Adapting to green agricultural economy: experiences from ... · A banana grown in a zai pit in Kandara area County pits are holes with a diameter of 20 10-20 cm (dimensions vary according

Basic Research Journal of Agricultural Science Available online http//www.basicresearchjournals.orgCopyright ©2015 Basic Research Journal

Full Length Research Paper

Adapting to green agricultural economy: experiences from small-scale farmers in Murang’a County in Kenya

Department of Tourism And Hospitality Management, Karatina University, P.O. Box 1957 Karatina, Kenya

Email: [email protected]/

Kenya is prone to frequent droughts that are occasionally followed by flash floods. With agriculture being the mainstay of the economy, droughts and floods results in frequent loss of livelihoods and chronic food insecurity forcing farmers to adopt variousuptake of green agricultural economy strategies in Murang’a County in Kenya. The objectives of the study were (i) to establish the form of green agricultural economy adopted (ii) to examine the socioeconomic and environmental benefits of the adopted strategies. A total of 48 farmers from eight sub-counties of Murang’a and two key informants were interviewed. The study established that all farmers practiced at least one form of green agriculture ranging from consmulching, use of zai pits, and minimum tillage to practices that enhanced food production such as use of organic farm manure and value addition. Also some of the practices adopted such as growing of fruit trees and other types of trees mitigated climate change. From the green agricultural practices, farmers achieved socioeconomic benefits which included selfthrough sale of fruits and fodder and conserved the environment by reducing landsthe amount of CO2 sequestered. From the findings the study concluded that the practice of green economy in the County was affordable and enhanced household income and food security in a sustainable way. The study therefore recommends edevelopment of new strategies that are suitable and affordable to the smallbuilding towards this end will enhance the adaptation rate. Keywords: climate variability, adaptation, green agric

INTRODUCTION Agriculture is key to economic development in Africa accounting for 30 – 40% of the Africa’s total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) compared to 3.2% of the global GDP (Wani, et al., 2009). In Africa, agriculture supports the livelihoods of over 80% and provides employment to over 60% of her population. The potential of reducing poverty in Africa through agriculture is twice compared to all other sectors of the economy. Unfortunately, about 66% of the continent has arid and semi

Published by Basic Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Review

Basic Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Review ISSN 2315-6880 Vol. 4(9) pp. 280-288 September 2015Available online http//www.basicresearchjournals.org

Adapting to green agricultural economy: experiences scale farmers in Murang’a County in Kenya

Julius M. Huho

f Tourism And Hospitality Management, Karatina University, P.O. Box 1957 Karatina, Kenya

Email: [email protected]/ [email protected]

Accepted 20 September 2015

ABSTRACT

Kenya is prone to frequent droughts that are occasionally followed by flash floods. With agriculture being the mainstay of the economy, droughts and floods results in frequent loss of livelihoods and chronic food insecurity forcing farmers to adopt various survival strategies. This study examined the uptake of green agricultural economy strategies in Murang’a County in Kenya. The objectives of the study were (i) to establish the form of green agricultural economy adopted (ii) to examine the

d environmental benefits of the adopted strategies. A total of 48 farmers from eight counties of Murang’a and two key informants were interviewed. The study established that all

farmers practiced at least one form of green agriculture ranging from conservation agriculture namely mulching, use of zai pits, and minimum tillage to practices that enhanced food production such as use of organic farm manure and value addition. Also some of the practices adopted such as growing of fruit

f trees mitigated climate change. From the green agricultural practices, farmers achieved socioeconomic benefits which included self-food reliance, enhanced income generation through sale of fruits and fodder and conserved the environment by reducing lands

sequestered. From the findings the study concluded that the practice of green economy in the County was affordable and enhanced household income and food security in a sustainable way. The study therefore recommends enhancement of the existing practices and development of new strategies that are suitable and affordable to the small-scale farmers. Capacity building towards this end will enhance the adaptation rate.

climate variability, adaptation, green agricultural economy, Murang’a County

Agriculture is key to economic development in Africa 40% of the Africa’s total Gross

Domestic Product (GDP) compared to 3.2% of the global GDP (Wani, et al., 2009). In Africa, agriculture supports the livelihoods of over 80% and provides employment to

tial of reducing poverty in Africa through agriculture is twice compared to all other sectors of the economy. Unfortunately, about 66% of the continent has arid and semi-arid climates

making the continent prone to vagaries of climate change threatening economic development of the continent. Between 1970 and 2006, for example, droughts accounted for 20% of all the natural disasters in Africa disrupting the livelihood sources of over 80% of the population (Ayoti, 2008). Like in other counties of Africa, agriculture remains the backbone of the economy of Kenya contributing to about 25% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), supporting over 80% of the population


September 2015

Adapting to green agricultural economy: experiences scale farmers in Murang’a County in Kenya

f Tourism And Hospitality Management, Karatina University, P.O. Box 1957 Karatina, Kenya

Kenya is prone to frequent droughts that are occasionally followed by flash floods. With agriculture being the mainstay of the economy, droughts and floods results in frequent loss of livelihoods and

survival strategies. This study examined the uptake of green agricultural economy strategies in Murang’a County in Kenya. The objectives of the study were (i) to establish the form of green agricultural economy adopted (ii) to examine the

d environmental benefits of the adopted strategies. A total of 48 farmers from eight counties of Murang’a and two key informants were interviewed. The study established that all

ervation agriculture namely mulching, use of zai pits, and minimum tillage to practices that enhanced food production such as use of organic farm manure and value addition. Also some of the practices adopted such as growing of fruit

f trees mitigated climate change. From the green agricultural practices, farmers food reliance, enhanced income generation

through sale of fruits and fodder and conserved the environment by reducing landslides and increasing sequestered. From the findings the study concluded that the practice of green

economy in the County was affordable and enhanced household income and food security in a nhancement of the existing practices and

scale farmers. Capacity

making the continent prone to vagaries of climate change nomic development of the continent.

Between 1970 and 2006, for example, droughts accounted for 20% of all the natural disasters in Africa disrupting the livelihood sources of over 80% of the population (Ayoti, 2008). Like in other counties of Africa,

ulture remains the backbone of the economy of Kenya contributing to about 25% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), supporting over 80% of the population

Figure 1.

and employing about 70% of the population directly or indirectly. As such agriculture and food security has been one of the key areas that have received a lot of attention with regard to climate change in Kenya by National Climate Change Response Strategy (Government of Kenya (GOK), 2010). With the current population of about 43 million, two in every three rural smallobserve that the land they own is not sufficient to meet the family needs (Population Reference Bureau, 2011). Coupled with the effects of climate change where frequent drought and flash flood episodes have been experienced, poverty levels have been escalating particularly in the arid and semi-arid areas. The search for alternative source of livelihood has triggered opening of new land for farming in previous vegetated and forested areas. Thus agriculture plays contradicting role where on one hand it propels economic development while on the other hand, it leads to destruction of environment through the emission of greenhouse gasesHowever, moving towards green economy has been identified as the best strategy for sustainable livelihood sources (Cameron and Stuart, 2012). One way of improving livelihoods is through green agricultural economy. That is, engaging in activities that redenvironmental impact of agriculture to levels that are sustainable, preserve or restore the quality of the environment while at the same time meet the needs of a society. It is against this background that this study focused on the green agricultural practices adopted by small-scale farmers in Murang’a County in Kenya and the resultant socioeconomic and environmental benefits. Objectives The main objectives of the study were to:


Figure 1. Location and size of Murang’a County

and employing about 70% of the population directly or indirectly. As such agriculture and food security has been one of the key areas that have received a lot of attention with regard to climate change in Kenya by National

(Government of Kenya (GOK), 2010). With the current population of about 43 million, two in every three rural small-scale farmers observe that the land they own is not sufficient to meet the family needs (Population Reference Bureau, 2011).

effects of climate change where frequent drought and flash flood episodes have been experienced, poverty levels have been escalating

arid areas. The search for alternative source of livelihood has triggered opening

land for farming in previous vegetated and forested areas. Thus agriculture plays contradicting role where on one hand it propels economic development while on the other hand, it leads to destruction of environment through the emission of greenhouse gases. However, moving towards green economy has been identified as the best strategy for sustainable livelihood sources (Cameron and Stuart, 2012). One way of improving livelihoods is through green agricultural economy. That is, engaging in activities that reduce the environmental impact of agriculture to levels that are sustainable, preserve or restore the quality of the environment while at the same time meet the needs of a society. It is against this background that this study

al practices adopted by scale farmers in Murang’a County in Kenya and the

resultant socioeconomic and environmental benefits.

1. Establish the various formeconomy.

2. Analyze the socio-economic and environmental benefits of green agricultural economy in Murang’a County.

Study Area and Methodology Murang’a County is located in eastern slopes of the Aberdare Ranges in the central parts of Kenya with an average altitude of about 1,255m above sea level and covering an area of 2,558kmNyandarua County to the West, Embu to the East, Nyeri to the North, Kiambu to the South, Machakos to the Southeast and Kirinyaga to the Northeast (has a total population of about 942,581 in about 255,696households translating into a 524 persons/kmCounty possess a transition climate which varies from semi-arid in southeastern part to humid in the northern part. Annual rainfall ranges betweewhich occurs in two seasons, the short rains (between October and December) and the long rains (Between March and May). The County has an agroeconomy with over 80% of the households depending on agriculture and the associated actiannual and inter seasonal variations in climate, incidents of food insecurity are recurrent particularly in the drier parts of Makuyu, Kambiti, Maragwa ridge, Muthithi, Gaichanjiru, Kakuzi, Ithanga and Githuuri Locations. Most parts of the County have steep slopes hence landslides are experienced in some of the parts during the rainy season. As a result, the County poverty level stands at 28.9%. Data for the study was obtained in Murang’acentral parts of Kenya through structured and in


Huho. 281

Establish the various forms of green agricultural

economic and environmental benefits of green agricultural economy in Murang’a

Study Area and Methodology

Murang’a County is located in eastern slopes of the Aberdare Ranges in the central parts of Kenya with an

e of about 1,255m above sea level and covering an area of 2,558km

2. The County borders

Nyandarua County to the West, Embu to the East, Nyeri to the North, Kiambu to the South, Machakos to the Southeast and Kirinyaga to the Northeast (Figure 1). It has a total population of about 942,581 in about 255,696households translating into a 524 persons/km

2.

County possess a transition climate which varies from arid in southeastern part to humid in the northern

part. Annual rainfall ranges between 1200 and 1600mm which occurs in two seasons, the short rains (between October and December) and the long rains (Between March and May). The County has an agro-based economy with over 80% of the households depending on agriculture and the associated activities. With high inter annual and inter seasonal variations in climate, incidents of food insecurity are recurrent particularly in the drier parts of Makuyu, Kambiti, Maragwa ridge, Muthithi, Gaichanjiru, Kakuzi, Ithanga and Githuuri Locations. Most

s of the County have steep slopes hence landslides are experienced in some of the parts during the rainy season. As a result, the County poverty level stands at

Data for the study was obtained in Murang’a County in central parts of Kenya through structured and in-depth

282. Basic Res. J. Agric. Sci. Rev.

Figure 2.

interviews. A total of 50 respondents (48 farmer respondents and 2 Key Informants) were interviewed. From each of the eight sub-counties, six farmer respondents were randomly sampled. The Key Informants were County Executive Commissioner (Minister) for agriculture and County ecosystem conservator. Content analysis was used in analyzing qualitative data while simple summary statistics were used to analyze quantitative data. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The semi-arid to humid climates of Murang’aresult in a mix of extreme climatic events with frequent droughts occurring in the semi-arid regions and occasional floods and landslides in humid areas. Both extremes disrupt the economy of the County particularly through their effects on agriculture. To cope with the harsh climatic conditions, farmers adopted various green agricultural practices. These are the agricultural activities that sought to increase agricultural production while at the same time reducing the negative or elimination of negative externalities caused by the conventional agriculture and preserving the environment. Green agricultural practices Zai pits The zai or planting pits were not widely spread although some few farmers had adopted their use. Typically, zai


Figure 2. A banana grown in a zai pit in Kandara area

interviews. A total of 50 respondents (48 farmer were interviewed.

counties, six farmer respondents were randomly sampled. The Key Informants were County Executive Commissioner (Minister) for agriculture and County ecosystem conservator. Content analysis was used in analyzing qualitative data while simple summary statistics were

arid to humid climates of Murang’a County result in a mix of extreme climatic events with frequent

arid regions and occasional floods and landslides in humid areas. Both extremes disrupt the economy of the County particularly

ure. To cope with the harsh climatic conditions, farmers adopted various green agricultural practices. These are the agricultural activities that sought to increase agricultural production while at the same time reducing the negative or elimination of

tive externalities caused by the conventional agriculture and preserving the environment.

The zai or planting pits were not widely spread although some few farmers had adopted their use. Typically, zai

pits are holes with a diameter of 2010-20 cm (dimensions vary according to the type of soil) where seeds are planted. The pit is usually, filled with organic matter. It captures rain and surface runoff, protects seeds and organic matter from bconcentrates nutrients together (Essama, 2005). Due to prolonged period of water retention, more water infiltrates increasing the duration of wet conditions in the pits. In Murang’a County, the pits were commonly used by all farmers in planting of bananas (main reason was to preserve moisture for the seedling, the pits were also used to control the gushing runoff through their farmland. In very few instances, some farmers grew arrow roots in zai pits. Roof rainwater waused for growing of arrow roots. Minimum and zero tillage Minimum and zero tillage systems involves very little or no soil disturbance during the preparation for suitable seedbed. That is, the soil is worked very little or not at all before sowing is done and thus the soil is not inverted. The aim is to conserve soil moisture, reduce labour costs and minimize erosion. Studies have shown that minimum tillage reduces labour requirements from smallfarmers by more than 50% for crop production (FAO, 2015). The practice was not very popular in the County but it was practiced by isolated farmers in Kaharati and Makuyu areas. Poor uptake of the practice was due to lack of information and knowledge about it. In most cases minimum or no tillage resulted from late preparation of land for planting making farmers associa


holes with a diameter of 20-40 cm and a depth of 20 cm (dimensions vary according to the type of soil)

where seeds are planted. The pit is usually, filled with organic matter. It captures rain and surface runoff, protects seeds and organic matter from being eroded and concentrates nutrients together (Essama, 2005). Due to prolonged period of water retention, more water infiltrates increasing the duration of wet conditions in the pits. In Murang’a County, the pits were commonly used by all

ting of bananas (Figure 2). Whereas the main reason was to preserve moisture for the seedling, the pits were also used to control the gushing runoff through their farmland. In very few instances, some farmers grew arrow roots in zai pits. Roof rainwater was sed for growing of arrow roots.

Minimum and zero tillage systems involves very little or no soil disturbance during the preparation for suitable seedbed. That is, the soil is worked very little or not at all before sowing is done and thus the soil is not inverted.

soil moisture, reduce labour costs and minimize erosion. Studies have shown that minimum tillage reduces labour requirements from small-scale farmers by more than 50% for crop production (FAO, 2015). The practice was not very popular in the County

as practiced by isolated farmers in Kaharati and Makuyu areas. Poor uptake of the practice was due to lack of information and knowledge about it. In most cases minimum or no tillage resulted from late preparation of land for planting making farmers associate it with

Figure 3.

Figure 4. An intercrop of Maize, cassava, mangoes and bananas

laziness. The uptake of this practice by the few farmers was emanated from farmers training. In Kaharati area for instance, one farmer, who had undergone a capacity building training on conservation agriculture championed the practice in the area by training members in one of the self-help group. Mulching Mulching involves covering the ground with organic matter such as leaves, straw, or peat to reduce evaporation, maintain even soil temperature, prevent erosion, control weeds, and enrich soil with nutrients. It is very simple and cheap to practice . Mulchipracticed in Makuyu area (Figure 3), one of the driest areas in the County. In this area, farmers were trained on soil water conservation through mulching by Anglican Development Services (ADS) through "Farming God’sWay" initiative. However, only few farmers had adopted


Figure 3. Croplands covered with mulch in Makuyu area

An intercrop of Maize, cassava, mangoes and bananas

laziness. The uptake of this practice by the few farmers was emanated from farmers training. In Kaharati area for instance, one farmer, who had undergone a capacity building training on conservation agriculture championed

ng members in one of the

Mulching involves covering the ground with organic matter such as leaves, straw, or peat to reduce evaporation, maintain even soil temperature, prevent erosion, control weeds, and enrich soil with nutrients. It is very simple and cheap to practice . Mulching was

3), one of the driest areas in the County. In this area, farmers were trained on soil water conservation through mulching by Anglican Development Services (ADS) through "Farming God’s

ew farmers had adopted

this strategy. Intercropping Intercropping was the most common form of rainfarming in the County. Except in tea and coffee plantations, intercropping was practiced in all other cultivated land. Farmers rated intercroppiaffordable and reliable form of insurance against food insecurity. Except for maize, beans and bananas which were intercropped in all farms, other intercrops varied slightly from one area to the other depending on the climatic conditions. In the wetter areas, farmers mostly intercropped maize, beans, bananas and potatoes, while in the drier areas intercrops of maize, beans, bananas, lablab bean, cassava, sweet potatoes and cow peas were common. Most of the intercrops in the dry areas involved growing of drought resistant crops (

Bananas were grown in the entire County but more


Huho. 283

Intercropping was the most common form of rain-fed crop farming in the County. Except in tea and coffee plantations, intercropping was practiced in all other cultivated land. Farmers rated intercropping as the most affordable and reliable form of insurance against food insecurity. Except for maize, beans and bananas which were intercropped in all farms, other intercrops varied slightly from one area to the other depending on the

the wetter areas, farmers mostly intercropped maize, beans, bananas and potatoes, while in the drier areas intercrops of maize, beans, bananas, lablab bean, cassava, sweet potatoes and cow peas were common. Most of the intercrops in the dry areas

growing of drought resistant crops (Figure 4). Bananas were grown in the entire County but more

284. Basic Res. J. Agric. Sci. Rev.

Figure 5. A section of cropland with soil covered with animal manure

predominant in wetter areas. Growing of cover crops Sweet potato vines and leguminous crops were the most common types of cover crops. In promoting the growing of cover crops, the County government had provided farmers with sweet potato vines which acted not only as cover crops but also as drought tolerant crops. A total of 6,000 farmers, particularly in the drier parts of County had been provided with the Orange Fresh sweet potato vines. Other drought tolerant crops provided to farmers were cow peas, and lablab bean, green grams and Katumani beans. This was geared towards cautioning farmers against food insecurity, improving soil fertility being leguminous crops while at the same time acting as cover crops.

Nappier grass was grown by almost all farmers in the County. In addition to farmers individual efforts, the County government had provided 13,000 farmers with top quality high protein Kakamega I and II varieties of nappier grass seedlings. Each farmer that was provided with the nappier grass was to redistribute to three more farmersuntil all farmers were covered. The purpose of providing farmers with nappier grass was twofold: first to provide adequate fodder for dairy cows and secondly, nappier grass was meant to control soil erosion. High protein variety of desmodium crop was also given to farmers. In addition to being a fodder crop, desmodium acted as a cover crop reducing the rate of soil erosion. Farmers who didn’t have livestock sold their nappier grass to livestock farmers, particularly from Kiambu County. Use of organic manure The use of organic manure was largely embraced by


A section of cropland with soil covered with animal manure

Sweet potato vines and leguminous crops were the most common types of cover crops. In promoting the growing of cover crops, the County government had provided farmers with sweet potato vines which acted not only as

lso as drought tolerant crops. A total of 6,000 farmers, particularly in the drier parts of County had been provided with the Orange Fresh sweet potato vines. Other drought tolerant crops provided to farmers were cow peas, and lablab bean, green grams and Katumani beans. This was geared towards cautioning farmers against food insecurity, improving soil fertility being leguminous crops while at the same time acting as

Nappier grass was grown by almost all farmers in the rmers individual efforts, the

County government had provided 13,000 farmers with top quality high protein Kakamega I and II varieties of nappier grass seedlings. Each farmer that was provided with the nappier grass was to redistribute to three more farmers until all farmers were covered. The purpose of providing farmers with nappier grass was twofold: first to provide adequate fodder for dairy cows and secondly, nappier grass was meant to control soil erosion. High protein

given to farmers. In addition to being a fodder crop, desmodium acted as a cover crop reducing the rate of soil erosion. Farmers who didn’t have livestock sold their nappier grass to livestock

The use of organic manure was largely embraced by

farmers in the County (Figurefertilizers were also used, the rate at which animal and compost manure was used was comparatively higher. This was attributed to two main reasons, (i) organic manure was readily available at no cost and (ii) it improves soil fertility in an environmental friendly way. It was a common practice especially where farmers practiced mixed farming. The remnants of animal feeds were strewn in animal sheds where they were trampled on by livestock for a period of time forming organic manure. In some instances, farmers made compost manure from the mixture of dry crop matter and animal dung. Farmers indicated that where organic manure was used, very little artificial fertilizers were used. Agroforestry Farmers in the County had embraced tree planting leading to an estimated forest cover of about 15% in 2015. Every year, farmers planted between 6 and 7 million seedlings most of which were exotic trees. According to the 2008 development plan, out of the 300,000 farmers in Murang’a County, 110,000 (36.7%) were categorized as forestry farmers since their farms had more than 50% tree cover. All other farmers had trees in their farmlands but at lower percentages. Although there were various types of trees growntypes predominated. These included Silk Oak Robusta) (Figure 6), Blue gum (E. salgna), Mango (Mangifera indica(persea Americana) trees. Silk oak was the most planted type of tree in the County mainly tand coffee crops and to mark farm boundaries. In addition, silk oak is now used as a source of timber after the ban on forest logging by the Kenya government. Pockets of blue gum trees (Eucalyptus grandis and E. salgna) were also evident in the County. To a large


Figure 5). Although artificial fertilizers were also used, the rate at which animal and compost manure was used was comparatively higher.

o two main reasons, (i) organic manure was readily available at no cost and (ii) it improves soil fertility in an environmental friendly way. It was a common practice especially where farmers practiced mixed farming. The remnants of animal feeds

n in animal sheds where they were trampled on by livestock for a period of time forming organic manure. In some instances, farmers made compost manure from the mixture of dry crop matter and animal dung. Farmers indicated that where organic manure was

, very little artificial fertilizers were used.

Farmers in the County had embraced tree planting leading to an estimated forest cover of about 15% in 2015. Every year, farmers planted between 6 and 7 million seedlings most of which were exotic trees. According to the 2008 development plan, out of the

0,000 farmers in Murang’a County, 110,000 (36.7%) were categorized as forestry farmers since their farms had more than 50% tree cover. All other farmers had trees in their farmlands but at lower percentages. Although there were various types of trees grown, four types predominated. These included Silk Oak (Grevillea

6), Blue gum (Eucalyptus grandis and (Mangifera indica) and Avocado

trees. Silk oak was the most planted type of tree in the County mainly to provide shade for tea and coffee crops and to mark farm boundaries. In addition, silk oak is now used as a source of timber after the ban on forest logging by the Kenya government.

Eucalyptus grandis and E. ident in the County. To a large

Figure 6. Silk oak trees growing in farmland in Murang’a County

Figure 7. Overgrown fruit trees behind the farmhouse increasing forest cover

extent, the blue gum trees were introduced as a substitute when coffee market deteriorated and prices went down. These trees were largely grown as woodlots providing fuelwood used in tea factories in and outside the County.

Both the Silk oak and Blue gum trees are today grown largely for economic purposes. They are therefore frequently harvested leading to a slow rate of increase in forest cover of less than 1% per year. The rate of deforestation is almost equal to rate of tree planting. This is occasioned by high demand for fuelwood in tea factories, source of energy in 95% of the households and the sale of timber. On average, these trees are harvested at the age of 10 -11 years. About 25 trucks (equivalent of 7 tons) of timber and fuelwood are transported County every day. The bulk of the timber is transported to Thika Town while fuelwood is sold to the neighbouring tea factories. In addition, several other tons of timber and fuelwood, which do not require government permit to be transported, get extracted from the County every day.


Silk oak trees growing in farmland in Murang’a County

Overgrown fruit trees behind the farmhouse increasing

extent, the blue gum trees were introduced as a substitute when coffee market deteriorated and prices went down. These trees were largely grown as woodlots providing fuelwood used in tea factories in and outside

rees are today grown largely for economic purposes. They are therefore frequently harvested leading to a slow rate of increase in forest cover of less than 1% per year. The rate of deforestation is almost equal to rate of tree planting. This

by high demand for fuelwood in tea factories, source of energy in 95% of the households and the sale of timber. On average, these trees are harvested

11 years. About 25 trucks (equivalent of 7 tons) of timber and fuelwood are transported from the County every day. The bulk of the timber is transported to Thika Town while fuelwood is sold to the neighbouring tea factories. In addition, several other tons of timber and fuelwood, which do not require government permit to be

xtracted from the County every day.

Growing of Fruit Trees Mango (M. indica) and avocado (p. Americana) were the most common fruit trees grown in the County. Whereas avocado trees were spread across the entire County and were largely grown for domestic consumption, mangos were largely found in the drier parts and to a large extenfor commercial purposes. Kandara and Gatanga areas had the highest concentration of avocado trees while Makuyu area had the highest concentration of mango trees. Fruit trees were rarely cut growing to very huge sizes (Figure 7 above) and were thus considwith regard to increasing forest cover. Other fruit trees that were grown but on a very smallMacadamia tree which was purely planted for commercial purposes. Except for mangoes and macadamia fruit trees that all farmers deliberately planted, over 70% of farmers had avocado fruit trees growing "wildly" in their farms, i.e. they grew without being planted by farmers. Nearly all farms had at least 5 avocado trees. The types of avocado trees grown were low yielding varieties large


Huho. 285

) and avocado (p. Americana) were the most common fruit trees grown in the County. Whereas avocado trees were spread across the entire County and were largely grown for domestic consumption, mangos were largely found in the drier parts and to a large extent for commercial purposes. Kandara and Gatanga areas had the highest concentration of avocado trees while Makuyu area had the highest concentration of mango trees. Fruit trees were rarely cut growing to very huge

) and were thus considered the best with regard to increasing forest cover. Other fruit trees that were grown but on a very small- scale included Macadamia tree which was purely planted for commercial purposes. Except for mangoes and macadamia fruit trees

erately planted, over 70% of farmers had avocado fruit trees growing "wildly" in their farms, i.e. they grew without being planted by farmers. Nearly all farms had at least 5 avocado trees. The types of avocado trees grown were low yielding varieties largely for family


286. Basic Res. J. Agric. Sci. Rev. consumption but the surplus production was sold to middlemen at very low prices. As a result, some farmers would cut the trees to provide fuelwood.

Between 2006 and 2013, the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) department, in the County through an agroforestry funded project provided farmers with grafted Hass avocado seedlings leading to some deliberate efforts by farmers in growing of avocado trees. The focus of the County government was to shift from growing of fruits for domestic consumption to commercial purpose. As a result, the County government provided 130,000 high yielding Hass avocado seedlings to farmers. In the areas where mangoes do well, 6000 farmers were each provided with 5 high yielding varieties of mango trees. A total of 30,000 trees had been distributed in different agro-ecological zones by the time of the survey. Value addition on agricultural produce Value addition in agriculture involves the process of changing agricultural products from its original state to a more valuable state preferred in the market. The most common form of value addition was ripening of fruits particularly avocados, mangoes and bananas. Where ripening was done, the price of fruits rose by over 100% compared to the cost of unripe fruits. For instance before ripening, a bunch of bananas (30-40 kilograms) had a market value of Kenya Shillings (KShs) 100 but after ripening, the same bunch was sold at an average of KShs 400. The price of ripe avocado fruits rose by about 233%. The retail price for unripe avocado fruits during the survey was KShs 1.50 while a ripe fruits retailed at KShs 5. Value addition, through ripening, was largely practiced in Saba Saba and Kaharati areas. In Saba Saba, farmers had a common ripening place in Marikiti market at Saba Saba shopping centre while in Kaharati, ripening was done at the farm level. Unfortunately, very few farmers added value through this process due to the perishable nature of the ripened fruits. The need for immediate disposal (sale) of the ripe fruits deterred most farmers because of the unpredictable nature of the market. As a result, farmers preferred selling unripe fruits to middlemen at lower prices. Just like in other parts of the country, the County is dominated by primary production with very little efforts to improve the quality of agricultural produce. Benefits of green agricultural economy Social benefits It was evident from the farmers’ assertions that intercropping enhanced food security at household level. Different crops were affected by drought and high intensity rainfall differently. Crops that withstood harsh

climatic conditions acted as insurance against food insecurity. Sweet potatoes, lablab bean, pigeon peas and cassava were the major crops that provided food during dry spells. In addition, avocado, mangos and bananas were sometimes eaten substituting the normal meals. Fruits were given out as gifts to visitors and offerings in church. That is, in social setups fruits were given as appreciation to friends and relative who visited and probably came from regions where fruits were never grown. Some fruits, particularly bananas, were given as appreciation to invited guests in social functions such as fundraising. In cultural ceremonies such as weddings some types of fruits were symbolically used. In church, some farmers gave fruits as offerings. Economic benefits Farmers sold fruits either to the middlemen or directly to the consumers but with the largest percentage being sold to middlemen. On average, farmers in Makuyu area earned between KShs 10,000 and 15,000 from the sales of mangoes every year. Avocado fruits retailed at KShs 1.50 each while bananas retailed at about KSHs 100 for most farmers. Farmers earned between KShs 1,500 and KSHs 2,000 from avocado sales and between KShs 3,000 and KShs 4,000 from the sale of bananas every year. In addition to sale of fruits, farmers without livestock generated income from the sale of high quality high protein Kakamega I and II varieties of nappier grass. The economic benefits of using organic farm manure were twofold. First, improved soil fertility led to increase in crop production. Surplus produce was sold at local markets. Secondly, it saved on farm input costs. By the time of the survey, the price of fertilizer was KShs 80/= per kilogram and was deemed very high by the farmers. Although farmers did not fully substitute the use of chemical fertilizers with farm organic manure, about 90% of small-scale farmers relied on farm organic manure for it was free to farmers with livestock and was also available at any time of the year. Environmental benefits Environmental benefits of green agricultural practices ranged from simple benefits such as soil moisture conservation to more complicated mitigation of climate change through the process of carbon sequestration. Reduction of landslides in the humid steep areas was one of the most notable environmental benefits. The intermeshing of tree roots holds soil particles together increasing slope stability preventing potential landslides (Figure 8 below). In 2015 in Mathioya area, for instance, one of the farmland with three sections, one with woodlots, another with five rows of trees and the other one without trees, experienced mudslides in the section

Figure 8.a land slide

Table 1. Estimated annual carbon dioxide sequestered in Murang’a County A. Species characteristics

Name Tree Type (H or C

Grevillea (Silk oak) H Eucalyptus (Blue gum) H Persea Americana (Avocado)

H

Mangifera indica (mango)

H

Total pounds of carbon sequestered Total pounds of equivalent CO2 sequestered X 3.67Equivalent CO2 sequestered in tons /2000

Key: H = Hard, C = Coniferous, S = Slow, M = Medium, F= Fast

without the trees.

Farmers acknowledged the role of vegetation cover on preserving water resources. In Mathioya and Kangema areas which had adequate soil cover, rivers had cleaner water compared to less vegetated areas of Makuyu and Ithanga. Turbidity of river water was highvegetated areas due increased soil erosion. Observation revealed that in the upper catchment area of River Maragua where land was highly vegetated river water was clean. As the river traversed less vegetated areas of Makuyu, turbidity increased with water flowing at the BluePost Bridge being very turbid.

The heavily forested County sequestered thousands of tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) every year. According to GreenFacts (2015) carbon sequestration refers to the removal carbon from the atmosphere and storage of in carbon sinks such as oceans, forests or soils through physical or biological processes. Although little efforts had been made to establish the amount of COsequestered in the County, the study estimated approximately 440,956.19 tons (Tablsequestered every year based on the following information.


Figure 8. Cracked soil prevented from developing into land slideby a row of trees

Estimated annual carbon dioxide sequestered in Murang’a County

B. Tree Age

C. No of Surviving Trees

D. Annual Sequestration Rate (lbs./ tree)

Tree Type (H Growth rate (S, M or F)

F 10 5,113,920 19.3 F 8 3,068,352 15.5 F 15 2,556,960 29.7

F 10 1,534,176 11.8

sequestered X 3.67 sequestered in tons /2000

Key: H = Hard, C = Coniferous, S = Slow, M = Medium, F= Fast

Farmers acknowledged the role of vegetation cover on preserving water resources. In Mathioya and Kangema areas which had adequate soil cover, rivers had cleaner water compared to less vegetated areas of Makuyu and Ithanga. Turbidity of river water was high in less vegetated areas due increased soil erosion. Observation revealed that in the upper catchment area of River Maragua where land was highly vegetated river water was clean. As the river traversed less vegetated areas of

th water flowing at the Blue

The heavily forested County sequestered thousands of ) every year. According to

GreenFacts (2015) carbon sequestration refers to the nd storage of in

carbon sinks such as oceans, forests or soils through physical or biological processes. Although little efforts had been made to establish the amount of CO2 sequestered in the County, the study estimated

Table 1) were d on the following

1. The County had 255, 696 households (2009 population census).

2. The four main tree species in the County were Grevillea (Silk oak), Eucalyptus (Blue gum), Persea Americana (Avocado) and Mang(Field data, 2015).

3. Every household had an average of 53 trees (20 Grevillea, 12 Eucalyptus, 15 Persea Americana and 6 Mangifera indica) (Field data, 2015).

Simple estimates indicated that if one tone of COsequestered traded at an average of US$ 25, the County would have earned approximately US$ 11,023,904.8 per year. With a total of 255, 696 households, this translates to US$ 43.11 (or approximately KShs 4,311) per household per year. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Murang’a County experiences climatic extremes leading to severe droughts and occasional floods and landslides. Episodes of food insecurity are experienced in the drier areas while in landslide make regular news in humid and


Huho. 287

Annual Sequestration Rate

E. carbon sequestered C*D

98,698,656 47,559,456 75,941,712

18,103,276.8

240,303,101 881,912,379.9 440,956.19

The County had 255, 696 households (2009

The four main tree species in the County were Grevillea (Silk oak), Eucalyptus (Blue gum), Persea Americana (Avocado) and Mangifera indica (Mango)

Every household had an average of 53 trees (20 Grevillea, 12 Eucalyptus, 15 Persea Americana and 6 Mangifera indica) (Field data, 2015).

Simple estimates indicated that if one tone of CO2 erage of US$ 25, the County

would have earned approximately US$ 11,023,904.8 per year. With a total of 255, 696 households, this translates to US$ 43.11 (or approximately KShs 4,311) per

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

County experiences climatic extremes leading to severe droughts and occasional floods and landslides. Episodes of food insecurity are experienced in the drier areas while in landslide make regular news in humid and


288. Basic Res. J. Agric. Sci. Rev. steep areas during high intensity rainfall. To cushion themselves against the challenges occasioned by high variations in rainfall amount, intensity, patterns and distribution, farmers adopted various green agricultural economy strategies that reduced environmental impact of agriculture while at the same time met the needs of the society. Through intercropping, farmers were insured against total crop failure while through tree planting, farmers generated income while at the same time mitigated climate change. Through green agricultural economy, a myriad of socioeconomic and environmental benefits which included among others reduction in the rate of landslides were achieved. However, despite the significance, the adoption of these strategies remained relative low. The study therefore recommends enhancement of the existing practices and development of new strategies that are suitable and affordable to the small-scale farmers. Capacity building towards this end will enhance the adaptation rate. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research has been made possible through the

funding by Karatina University. REFERENCE Ayoti O (2008). Kenya has no policy on drought, Minister confesses.

Available: http://desertificationwordpress.Com/2008/05/29/kenya-has-no-policy-on-drought-google-africa-sciencenews-service

Cameron A, Stuart C (2012). A Guidebook to the Green Economy: Green Economy, Green Growth, and Low-Carbon Development. UN Division for Sustainable Development, August 2012. Issue 1, 2012. Essama S (2005). Burkina Faso: the Zaï technique and enhanced agricultural productivity. Available online at: http://www.worldbank.org/afr/ik/iknt80.htm

FAO (2015). Conservation Agriculture: Conserving resources above – and below – the ground. Available online at: ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/ai552e/ai552e00.pdf

GOK (2010). National Climate Change Response Strategy. Ministry of Environment and Mineral Resources. Nairobi.

Population Reference Bureau (PRB) (2011). Kenya Population Data Sheet 2011.

Wani SP, Sreedevi TK, Rockstrom J, Ramakrishna YS (2009). Rainfed agriculture: past trends and future prospects. In Wani, S. P., Rockstrom, J. and Oweis, T. (eds) Rainfed agriculture: Unlocking the potential. CAB international, London, pp 1-36.

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Adapting to green agricultural economy: experiences from ... · A banana grown in a zai pit in Kandara area County pits are holes with a diameter of 20 10-20 cm (dimensions vary according