ADDRESSING MOBILE SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION IN POLAND: EMERGING TRENDS AND POLICY OPTIONS

Glen Anderson, Harvard Institute for International Development and Polish Ministry of Environmental Protection

In the brief transition to a market economy, Poland has experienced rapid growth in the number of private automobiles that has contributed to increasing mobile source emissions and urban congestion. Current projections indicate that the number of vehicles per capita will be comparable to many countries in Western Europe by 2010. Poland has recently adopted a number of measures to address simultaneously mobile source pollution and harmonise with the environmental directives of the European Union. Key measures adopted to date include reductions in the lead content of leaded fuels, incentives for greater use of unleaded fuel, reductions in sulphur content of fuels and requirements for catalytic converters to begin in 1995. Additional measures such as higher fuel and vehicle taxes and policies to limit vehicle access in city centres will be needed in the next decade.

INTRODUCTION

In Poland, mobile sources of pollution currently represent less than one-third of total emissions for any particular pollutant and an even smaller percentage of total air emissions. However, as Poland continues its transition to a market economy, commercial motor transport and the use of automobiles wil l be important components of economic growth but also sources of additional pollution and urban congestion. To address these problems and fulfill its commitment to harmonise its environmental laws with those of the European Union, Poland will need to explore and implement a range of policies to improve fuel quality, require or encourage efficient and ‘clean’ vehicles, reduce fuel consumption, and address the problems of transportation infrastructure development and traffic management.

MOBILE SOURCE POLLUTION IN POLAND

The number of motor vehicles has increased dramatically since trade with Western Europe was liberalised in 1989. Statistics on the number of motor vehicles in Poland are provided in Table 1. As recently as 1980, the number of passenger cars was only 61 cars per 1,000 people. However, the growth in private vehicle ownership has more than doubled in 12 years, increasing to 167 cars per 1,000 people in 1992. The increase in private automobiles has been so rapid since 1990 that the number of vehicles in 1992 already exceeded vehicle projections for the year 2000 estimated as recently as 1990 (Table 2). The second set of predictions in Table 2 i s based on more recent trend data. If the population of Poland remains at the current level of 39 million people, the number of private cars per 1,000 people would increase to 269 in the year 2000 and 397 in the year

2010. This would represent nearly a three-fold increase in the number of vehicles in 20 years and would result in vehicles ownership levels comparable to Western Europe. If the number of miles per vehicle is constant or increases, the potential for emission increases would be quite significant.

Emissions from motor vehicles are a known source of human health effects. The major pollutant of concern is lead in petrol. Lead is a metabolic poison and neurotoxin that contributes to learning disabilities among children at elevated blood levels. High lead levels in blood have been linked to high blood pressure and increased risk of hypertension, heart attacks, and strokes in older people and particularly among men. Carbon monoxide at ambient concentrations is believed to increase the probability of experiencing angina (Krupnick, 1991) and may cause headaches, dizziness, fatigue, or impaired sensory responses (Balaban, 1992). Sulphur dioxide contributes to the production of acid aerosols and acidic precipitation. Acid aerosols along with particulates such as soot from diesel exhaust have been linked to respiratory illness. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are precursors of ground-level ozone. NOx and VOCs have limited chronic or acute health effects associated with them [SCAQMD, 19891 with a few exceptions; nitrogen dioxide can combine with water to form nitric acid, an important component of atmospheric acidification, and some VOCs such as benzene are believed to be carcinogenic. Ground- level ozone is an odourless gas that results in short term respiratory effects in humans and increases the incidence or exacerbates the severity of asthma in sensitive sub- populations. Research findings on the effects of long term ozone exposure have been inconclusive to date.

Table 3 presents information on annual motor vehicle emissions in Poland. With the exception of sulphur dioxide and soot, motor vehicle emissions represent approximately one-quarter to one-third of total emissions of these pollutants

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Year

Source

Passenger cars

I I I I I I I i

1995 2000 2005 2010

I II I II I II I II

5,500 8,300 6,500 10,500 13,050 9,000 15,500

Source: Institute of Motor Transport, 1992 data from Bernhardt (1993).87 I

Buses

Trucks

Motorcycles

Tractors

~

I Table 2: Proiected Number of Motor Vehicles in Poland (’000’s) ~~ 1

79 79 82 83

1,205 1,280 1,530

1,100 1,0400 1,000 9 70

1,315 1,500 1,650

from all mobile and stationary sources in Poland. Sulphur dioxide emissions - primarily from diesel-powered vehicles - are slightly more than one percent of total sulphur dioxide

emissions in Poland. No information is available on total levels of soot emitted from all sources in Poland, but the quantity of soot emitted from motor vehicles is very small when compared to total particulate emissions. As a percentage of total emissions for the respective pollutants, mobile source emissions are quite low in Poland in comparison to the contribution of mobile sources in OECD member countries in Europe. In 1991, mobile sources in European OECD member countries represented 78% of total carbon monoxide emissions, 60% of total nitrogen oxide emissions, 50% of hydrocarbon emissions, and 4% of sulphur dioxide emissions (OECD, 1991). Mobile sources are smaller contributors on a percentage basis to total emissions in Poland for two main reasons: emissions of these pollutants from stationary sources in Poland are much higher than in other countries of Western Europe; and fewer vehicles are driven fewer miles.’

Aggregate emissions data provide only a general sense of the scale of the mobile source pollution problem. In Poland, as in most European countries, most of the motor vehicle emissions are concentrated in major urban areas or dispersed along heavily used highway systems. A small number of major highways carry the bulk of international and long haul commercial transport traffic in Poland. Typically, these major highways connect the large population centres of Poland and pass directly through or near city centres.

The most immediate mobile source concern is lead, a problem for which technical solutions are available and already implemented (see below). Carbon monoxide, NO, and hydrocarbons are primarily urban problems. In congested urban centres, carbon monoxide emissions per kilometer are approximately four times as high as for vehicles travelling 80 kmlhour. Thus, aggressive programmes will be needed simply to hold CO concentrations to their current levels (which exceed the standard for many months each year in Warsaw and Krakow). Sulphur dioxide and particulate emissions are important air pollution problems in Poland but the contribution of mobile sources to total emissions of these pollutants is quite limited.

POLICY OPTIONS

In 1990, the Polish Institute of Motor Transport prepared a report on options for limiting the negative impacts of mobile sources of air pollution.* The report recommended 34 actions between 1991 and 1995 covering a broad range of policies related to fuel quality, brake linings, emission standards for new vehicles, emission testing, and research. Additional actions would be required after 1995, but the report deferred making specific recommendations for the period 1996-2000 until harmonisation requirements for admission to the European Union could be clarified.

Many of the proposed actions have already been implemented. Reformulated fuels have been available from domestic suppliers for three years and asbestos brake linings have been banned and domestic production of asbestos-free

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@ MOBILE SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION IN POLAND

brake linings initiated. In November 1992, Poland ratified ten automotive environmental rules of the EU and began amending Polish laws and regulations accordingly. Four of these rules dealt with automobile emissions, four with vehicle noise, one with fuel formulations, and one with particulates and soot. All of these rules had been incorporated into Polish laws and regulations in the first half of 1993 with the exception of the requirement for catalytic converters for new domestically-produced and imported cars. These requirements take effect beginning July 1, 1995 (except for car$ with engines of less than 700 cm3 displacement like the Polish Fiat which have until January 1,1997 to satisfy the requirements).

While these initiatives will enable Poland to harmonise with EU directives for automobiles and heavier vehicles, pollution from mobile sources will continue to increase. In the short term, requirements for catalytic converters will have only a minor impact on aggregate emission levels because of the large number of older vehicles with high emissions (see Table 4). In the long run, vehicle emissions per litre of fuel wil l fall as older vehicles are retired. However, unless additional measures are implemented, the number of vehicles and miles travelled per vehicle will both increase, offsetting improvements in emission equipment. Further, the new rules do not address the problems of urban congestion. In the remainder of the paper, emerging problems are highlighted and policy options are discussed in relation to fuel quality, efficient and clean vehicles, fuel consumption and vehicle use and traffic management.

FUEL QUALITY

One of the major strategies for addressing certain types of emissions is to limit their content in fuel. For example, the amount of lead in petrol can be reduced through reformulation and substitution of other additives. Similarly, the sulphur content of diesel fuels can be reduced through reformulation. In Poland, unleaded petrol is now produced domestically and leaded petrol has been reformulated to reduce the lead content from 0.56 gm/litre to the EU standard of 0.15 gm/litre. In addition, Poland has adopted the current EU standard for sulphur in diesel fuels of 0.3% by weight (it is anticipated the EU will introduce a stricter standard for sulphur shortly).

Economic incentives can be used in several ways to stimulate the production of fuels that comply with the new standards, to develop fuels that exceed the standards, or to accelerate fuel switching to less polluting or ’ecological’ fuels. Production of reformulated fuels or ecological fuels can be stimulated through cost reduction measures such as subsidies, low interest loans, investment tax credits, or income or profits tax policy. Alternatively, retail price subsidies can be used to simultaneously encourage fuel switching and enable producers to cover costs.

Domestically produced unleaded petrol, at least initially, was 50% more costly to produce than leaded p e t r ~ l . ~ However, through differential excise taxes, Polish retailers have been able to price unleaded petrol slightly below the price of leaded petrol. The rate of fuel switching, however, i s more dependent on characteristics of vehicles than price

of fuel. Pricing of unleaded petrol below leaded petrol discourages uses of leaded petrol in cars designed to used unleaded fuel. However, increasing leaded gas prices even more, relative to unleaded prices, would have some undesirable equity effects, even if relative prices stimulate more new car purchases and reduce the demand for leaded petrol. Nevertheless, a gradual increase in tax on leaded fuel might be more acceptable and provide consumers with appropriate price signals in deciding whether to purchase vehicles that use unleaded petrol.

Poland also has introduced a tax reduction programme for producers of ’ecological’ fuels and developed a value added tax that is proportional to the sulphur content in diesel fuels. The value added tax has stimulated the production of diesel fuels with lower sulphur content. As a result of the incentives provided by the value added tax, a producer in Warsaw now offers diesel fuel with a sulphur content of only 0.2% by weight.

EFFICIENT AND CLEAN VEHlCLES

The cornerstone of most mobile source pollution programmes in developed and developing countries has been the introduction of tailpipe standards (catalytic converters) augmented by an inspection and maintenance (I&M) programme to ensure that technical emission control equipment on vehicles i s maintained properly. Catalytic converters have been in use in the U.S. and many OECD countries for the last decade. Beginning in 1993, new tailpipe emission standards for automobiles were introduced by the European Union, in effect requiring new cars sold in member countries to be equipped with catalytic converters. Used cars in EU countries will not be required to retrofit catalytic converters, in part because the costs are pro hi bi tivel y high .

Ultimately, these measures will lead to lower emissions from motor vehicles. However, new cars represent only about one-half of the new cars registered for the first time in Poland.4 Poland does not currently require used cars imported to Poland to have catalytic converters but limits imports to cars less than 10 years old. As a result of this current policy, cars with catalytic converters will represent a small proportion of motor vehicles in Poland for some time. Poland has recently taken an important step to curb the contribution of high emissions from used imported vehicles. As of July 1, 1995, imported used cars registered for the first time in Poland must be equipped with catalytic converters. This new policy has precedents in both OECD countries and CEE countries. For example, the United States prohibits the import of used or new cars that do not meet US. tailpipe standards (as well as other vehicle standards). To limit the import of high emission vehicles, Hungary now restricts imports to those vehicles equipped with catalytic converters and requires an emission sticker that i s valid (in the exporting country) for at least 6 months after the date of entry (Raucher, 1992). The new policy on used imports, while addressing the problem of ‘dirty’ cars, will reduce the supply of inexpensive used cars in Poland in the short run.

In the future, Poland’s options for reducing the number of old, high emission vehicles will be limited and costly. In

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Sulphur dioxide 62 61 50 54 54-59

Source: Institute of Transport. a - estimates based on fuel consumption; b - Bernhardt, (1993); c - estimates for 1989

I Table 4: Motor Vehicle Emissions in Poland Under Alternative Scenarios (’000’s of tons) I

Source: Institute of Motor Transoort (1990)

the US, ’buy back’ programmes have been tried on a limited basis in Southern California. In exchange for emission credits, corporations purchase and scrap older high emission vehicles. While these buy back programmes have some appeal, there are some technical problems in determining or estimating the amount of emission reductions (how many additional miles would the vehicles have been driven before they would have been retired by the owner). The final alternative for targeting older and/or high emission vehicles i s the use of higher registration fees for older vehicle^.^ Many view such an option as highly regressive (lower income households own older vehicles). In addition, to have an effect on behavior, such fees must be high enough to result in substitution of newer vehictes or alternative modes of transportation.

The other type of vehicles which have received attention are buses used in urban areas. Standards for urban bus emissions have been introduced in the United States and other countries have assessed or implemented programmes to require diesel engine replacement or use of turbochargers [Kaderjak, 19921. Less attention has been focused on emission controls for diesel-powered vehicles in Poland. On a limited basis, individual municipalities are looking at clean diesel buses. The increasing availability of domestically- produced low sulphur diesel fuels should stimulate purchases of low emission buses.

FUEL CONSUMPTION AND THE USE OF VEHICLES

Measures for discouraging the consumption of fuel and or use of vehicles can be divided into two groups: those policies which increase the costs of operating motor

vehicles; and those policies which make other forms of transportation such as public modes or bicycles more attractive.

There are three primary methods for increasing the relative cost of operating a vehicle. First, fuel taxes can be implemented. In the short term, fuel demand tends to be highly inelastic for small changes in price. If price changes are viewed as permanent, long term demand may respond to price increases resulting from a tax increase. Fuel taxes may encourage the use of more fuel-efficient vehicles and substitution for public transportation, depending on its relative cost and convenience. Generally, fuel taxes must be large to contribute significantly to emission reductions. In Western European countries, taxes alone on petrol exceeded the retail price of petrol in Poland in 1993: $2.86 in France, $3.06 in Italy, $2.26 in the UK, and $2.62 in Germany (Smith, ? 994).

Vehicles can also be taxed according to their expected consumption of fuel. For example, a gas ‘guzzler’ tax on the purchase price of a car with poor fuel efficiency has bzen considered in the US. From a mobile source emissions perspective, taxes related to fuel efficiency may have l i t le impact on emissions, assuming these luxury cars me?t tailpipe standards (in .ms/mile rather than per gallon of fuel,. If the goal i s to reduce emissions, a direct tax on emission:. would be more effective. If vehicles are inspected annually, the fee could be based on the vehicle’s emission rating and the distance travelled during the prLJious year. At least the emission factor would be viewed as regressive, although multiplying the emission factor by the number of miles travelled lessens the regressivity. Alternatively, similar to a progressive income tax scheme, higher rates could be

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49 MOMLE SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION IN POLAND

employed for higher levels of vehicle miles traveled (VMT). The third type of mechanism would be vehicle use taxes

such as tolls on limited access roads. While these taxes can be used to finance road construction and maintenance and limit congestion, they primarily influence the selection of routes and the timing of travel rather than VMT unless their use is ubiquitous.

The other set of policy instruments for influencing the use of vehicles are those options designed to make public transportation or alternative modes of travel more attractive. Central and Eastern European countries already have extensive intercity rail networks and large urban areas are served by buses, trams, and in a few cities by subway systems. Many of these systems require refurbishing (replacement of rai Is and tracks, construction of stations, replacement of trains, cars, trams, and buses). Competitive pricing and effective scheduling and design of routes will enhance ridership. Currently, many public transportation systems are subsidised. From an efficiency perspective, it would be desirable to price transit according to i ts marginal or average costs. However, pricing based on the full social costs of other modes of transportation would need to be implemented simultaneously so as to avoid distortions in the vehicle use decision. To stimulate greater use of bicycles, bicycle paths and storage facilities must be developed. Even then, bicycles will only be used for certain types of trips.

Like many CEE countries, Poland has relatively low petrol prices compared to EU countries. However, i f petrol prices are considered in the context of per capita incomes, they are quite similar. increasing the tax on petrol in Poland is not likely to have much impact on fuel consumption for a couple of reasons. First, the price of substitutes (public transportation) i s already substantially lower. Thus, the rapid growth in the number of privatevehicles and vehicle miles travelled i s occurring despite the higher fixed and variable costs. The reasons for the growth in vehicle demand relate more to rising incomes and the added convenience of private vehicles than to their cost. As a result, a tax surcharge may have only a small impact on fuel consumption. The major long term effect of a permanent fuel surcharge wil l be to encourage the use of more fuel-efficient vehicles; substitution of public transportation modes or use of bicycles wil l not be attractive to or practical for many segments of the population. However, fuel surcharges could provide an important source of revenue for financing infrastructure development and renovations. While new, safer roads wil l be needed, it i s important also to maintain and improve the public transportation infrastructure. Construction of new roads through and around large urban areas needs to be coordinated with public transportation development and local policies designed to address congestion problems and even plans to develop the urban fringe of cities. The US experience with perimeter or ring roads designed to alleviate urban congestion has not been encouraging. While these perimeters roads initially provide relief to urban congestion, they also stimulate both residential and commercial development in their vicinity and facilitate residential growth at greater distances from the urban centre. Eventually, the perimeter roads are as congested as the urban roads they were designed to replace.

TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

Congestion and air pollution in urban areas are two of the most difficult problems to address. All of the large cities of Europe have serious congestion problems. Some of the policies for achieving these goals fall into the category of reducing vehicle use. However, traffic management policy are more targeted than the vehicle use policies discussed earlier and include a hodgepodge of regulations, infrastructure investments, and economic incentives.

Regulatory approaches include options such as alternate drive days and no vehicle or restricted vehicle use zones. Milan has banned vehicles in the historic center during business hours since 1985. In Mexico City, entry into the central business district is limited according to the licence plate number. In Singapore and Krakow, area licencing schemes are used to limit the type of vehicles entering the central part of the city at certain times (Peszko, 1993). Infrastructure improvements such as computerized traffic light systems and road improvements can reduce congestion. As pointed out earlier, transit improvements can encourage shifts in the mode of transportation.

A variety of economic incentives can be used to influence trip decisions and reduce congestion. Examples include rush hour congestion tolls, high occupancy vehicles lanes or roads, and high parking fees for vehicles entering or leaving parking lots during peak rush hours. In California, a variety of programmes have tried to encourage workers to carpool and use alternative modes of transportation including preferential parking places for carpools and purchase of bicycles for employees, provision of bicycle storage facilities, and even showers and changing rooms.

Another type of economic incentive that has been explored for use in congested areas is the use of tradeable permits. One approach, proposed by Peszko (1 993), would combine a trading mechanism to an area licensing scheme. Policy makers would allocate an initial number of area licenses, giving full consideration to air pollution and congestion considerations. These licenses would allow travel in designated areas. Although a number of allocation schemes might be used to distribute these permits, Peszko proposes an auction (with grandfathering provisions for emergency vehicles or handicapped vehicles). Thereafter, these licenses would be fully transferable. A second variation proposed by Cameron (1991) would entail tradeable travel permits in Southern California. Although there would be some technical hurdles to overcome, the basic idea would be to grant commuters monthly allowance of highway time. The ‘cost’ of a trip would depend on the distance travelled, the selection of a route, and the time of day. Each time a commuter entered a freeway, a trip card would record the time and location. Upon leaving the freeway system, a trip cost would be calculated. Each commuter would receive the same allowance each month. Cameron envisions a market developing which would allow demanders and suppliers of excess allowances to complete transactions.

With the exception of Krakow‘s area licensing scheme, the use of traffic management policies appears to be limited in Poland at the present time to infrastructure improvements and some restrictions on vehicle access or parking on certain

EU ROP EAN ENVl RONMENT 13

GLEN ANDERSON @ streets in shopping or historical districts. Warsaw will introduce differential parking fees in January 1995, with higher fees charged for parking in the central business district. As the volume of traffic in Poland’s largest cities increases, there wil l be .increasing need for traffic management controls at the municipal level. Part of the solution to congestion problems in cities like Warsaw - in addition to parking fees -wi l l include new roads, completion of the subway system (in Warsaw), and improvements in public transportation modes. However, these large urban areas may need to explore more cost-effective options for limiting traffic in the central business district and encouraging off-peak deliveries and trips into congested areas. To identify cost-effective strategies for addressing urban congestion and pollution problems, local officials must work with environmental and public works agencies at the national and regional level. Because of the lead time necessary to implement infrastructure programmes, development of urban strategies cannot be postponed, given the growing demand for private vehicles in Poland.

CONCLUSIONS

Poland has taken some important steps toward addressing mobile source emissions. Wider distribution of unleaded petrol and reduction of the lead content in leaded petrol will lead to a rapid reduction in lead emissions from mobile sources. Poland‘s plans to implement EU tailpipe emissions standards beginning in mid 1995 will contribute to a gradual improvement in emissions per vehicle. However, the dramatic increase in the number of vehicles anticipated over the next decade wil l negate or offset the potential benefits of mobile source policies in Poland. In addition, the national mobile source programmeme does not address the air pollution and traffic congestion problems of Poland’s largest cities.

An effective longer term strategy for reducing vehicle emissions wil l need to retard the rate of growth of vehicles and miles travelled. Inevitably through a combination of fiscal measures such as higher fuel surcharges and vehicle taxes and infrastructure investments in publica transportation. Solving the conundrum of urban congestion wil l involve hard choices for local transportation planners and government officials in Poland. Large cities through,out OECD countries - while making progress on many fronts - have been stymied in their efforts to improve traffic flow and travel times for private vehicles. Polish cities may want to consider options such as limiting access of private vehicles to city centres, limiting or increasing the cost of parking or using road tolls (all of which are unpopular with motorists and retail businesses). Policies to limit or discourage trips to the city centre must be coordinated with improvements in the convenience of alternative modes of transportation.

FOOTNOTES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1. In a recent study, Margaret Walls of Resources for the Future, Inc. determined that private vehicle ownership per thousand people averaged 142 for the Central and Eastern European countties of Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, and the Czech and Slovakia Republics;

about 40% of the ratio in countries of Western Europe. In addition, cars in these five countries are driven about 112 as many miles per year as cars in the United States.

2. A shorter summary of the report’s findings and the proposed activities was prepared by Bernhardt for the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Natural Resources in 1991.

3. Personal correspondence with Andrzej Sieminski, Department of Air Protectiol., Polish Ministry of Environmental Protection.

4. In 1991, 734,885 cars were registered for the first time in Poland. Of this total, 52% were used imports and 17% were new imports, and 31 70 were new domestically-produced cars.

5. Poland’s import duties are higher for older cars than for newer cars (assuming the same value).

Financial support for this paper was provided by the US Agency for International Development through a cooperative agreement with the Harvard Institute for International Development. Helpful comments on an earlier draft were provided by Grzegorz Peszko.

REFERENCES

1. Balaban, V. (1 992) Automotive Air Pollution Policies in CSFR and Hungary, Unpublished Paper.

2. Bernhardt, M. (1993) ‘Time for aTune Up’, Warsaw Voice, October. 3. Cameron, M. (1 991 1, Transportation Efficiency: Tackling Southern

California’s Air Pollution and Congestion, Environmental Defense Fund, Regional Institute of Southern California, March.

4. lnstytut Transportu Samochodowego (1990), ’Opracowanie programmeu ograniczenia szkodliwego oddzialywania motoryzacji na Jrodowisko, Warszawa, May.

5. Kaderjak, P. (1992), A Study on Mobile 5ource Air Pollution Problems in Hungary, Budapest University of Economics, August.

6. Krupnick, A. (1991) ‘Transportation and Air Pollution in Urban Areas of Developed and Developing Countries’, Discussion Paper, Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C., January.

7. Ministerstwo Ochrony Srodowiska, Zasob6w Naturalnych i .LeSnictwa (1 991) Programme przedsiewziec prowadzacych do ograniczenia szkodliwego oddzialywania motoryzacji na Srodowisko, Warszawa, April.

8. OECD (1991) Environmental Data Compendium, OECD, Paris. 9. Peszko; G . (1993) Tradeable Area Licencing: Effectiveness and

Efficiency of Traffic Restraint and Modal Shift, The Case of Cracow, London, July.

10. Konsultingowe Biuro Uslug PRO-EKO (1 993) Prognoza Rozwoju Motoryzacji w Polsce w latach 1993-2010, for Zaklad lnzynierii Srodowiska, Warszawa, February.

1. Raucher, R., Lula, C., and Trabka,E. (1 992) A Benefit-Cost Analysis of Mobile Source Emission Control Options Under the Auto Fuel Charge Proposal for Hungary, U.S. Agency for International Development; Washington, D.C., May 18.

2. Smith R. (1994) ’Taxes on Motor Vehicles and Their Use in the . European Community - Environmentally Sensitive Trends?’ Paper

presented at the International lnstitute of Public Finance Conference, August 22-25.

13. South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD) and Southern California Association of Governments (1 989) Draft I988 Air Quality h.:iagement Plan.

14. Walls, M. (199~, Motor Vehicles and Pollution in Central and Eastern Europe, Unb !dished Paper Resources For the Future, Inc., Washington D.C.

Glen Anderson is a Project Associate with Harvard Institute for International Development and Special Environmental Policy Adviser in the Polish Ministry of Environmental Protection, Natural Resources and Forestry, Wawelska 52/54, Warsaw, Poland, 00-922. Tel: +48 2225 0001 Fax: +48 2225 4784.

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