoorsoilsofthesiteneededtobebuiltup,buttheirfunctionaskeystonespecieswasalsoadesigncriteria.Manyleguminoustreescouldhavebeenusedinimplementation,butthisdesigncalledforspeciesthatwouldimprovebiodiversity.Therefore,speciesweresortedbytheirabilitytofeedorattractnativefauna.Theresultwastohaveaforegroundtoprovidedark,purplishgreenfoliage,withwhiteflowers,backedbyalightleavedErythrinaplantingwithorangeflowers.AmatrixofTrema(tofeedwildlife)andPersea(fruitforconsumptionandmarket)andArtocarpus(fruitforconsumptionandmarket)wereincludedinthedesign,toprovidediversitytothecanopy,provideincomeandimprovehabitat.ThecanopythuscreatedframestheemergentSchizolobium,whichriseswellabovethecanopyandgivesaburstofgoldenyellowannually(figure2).By2002thisemergenthadattractedapairofForestEagleOwls,neverseenasresidentsinthevalleybefore,confirmingtheoriginaldesigngoalsofaforestedcanopywithemergents.Twenty‐twospeciesofbirdshavebeenrecordedusingthecanopytrees(SenanayakeandJackop.cit.).Eventoday,thedesigncontinuestounfold.Currently,justbelowthecanopyandabouttoriseoutofitarethepalmswhoseeffectsonthedesignwillnotbefeltforanotherfouryearsmore,thusevenaftertwentyyearsthedesignsillunfoldsinthewaypredicted.Asenergydependenttechnologythatlaysclaimtothebasisofdevelopmentandlandmanagementisdesignedonthebasisofmarketableproductivity,theresultisamonotonouslandscape,

aestheticallypoorandlackingindiversity.Ecologicallyitproducesenergyaddictedproductionsystems.AstheconceptofSustainabilitybecomesanincreasinglyimportantgoalofdevelopment,theemergenceoffarmingandproductionsystemswithincreasingdiversityandenergyindependentproductionsystems,willbecomenecessary.Thelandscapeillustratedbelow(Figure3)showstheconventionalpatternoflanduseintheleftandrightforegroundwhileananalogousdesignisshownintherightbackground.Thebiodiversity,biomassandaestheticdifferencesareobvious.Iftheaestheticdesigninthecurrentworkare‘seen’byothersandifthe‘workofthework’demonstratestheattributesaslistedintable2.TheAnalogForestdesignatMirahawattecouldbeseenasaworkofart.Further,aconstructlikeananalogforest,bydemonstratingthatnatureactsopportunisticallyandwilluseanytoself‐complicate,confirmsthetheorythatnature,givenanopportunitywillmatureintodiverse,sustainablestates.AnalogForestryofferssuchanopportunity.

Fig3.Comparisonoflandscapeaestheticswithconventionallanduse(left)andAnalogForestry(right)

Acknowledgements:

ThecommentsandconstructivecriticismsofProf.NewtonHarrison,FeizalMansoorandCedricDeSliva,haveaddedmuchclaritytothisdiscussion,theircontributionsaregratefullyacknowledged.

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Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancelot_%22Capability%22_Brown

RanilSenanayake

Chairman,RainforestRescueInternational

Galle

SriLanka

Tel:0912232585

e‐mail:r_senanayake@yahoo.com

Web:www.rainforestrescueinternational.org