Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
1
Adaptation Strategy and Mitigation of Biological Resources
Management of Local People in Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve on
Climate Change
By
Purity Sabila Ajiningrum
2012 MAB Young Scientists Award Winner
MAB Young Scientist Award Research Report 2013 (October 2013)
2
FINAL SCIENTIFIC REPORT
Project Title: Adaptation Strategy and Mitigation of Biological Resources Management of Local People in Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve on Climate Change
By Purity Sabila Ajiningrum
Indonesia
October 2013
3
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
Climate change is a global phenomenon characterized by rising temperatures and
changing rainfall amount and distribution. Temperature changes have broad implications on
various aspects of socio-economic life of society and ecology. Due to changes in temperature, it
has a direct impact on preservation of ecosystems, biodiversity, food production, water supply,
the spread of pests and plant diseases also the spread of human disease vectors etc. Temperature
changes are caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the earth's atmosphere
caused by burning or using fossil fuels (oil, gas, and coal), industrial sector, transportation, land
use activities (land use change) and deforestation.
Climate change will threaten Indonesia's efforts to achieve MDGs. According to the
UNDP report (Moediarta, 2007), the potential impact of climate change on Indonesia's efforts to
combat extreme poverty and hunger due to climate change will destroy the forests, wildlife
populations, grassland, and land farming that relied upon by the poor as a source of income.
Poverty is naturally a frightening specter of a nation and civilization.
The results of IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) study in 2007 showed
that since 1850 there were 12 warmest years based on instrumental record of global surface
temperature. Eleven out of the twelve warmest years occurred in the last 12 years. Total
temperature increase 0.76oC from 1850-1899 to 2001-2005. Sea level and the global average
have risen by an average rate of 1.8 mm per year in the period between 1961 and 2003. Total rise
in sea level that was recorded in the 20th century is estimated to 0.17 m. The report also stated
that human activity contributes to global warming since the mid-20th century. Global warming
will continue to increase by higher acceleration in the 21st century if nothing is done to reduce it
(KMNLH, 2007).
The resulting global warming and climate change increases the frequency and intensity of
extreme climate. IPCC states that global warming could also lead to significant changes in
physical and biological systems. If there is no systematic and integrated effort from now on to
increase resilience to climate change and the improvement of local and global environmental
conditions, the impact caused by the presence of climate variability in the future will be even
greater and more difficult. It will influence on achieving sustainable development systems.
4
Therefore, it is necessary for a fundamental change in development planning. Problem of climate
variability today and the next should be used as one important variable in determining the basics
of national planning development of short, medium and long term as well. Tackling climate
change requires effective management of climate variability, and at the same time, anticipating
its impact of long-term global climate change comprehensively. On the other hand, it requires
cross-sectoral approach at national, regional and local levels. Adaptation and mitigation
strategies are needed to reduce the risk of dangerous climate change by increasing robustness of
system in the community.
Adaptation strategy is an action of natural and social systems adjustment to face the
negative impacts of climate change, but those efforts will be difficult to effectively benefit if the
rate exceeds the ability to adapt to climate change. Therefore, adaptation strategies must be offset
by "mitigation strategy", namely to reduce the sources and increasing sinks of greenhouse gases,
so that the development process is not impeded and sustainable development objectives can be
achieved. Thus, future generations are not burdened more heavily by the threat of climate change
in the continuing process of further development. Adaptation strategies are developed by making
efforts "adjustment technology" used in the industrial, transportation and agriculture and forest
conservation and protection efforts in order to prevent the loss of carbon stocks contained in the
biomass of forest vegetation. Adaptation strategy is a living being that leads efforts in the
preparation or adaptation to the impacts of climate change or variation of the season.
Climate change is a global phenomenon that is characterized by rising temperatures and
changing rainfall amount and distribution. Temperature changes have broad implications on
various aspects of socio-economic life of society and ecology. Due to changes in temperature, it
has a direct impact on the preservation of ecosystems, biodiversity, food production, water
supply, the spread of pests and plant diseases and the spread of human disease vectors etc.
Temperature changes are caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the earth's
atmosphere caused by burning or the use of fossil fuels (oil, gas, and coal); by industrial sector,
transportation and land use activities (land use change ) and by deforestation.
Climate change will threaten Indonesia's efforts to achieve MDGs. According to the
UNDP report (Moediarta, 2007) the potential impact of climate change on Indonesia's efforts to
combat extreme poverty and hunger due to climate change will destroy the forests, wildlife
5
populations, grassland and land farming that relied upon by the poor as a source of income.
Poverty is naturally a frightening specter of a nation and civilization.
1.2. Research problem
Indonesia’s area has specific characteristics with geo-morphological patterns, biological,
and social distinctive which leads to extremely sensitive to climate change. The unique
characteristic of the Indonesia archipelago area as terrestrial ecosystems, coastal ecosystems,
island ecosystems and marine ecosystems and a wealth of high biodiversity are vulnerable to
climatic variables changes, including extreme weather and climate, rising sea levels and high
content of atmospheric carbon. Social conditions of the most people of Indonesia are living in
rural areas and highly dependent on the services of natural biological resources to meet their
needs through agriculture, forestry and fisheries. Besides that, the community residential system
is largely located on the coastal belt and plains area leads Indonesia to the precarious position in
the face of climate change.
Another issue in the era of economic development in Indonesia has led to social changes
that took part complicates the lives of people at this time, mainly due to development financing
model through depletion of natural resources and forest wealth. Economic development activities
that rely on the exploitation of natural resources lead to Indonesia as one of contributors to
carbon emissions through changes in land use and land economic activities particularly in
forestry and agriculture. Excessive activities of forest exploitation and forest conversion into
plantation areas and the other activities of illegal exploitation have closely relationship to the
deterioration of environmental quality in rural areas in the modalities of economic expansion.
Illegal activities of Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve such as appropriation of the biosphere
reserve’s core area have been crucial issues about preservation of biosphere reserve's core area.
The results of observations made by RAN (2002) showed that generally, the whole of
Indonesia will experience a temperature rise at a rate lower than the subtropical region. For
example, Jakarta has undergone a change in the temperature rate of 1.42 ° C every hundred years
for July, and 1.04oC on January. The southern region of Indonesia will decline in rainfall while
the northern region will experience an increased rainfall. Some researchs conducted at several
locations showed that, sea level rise in Indonesia has reached 8 mm per year. If Indonesia does
not take action for greenhouse gas emission reductions, the rise in sea level can reach 60 cm in
2070 (ADB, 1994). In the past four decades, the dangers and disasters that are closely related to
6
climate such as floods, droughts, storms, landslides and forest fires have caused much loss of
human lives and livelihoods, the destruction of economic and social infrastructure also
environmental damage. According to Sivakumar (2005), the frequency and intensity of hazard-
related climate disasters in many parts of the world's are increasing. Floods and wind-storms
resulted in 70% of the total disaster and the remaining 30% due to drought, landslides, wildfires,
heat waves and others.
Based on data from Bappenas and Bakornas PB (2006), in Indonesia, within a period of 2
years (2003-2005) only 1,429 events have been related to climate disasters, while approximately
53.3% of disaster is related to the hydro-meteorology. Floods are the most common disaster, is
about 34%, followed by a landslide 16% of all natural disasters. Trenberth and Hoar (1996)
stated that global warming will cause droughts and extreme rainfall are more severe, which will
cause of greater risk of climate catastrophic. Report of United Nations Office for Humanitarian
Affairs of the Coordination (2006) indicates that Indonesia is one of the countries vulnerable to
related climate disasters. Decrease and increase in rainfall has caused significant impact on water
reserves. In the years El-Nino events, the volume of water in water reservoirs decreased
significantly (far below normal), especially during the dry season (June-September). Many
power plants produce power well below normal in those years. Data from eight dams (four small
reservoirs and four large reservoirs in Java) showed that during the years El-Nino events of 1994,
1997, 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2006 most of the power plants operated in the 8 reservoir is below
the capacity of producing electricity normally (KNLH, 2007).
Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve, in the dry season period of 2002 has led to decline in rice
yield by 40-49%. Deterioration in rice yields by 49% for harvest once every 3 years (higher
frequency ENSO), whereas an increase in production every 4 years only reached 2.1%. Drought
of 2002 has also led to decrease in the yield of 24% cocoa in the buffer zone of Lore Lindu
Biosphere Reserve (STORMA, 2009).
In Indonesia, the increasing rainfall above normal that occurred particularly in the years
La-Nina (wet year) have resulted in flooding in many places. Changes in behavior of variable
climatic are caused a variety of irregularities and natural disasters required an adaptation and
mitigation strategies are new to be able to reduce the influence caused. Indonesian society which
largely rely on natural resources in life requires some adaptation and mitigation strategies of the
7
management of natural resources and environment to climate change will be much reduced risk
of failure, more profitable and sustainable.
1.3. Objective
This research has goals and objectives as follows:
1) Revealing local knowledge, production activities and adaptation strategies developed by
local communities in the management of biological resources for life.
2) Revealing local knowledge and behavior change of climatic variables based on climatic
elements and weather data (source data: regional Climatology and Geophyisic Stasion and
the effects caused to the biophysical aspects, production activities and production.
3) Developing adaptation and mitigation strategy of local communities towards a new climate
change in the sustainable management of natural resources.
4) Increasing local community awareness about the importance of adaptation and mitigation
strategies against the threat of climate change in the management of biological resources.
5) Developing natural resources management (production activity) that is able to face or can be
adapted to changing environmental conditions or the ecosystem due to changes in extreme
climatic variables. Capability and the successful management of biological resources
(production activities) as part of efforts to reduce poverty in the region.
1.4. Target
1) Knowing and analyzing various informations about the effects of climate change on:
(a) the diversity of natural resources and its environment; (b) local knowledge about
natural resources and environment and (c) the development of adaptation strategies and
mitigation of climate change developed by local communities in managing natural
resources.
2) Learning in detail the climate change or seasonal variations as a basis for management of
biological resources and environment in a sustainable manner.
3) Understanding in detail the social, economic and cultural of local community, especially
the dependence of society to natural resources services and local technology in
production activities and products as a precaution against climate change.
8
4) Gaining adaptation and mitigation strategies to climate change in order to manage
diversity of biological resources in a sustainable manner.
5) Increasing capacity and awareness of local society on the basic conception of climate
change, learning impacts of climate change on biological diversity and environment, and
creating adaptation and mitigation strategies to climate change. Capability of biological
resources management (production activities) is an important resolution to reduce
poverty.
6) A common understanding of its stakeholders on the effects of climate change and its
implications for regional development based on data obtained from this study.
9
2.0. RESEARCH METHOD
2.1. Study Site
The study is conducted in Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve, Central Sulawesi which
represents an area of terrestrial ecosystems to the plains to the mountainous region ecosystem.
This area is selected as study site to represent the study of adaptation and mitigation strategies of
local communities to climate change in the management of biological resources
Figure 1. Study site map on Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve (Source: Periodic review of Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve, 2012).
The site selection has several reasons as follow:
(a) The area of ecological aspects represents different types of ecosystems that this region
represents the terrestrial area of lowland to highland. The selection of this region
expected to represent different types of ecosystems from the effects of climate change;
(b) The different types of ecosystems in the region can provide data that is more varied
picture of local knowledge regarding the management of natural resources, production
activities and community adaptation strategies in the face of climate change in the region;
10
(c) The choice of location in this biosphere reserve is very appropriate and in accordance
with one of the reserve roles is to be able to cope with climate change such as that
contained in the Madrid Action Plan 2008. Moreover, biosphere reserves linkage with
climate change issues in accordance with the theme of the MAB ICC meetings in
Dresden to 23 June 2011: “The biosphere reserves and climate change, for life and for the
future” and the Indonesian delegation was one of the speakers at the meeting; and
(d) The community in the study area is mostly farming communities living around the forest
area (Lore Lindu) who depend on its natural resources and this area is most vulnerable to
climate change. Elements of extreme climate change will affect people's lives by
declining in production and can even lead to crop failure. Declining or failure in getting
the production activity is closely associated with poverty.
Mixed data can provide a clearer picture of local conditions, production activities,
production activities and the results of biophysical conditions, so we will be able to analyze the
relationship between the effects of climate change in the region with production activities and
adaptation and mitigation strategies that will be developed in the region.
This study attempts to look at changes in the system of knowledge and adaptation
strategies in managing the diversity of biological resources and the environment in the context of
climate change. This research will be observed and analyzed on a production system developed
at the study site and climate changes that occurred in the region since about 50 years ago
(adjusted to the availability of climatology data in the study site) and based on local knowledge
of the changing characteristics of the seasons in the region. The study also wants to identify
changes in its ecosystem based on the chronology of the history of ecology so that it can be seen
from the test site and the changes that took place during a certain period at the sites.
Data collection is obtained by some stages as follows:
(1) The collection of detailed data on the actual condition of the study sites ecosystem by
using standard methods in ecological research and ethnoecology.
(2) Data collection of changes in ecosystems is obtained by analyzing the changes that have
been occured at the ecosystem level based on the map of remote sensing.
(3) The collection of data of local knowledge and behaviour of variable climatic change are
based on climatic elements and weather data (source data: Climatology and Geo-physics
11
Stasion in the study area) and its impact to the biophysical aspects, production activities
and products.
(4) Data collection of biological diversity (biodiversity) and ethnobiology is aimed to find
out a wealth of biodiversity and local knowledge in managing biological resources. It is
obtained by using direct observation in the field, exploratory methods and standard
methods of plant ecology and ethnobiology research (qualitative and quantitative data).
2.2. Development technique of research instrument
Table 1. Development Technique of Research Instrument
Concept/Aspect Variable Indicator Source of data Adaptation Culture - Local knowledge on
climate change related to biological resources development
- Local community knowledge on management activities of biological resources
- Technology of local community on biological resources management and their environment
Primary
Economy - Local species of biological resources which have potency and economic value
- Increasing added value in production system
Primary and secondary
Production - Production activities based on biological resources
- Technique of local production
Primer
Mitigation Sustainable best practices
- Agroforestry - Multiple cropping - Organic agriculture
Primary and secondary
Biodiversity management
- Agriculture - Plantation - Extractivism activities
Primary and secondary
12
2.3. Sampling technique and collecting data
Data collection are obtained by some stages as follows:
(1) Local knowledge and behaviour change variable-climatic variables based on the data
elements of climatic and weather (Data source: Climatology and Geophysics stations in
the study area) and its impact to biophysical aspects, production and production activities
(2) Data collection of biological diversity (biodiversity) and its usefulness in the research
area is obtained by using direct observation, exploratory methods, methods of vegetation
ecology standards in ethnobiological research (qualitative and quantitative data).
(3) Collection of common plants and important plants is carried out to determine important
types from perspective of community and then, it is calculated by "ICS" formula (Index
of Significant Cultural) as follows:
Calculating Cultural Values Index uses the following formula:
n
ICS = Σ (q x i x e)ni
i = 1
If a plant species has its uses more than once, then the calculation formula developed is as
follows:
n
ICS = Σ (q1 x i1 x e1)n1 + (q2 x i2 x e2)n2 + ……… + (qn x in x en)nn
i = 1
Where,
• ICS = Index of cultural significance, the equation of value to a number of plant species from
1 to usability to n, where n indicates the usefulness final of plant species, while the letter i
show up to a value of 1 to n, respectively.
• The letter symbols q = quality of value, as an example: giving value = 5 is given in the main
foodstuffs; 4 = food additives and the main ingredient (primary + secondary food material), 3
= other foods + secondary materials and material supplies drugs (others food + medicine +
13
secondary materials); 2 = all plants used for ritual, myth, recreation, etc., and the value 1 =
only known utility alone (mere recognition).
• Symbol i = intensity of value. For example, the value 5 = very high intensity use, 4 =
moderately high intensity use; grades 3 = medium intensity use; grades 2 = low intensity use,
and 1 = minimal use intensity.
• Symbol letter e = exclusivity value, for example, score 2 = describes the most preferred
option (preferred choice); 1 = indicates that the use of some types of the same or there is a
possibility that one or several types of same utilization (one of several or many possible
source), and 0.2 = secondary resources (secondary source). Categorization of data
quantifying the calculation of ethnobotany in detail can be seen in the papers of Purwanto
(2002).
(4) Data collection of social, economic, cultural is more stressed on the aspect of the
application of technology in the production process and management activity of
biological resources. Data collection is gathered by using Participatory Rapid Appraisal
(PRA) and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) on the selected resource. FGDs are conducted
to representatives of 14 farmer groups which are coordinated by PPL in the North Lore
District and in the village of Toro (Ngata Toro) in collaboration with the District Kulawi
Toro Indigenous Peoples. FGD is focussed to discuss production activities, changes
related to biophysical conditions in the region due to climate change, sources of income
and expenditure, details about their livelihoods, the role and effectiveness in the context
of their institution. Some questions and discussions intended to capture their preferences
based on their actual behaviour. In this case, the researchers help to validate the
information and also help to identify the prospective informans, for gaining profound
information and policies. Furthermore, it also helps to obtain historical data and provides
information about disorder and ecosystems in the past, trigger, intervention and
consequences.
Broadly speaking, the logic of research methods applied in this study are used to identify
climate change and the effects caused by direct observation in the field, climatology data
collection, knowledge data of community and supported by literature data. Further data
collection on production activities undertaken by community (praxis) following the results of
14
production activities, observations are preferred in applications of technology or the way in the
production process.
Production activity is observed not only about farming activity (Lore Lindu), but also
activities about forest extractivism and other natural resources utilized. Hence, further analysis is
the effect of climate change on production activities. For example, STORMA study (2009) on
the effects of drought in 2002 has resulted in deterioration in rice production fell to 49% and
coffee production fell by 24%. The influences of climate change are a very real impact on the
ecosystem and affect production activities and results. The effect influences on the results of
production activities and is closely associated with socio-economic conditions, especially
poverty. The next step is to construct new adaptation strategies of biological resource
management (production activity) that address the elements of climate change. By developing
adaptation strategies, declining production activity can be directly reduced to ensure common
good sustainably.
15
3.0. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Physical characterictics
1. Biogeographical region
Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve is geographically situated between 119o 90’ – 120o 16’
East Longitudinal and 1o 8’-1o 3’ South-Latitude. Administratively, Lore Lindu Biosphere
Reserve is located in five regencies, which are Sigi, Poso, Parigi Moutong, Donggala and Kota
Palu, Central Sulawesi Province. Core area of the Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve is Lore Lindu
National Park. Lore Lindu National Park comprises an area of 231,000 ha in Central Sulawesi
Province.
i. Topography of the region
Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve is located in 200-2610 meters above sea level. A major
part of core area (Lore Lindu National Park) lies at an altitude of more than 1,000 meters with
Mount Nokilalaki (2,355 m) as the highest mountain. Its neighbour in the same out crop-mount
Rorekatimbu is slightly (2,610 m) but its summit lies just beyond the core area border.
Napu Valley area included in the districts of North Lore, Poso regency, has an area of
approximately 4,500 km². Napu Valley area lies at an altitude of between 1,100 m to 1,400 m
above sea level and surrounded by mountains Lore. Napu valley is north and adjacent to Lore
Lindu National Park area. To reach the Valley Napu can use cars from Palu to Wuasa (150
miles) and takes between 4-5 hours.
Ngata Toro located in the geographic position of approximately 120o 1 'BT - BT 120o
3'30'' and 29'30'' 1o LS - 1o 32' LS. Ngata Toro region has an area of approximately ± 229.5 km2
(22,950 ha) and lies at an average altitude of 800 m above sea level. Ngata Toro region has a
topography including mountains into categories, where settlements and agriculture are generally
concentrated in the valleys and slopes are surrounded by mountains: Kalabui, Kaumuku,
Toworo, onco, Tawaeli, Topolo, Potaka Jara, and Powibia (see Figure 1).
16
ii. Climate
This area has a tropical climate with average rainfall in northern parts between 2000 -
3000 mm per year and the southern part of the region between 3000 - 4000 mm per year. The
temperature ranges between 22° - 34° C, while in the Valley Napu, temperatures ranging
between 18° C - 30° C. Figure 2 shows the study area in the Valley Napu has climate type D1
means the region has a wet month or heavy rainfall > 200 mm per month for 3-4 months and has
a dry month with rainfall less than 100 mm per month less than 2 months. The amount of annual
rainfall is between 2000-2500 mm.
Figure 2. Map of precipitation and climatic type in Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve Area
(Sources: TNC and Lore Lindu National Park)
Observations of climatic elements are not only based on observational data from the
station Climatology or Meteorology and Geophysics Agency, but also based on observations
made by public through extreme events they have ever been experienced. In general, a group of
people had no written records about the extreme events. The results of interviews with people and FGDs to farmers in the study area stated that there had been a long drought in 2000 and 2004 and
result in huge losses in farming.
17
Society concludes an indication that the losses caused by the drought reduce the supply to > 20%,
yield coffee declined by about 27% and grain yield decreased by more than 40%. When we see the
climatological data recorded in the region, showed that in 2000 and 2004, there has been long dry months
between May and October in 2000 (rainfall monthly average of less than 100 mm). Similarly to the 2004
data, it was noted that the number of the lowest rainfall occurred in mid-July until November (see Figure
3).
Precipitation (mm) Year
Figure 3. Precipitation Data 1999-2008
Rainfall data from the years 1998 - 2008 in Poso BMG station showed that rainfall from
year to year have irregular patterns. For example, in the dry season from June to October, but in
fact, there is also the most wet years that have monthly rainfall of over 150 mm. Changes of this
character are causing the climate to change, then it was affected cropping patterns and planting
time in developing a farming system, especially for rice. A strategy of local communities to face
the climate change in behaviour of these elements is discussed in a special section in this report
on local adaptation strategies in Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve.
18
19
Figure 4. Precipitation Data 1999-2008
Climatological data collected from BMG Palu show that the climatic data are started in 1998 to
2010 for the district of Poso, Donggala, Sigi, Parigi Moutong and Palu. Changes in rainfall patterns,
humidity and soil fertility due to climate change have led to productivity to decline, even many farmers
in coastal areas experiencing crop failures due to flooding and rising sea levels. Weather changes have
caused many farmers had trouble determining the right time to start planting season, or already
experiencing crop failures due to erratic rainfall or drought. The most miserable farmers are those who
live in highland regions and experience in loss of topsoil due to erosion.
Based on laboratory data of Climate Bogor Agricultural University, during 1981-1990,
each district in Indonesia has decreased an average of 100,000 tons of rice production per each
year. In the period 1992 - 2000, the amount of this reduction was increased to 300,000 tons.
Therefore, the key role of climate elements especially for planting is to plant growth and
production.
20
Figure 5. Precipitation data on 1998-2010 at several observation station in Sigi Regency, Palu City and Donggala Regency
Figure 6. Precipitation average of mothly and yearly on periode 2005-2011.
21
The results on six nearest station with Lore Lindu National Park as shown in the graph
above show that when using Mohr categorization based on criteria in dry (rainfall <60 mm);
humid months (rainfall 60-100 mm); and wet months (> 100 mm), then there are three places
where are categorized as humid areas, namely, in Palu Mutiara, BP4 Biromaru in Sigi and LLHP
Dolago in Parigi/Moutong.
Three areas that are categorized as wet areas throughout the year, namely BPP Lambunu in
Parigi/Moutong, Gimpu in Sigi and Lompio in Donggala. It affects to agricultural sector in terms of
pattern of planting or transplanting time. High rainfall during abundant availability of water exceeds even
that leads to farmers involve in some difficulties to prepare the land.
When high rainfall, farmers are often bothered by emergence of various of plant pests. At such a
time, pests attack such as mice and leafhoppers is quite high then variety of diseases caused by bacteria
and fungi on food crops. Meanwhile, during high rainfall and prolonged, the farmers also harvest
bothered with these problems. Food crop growth such as in corn is also getting into problem by a
heavy rainfall. Beside pests, plant vegetative growth looks quite good though, but the generative
development is disturbed. For example, the process of fertilization can be imperfect due to lack of
sunlight.1
Among these three BMKG station, the area around Gimpu-Sigi was the most volatile, by
average highly increased is especially peaked in April (316.9 mm/month) and November (298.1
mm/month). Based on data collected in Gimpu station, total rainfall could reach an average of 2605.8
mm/year and the average monthly reach 217.1 mm/month (Figure 7).
1http://id.shvoong.com/social-sciences/education/2218555-pengaruh-hujan-terhadap-
pertanian/#ixzz2CZLr4EFj. Diakses hari Minggu, 18 Nopember 2012
22
Figure 7. The precipitation average in several observation station
The graph above indicates that the frequency of rain increase slightly in April then reach
a maximum intensity in June. After that, the intensity began to decline and weakened until the
following April. Excepting at certain stations, such as in Gimpu, although in terms of the average
number of rainy days is the lowest (7.2 days/month) but in November began to increase in
intensity and then began to fall back to the point that is most rarely rains in July.
Pattern and fluctuation, intensity and magnitude of rainfall can be used as a basis for
analyzing the activities and people's daily lives around Lore Lindu. Meanwhile, the amount of
rainfall is also one of elements of the role of climate on the incidence of landslides and erosion
(Sutedjo and Kartasapoetra, 2002). Rainwater runoff into surface water is the main element of
erosion agent. A high intensity rain, such as 50 mm in a short time (<1 hour), more likely to
cause erosion of rain compared with the same flow, but in a longer time (> 1 hour). Rainfall
intensity determines the magnitude of erosion. Based on the record annual rainfall in BMKG
Gimpu, rainfall intensity which is higher than 2000 mm can be considered potentially or likely to
cause major erosion. All are independent of factors, slope, soil type and others.2
1. Geology, geomorphology, soils
Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve is located between two main fault lines in Central
Sulawesi. In mountainous areas, its type of land comprises acid stone namely Gneisses, schist,
2 Sutedjo, M.M., dan A.G Kartasapoetra. 2002. Pengantar Ilmu Tanah. Penerbit Bineka Cipta. Jakarta.
23
and granite, which is sensitive to erosion. The Lacustrine formation is found in the eastern part of
core area and generally found in plain of flat or cloudy lake. The deposit materials comprise of
the mixture of sediment stones, metamorphose and granite. On the western part, alluvium
formation is found, generally with colluvial fan or flat country, resulted by the river deposition
such as terrace or back swamps. The alluvial materials are from metamorphic stone and granite.
Soil condition in the biosphere reserve is varied from Entisol, Inseptisol up to Alfisol and few
Ultisol.
Figure 8. Map of Geology and Topography of Core Area of Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve 2. Ecosystem type
Core Area of the BR is Lore Lindu National Park comprises an area of 231,000 ha. This
area represents various ecosystem types, including lowland tropical forest, sub montane forest,
24
montane forest and mixed forest. A major part of Lore Lindu National Park lies at an altitude of
more than 1,000 m with Nokilalaki Mountain (2,356m) as the highest mountain. Lindu Lake
covers 3,000 ha ancient freshwater lake, is located in an enclave in the centre of the park.
The mountain forests at these heights consist of tree species of more moderate climates as
Oaks, Chestnuts and Laurels. At the lower altitudes, which comprise only about 10% of the park,
there is lowland rainforest while in the dryer northern reaches of the park remnants of monsoon
forest, a forest type found in no other protected area in Sulawesi, can be found. At altitudes
higher than 2,000 m the flora is sub-alpine.
The plant species that can be found in both lowland tropical forest and sub-montane
forest include Eucalyptus deglupta, Pterospermum celebicum, Cananga odorata, Gnetum
gnemon, Castanopsis argentea, Agathis philippinensis, medicinal plant and rattan.
Table 2. Summary descriptions of forest habitats (MAB Indonesia, 2012)
Habitat Summary description
Heath forest High altitude forest on flat or gently rolling terrain with a 10-30 m
uniform canopy, and small boles the trees with small, leathery leaves.
Growing on acid, sandy soils with a peat layer. Tannins blacken water
runoff.
Cloud forest A special type of upper montane forest characterized an exposed aspect
that is usually cloud covered. Trees are stunted, slender, < c.10 m tall.
Soils are acid and peaty. Ericaceae is highly abundant. Trees are covered
in a dense layer of moss.
Upper montane
forest
Forest growing at high altitude, generally > 1400 m with a short canopy
< 25 m tall of relatively uniform structure. Many trees have small and
leathery (sclerophyllous) leaves. Undergrowth is sparse and often fern
dominated, with some palms present. Gymnosperm trees are common,
including Dacrydium. Members of the Ericaceae are particularly
abundant, especially Vaccinium and Rhododendron. Lichens are common
to abundant.
Upper – lower An area that contains mixed elements of upper and lower montane forest.
25
montane mix
Lower montane
forest
The habitat making up most of Lore Lindu National Park, divided into
four sub-types (see discussion). Forest with up to a c. 35 m canopy, with
few or no emergent trees. Very few trees have small, leathery, leaves
(compare with upper montane forest). The undergrowth is thick and
dominated by palms, especially rattans.
Lowland forest A rare habitat in the lowland areas, particularly those running the length
of the Kulawi valley. Lowland forest is tall, moist, forest with three
canopies-emergent, upper and lower. Big, woody, lianas are common.
The undergrowth, when dense, is dominated by herbaceous species.
Monsoon forest Monsoon forest grows in the dry area of the north and northeast of the
park between c. 300-700 m above sea level. It has a canopy of c. 30 m.
and is species poor relative to lowland and montane forest. The
undergrowth is shrubby and bamboo is common
Marsh Grass and sedge dominated areas between the swamp forest and water
bodies.
Savannah Savannah describes the grass-dominated area in the dryer northern park
of the park that includes scrubby patches of trees such as Acacia and
shrubs including milkweeds. It is a highly degraded area that leads into
the similarly vegetated part of the Palu valley.
Source: Jarvie & Hardiono (2000)
26
Figure 9. Vegetation Types (Source: LLNP and TNC)
27
Main species:
Flora
In Lore Lindu, lowland forest was observed with a canopy of c. 35 m, the larger trees to
70 cm diameter breast high. Pometia and Artocarpus are common larger trees. The plant
diversity found in this lowland forest are Mussaendopsis beccariana, Dysoxylum sp., Ficus spp.,
Myristica spp., Caryota sp., Elmeria ovalis, Strychnos axillaries, Celtis sp., Pterospermum
subpeltatum, Cannarium odoratum, Artocarpus elaticus, Artocarpus teijimannii), Durio
zibethinus, etc. (MAB Indonesia, 2013).
Fauna diversity
The biodiversity of this BR is rich in animal species, with 117 species of mammals, 88
species of bird, 29 species of reptile and 19 species of amphibian. More than 50 % of fauna
found in this region are endemic such as Anoa quarlesi, Anoa depressicornis, Babyrousa
babirussa, Tarsius spectrum, Macrogalidia musschenbrockii, Rattus celebensis, Macrocephalon
maleo, Elaphe erythrura, Bufo celebensis, Strigocuscus celebencis, Elaphe erythrura, E. janseni,
Anabas Testudines, etc. (MAB Indonesia, 2012).
Most of Sulawesi's endemic mammals and 83 % of its endemic avifauna have been
recorded in or closely associated with the park.
Bird diversity
Sulawesi has 380 birds species with 97 endemic species (Coates & Bishop, 2000), in
comparison Kalimantan (Borneo's part of Indonesia) about four times the size of Sulawesi and
Sumatra of about three times Sulawesi’s size have 479 birds species with 37 endemic and 605
birds species with 20 endemic respectively (Andrew, 1992; MacKinnon, 1992). Sulawesi is
categorized as low richness but remarkably high endemism.
Sulawesi mainland has of 224 resident bird species, 41 species of which are endemic
(Coates & Bishop, 2000; MacKinnon, 1992). An additional 56 species confined to Sulawesi
28
and/or its satellite islands such as Talaud, Sangir, Banggai and Sula islands (Coates & Bishop,
2000). There are ten endemic genera confined to Sulawesi mainland; Malia and Geomalia, Myza,
Macrocephalon, Aramidopsis, Coracias, Meropogon, Penelopides, Enodes and Scissirostrum.
Sulawesi also has 54 restricted-range species (see Table 1). Restricted-range species are
described as a species which has breeding range less than 50,000 km2, and the area has minimal
2 restricted-range species is called an Endemic Bird Area (EBA) (Sujatnika et al., 1995).
Lore Lindu National Park lies in Central Sulawesi Province. This area formed from the
collision of Gondwanaland and Asia plates which form the eastern part and western parts of
Sulawesi respectively. The north part of Sulawesi probably formed from this collision as well.
This combined form presumably results in the high endemic fauna found in the national park,
especially birds. The park is home to northern and southern Sulawesi wildlife. Unsurprisingly
that in the last five years, endemic birds previously thought to be confined to north Sulawesi
(Tyto inexpectata and Eurostopodus diabolicus) and east Sulawesi (Rhynomyias colonus) have
been found at Lore Lindu National Park.
Figure 10. Bird diversity in Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve (Photo, LLM|NP, 2000-2009)
29
Checklist book of Lore Lindu National Park (Nur Mallo and Ma'dika, 2000), said that
Lore Lindu National Park has 217 resident bird species and migrants, all data on this checklist
were collected from various bird observers and references. Meanwhile, Coates & Bishop (2000)
said that Lore Lindu National Park supports 78 % Sulawesi's endemic birds (without mentioning
the exact number). This National park supports all Sulawesi's mountainous endemic birds except
three species i.e., Ficedula bonthaina, Cyornis sanfordi and Zosterops anomalus (Coates &
Bishop, 2000).
Mammals
Mammals species found in Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve are anoa (Anoa quarlesi),
babirusa (Babyrousa babyrousa), warty pig (Sus celebensis), deer (Cervus timorensis), tarsier
(Tarsius dianae, T. pumilus), tonkean macaque (Macaca tonkeana), marsupial cuscus (Ailurops
ursinus and Strigocuscus celebensis), and Sulawesi’s largest carnivore, the nocturnal Sulawesi
civet (Macrogalidia musschenbroeckii) are known to live there. We also found at least five
species of squirrel, and 31 out of 38 rat species are endemic. The most commonly seen animals
are those that enjoy the secondary forest or agricultural areas and tolerate human presence. Many
bats fall into this category and pigs and troupes of the macaque monkey are sometimes spotted
raiding corn crops or cocoa plantation (MAB Indonesia, 2012).
Figure 11. Babyrousa babyrousa, Macaca tonkeana, Tarsius dianae, Tarsius pumilus and Anoa
quarlesi (Source Photo: LLNP, 2000-2009)
30
Reptiles, Fish and Amphibians
There are 21 species of lizard in the park and many of Sulawesi’s 68 species of snakes
can also be found here, including the python (Python reticulates) and king cobra (Ophiophagus
hannah). The most commonly seen snakes are the racers (Elaphe erythrura and E. janseni). The
reticulated python is the longest snake in the world, and common in many parts of Southeast
Asia. The longest python ever recorded, a specimen measuring 9.97 m in length, was collected in
Sulawesi. Occasionally this python take large prey and in March 1998 a man was eaten in
Kulawi a 5 specimen that was later killed; python are also sometimes hunted for their skin and
meat (MAB Indonesia, 2012).
Twenty-one species of amphibians and six fish species, including endemic species in
Lake Lindu, Xenopoeciles sarasinorum, have been identified within the park. Eels are common
in all park streams but fish are found only on the larger rivers and lakes (MAB Indonesia, 2012).
Figure 12. Herpetofauna diversity in Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserves (Photo: LLNP, 2000-2009)
Insects
Thousands of weird and wonderful insect species can be seen around the park but most of
them are not easy to identify. These smaller species are commonly seen by visitors. Although
they are less familiar than larger animals, many of them are attractive, have unusual habits of
their own, and well worth watching. This is particularly true of the eye-catching butterflies that
fly around the park. Stories exist of flocks so dense and large that drivers have had to turn their
windscreen wipers on in order to improve their view. They are usually seen hovering around
water or salt sources and flowers. Many species are caught and sold to collectors and butterfly
31
farming was once encouraged as alternative sources of income for local people. Magnificent
endemics include Papilio blumei, a large swallowtail with glittering blue green wing stripes, and
Graphium androcles, a large, white butterfly with a long, streaming tail. Large numbers of male
butterflies particularly Graphium or Appias spp., can be seen drinking around mud patches
where they are obtaining the sodium salts that are essential for their life cycle. Female does not
need to do this as the male passes on its valuable packet of salts during mating. Urine is often
used by butterfly catchers as highly effective bait (MAB Indonesia, 2012).
Figure 13. Insecta diversity (Photo: LLNP, 2000-2009)
3.2. Social and cultural aspect
1. Pekurehua’s community in Valley Napu
Residents in Valley of Napu, North Lore District is unity of various ethnic groups comprising of
indigenous groups (Napu, Besoa, Sedoa and Bada) and immigrant communities that have become part of
North Lore District (Bugis society, Rampi, Pamona, Mori, Toraja, Minahasa, Seko, Sangir Talaut, Java,
Ternate, Kaili, Sundanese, Batak and Gorontalo). Ethnic spreads in the Biosphere Reserve are presented
in Figure 13 and for composition of indigenous and immigrant communities are presented in Figure 14.
The indigenous people who live in Valley of Napu prefer to be called as the Pekurehua
compared with the designation as the Napu. According to some local experts (Rely Pole, Sinus
Timba, Oscar and others), called the Napu a mockery as the fierce and ferocious in battle. They
32
prefer to be known as the Pekurehua, are the ones that come from the Valley Pekurehua located
in the middle of the meadow Winowanga. Pekurehua is derived from the name of a kerehua bird.
Regarding the regional language in the Valley of Napu, there are 4 regional languages
(dialects) which most widely used for communication, such as Napu language used by
indigenous people who live in the area and surrounding Wuasa. The besoa language is used
buby Besoa community, Rampi language used to communicate Betue village and language
Dodolo and Sedoa used in Sedoa village and surrounding areas.
Distribution of those languages used is not rigid; it means that they appreciate the other
languages as a means of communication, particularly with immigrant communities. Local
languages are used among members of indigenous communities do in the region, while
Indonesian is usually used in daily communication with other community groups, as well as the
official language in government offices and schools.
33
Figure 14. Ethnic distribution in Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve
34
(Source: Lore Lindu National Park and TNC) Figure 15. Map of population composition in Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve (Source: Lore Lindu
National Park and TNC)
Regarding public belief in the region, even though they are Christianity, their life is still
strongly influenced by the ancestors’s culture. For example, they considers the supranatural
power works on their life, so they tend to recognize symptoms and natural phenomena in
carrying out the production efforts. It can be seen clearly when they convert forest to be gardens
35
or fields. They usually undertake traditional rituals in each phase of works, starting from clearing
up the land until the time of harvest.
Rituals are also performed at the time of building a house starting from site selection,
gathering materials, building houses and being new homes. It is similarly looks of organizing
such ceremonies lifecycle ranging from birth, childhood; adolescence, adulthood, and marriage
untill death. Implementation of ceremonies is intended to concern that all jobs run smoothly
without any interruption. Its meaning is application of safety and expulsion evil elements that
can interfere with the work they do.
In the period before Indonesian independence, social stratification in the Valley Napu
includes 4 levels, namely: (1) tuana (king), is the highest layer and a central community life, (2)
galara (the nobility), is a society made up of nobility, descendants and relatives of kings, high
officials like a warlord kingdom (Kabila) and indigenous elders, (3) hawi (common people), is
that most of society is always subject to the king and have good behavior, and (4) hawi mpoké
(the lowest layer or slave), this layer consists of the poor, slaves and prisoners of war. This social
status is passed down from generation to generation. Further analyzed shows that it turned out to
members of society who have a higher education have had a better social status or even with
high levels of education, they have a very respectable social status, especially related to
government jobs, such as Head, Regents, the Governor, etc.
Most of the local people "Napu" who make their livelihood as farmers educated junior
level by 36%. Farming communities who are members of the village farmer groups Wuasa
composition can be seen in the following graph.
36
Figure 16. Education level of Pekurehua community in Napu Valley (Source: Field Data 2012).
Pekurehua communities in the Valley of Napu for generations had engaged in agricultural
wetlands by planting rice farming. They have the capital in land cover have community groups
into the fields as much as 18%, while those with fields and gardens as much as 41%. The
composition of ownership of agricultural land cultivated by the local people "Napu" is described
in the following graph.
Figure 17. Land Ownership Level of Pekurehua Community. Source: Field Data 2012
37
2. Toro community in the valley of Kulawi
Kulawi Valley communities are ethnically dominated by tribal communities Kaili. Kaili
communities in this region consist of some ethnic groups such as Moma, Uma and Tado. Moma
ethnic groups are majority in District of Kulawi. One of the native tribes who belong to the
Moma ethnic group is people of Toro and they were chosen to be one of the study sites because
they have local wisdom in the management of natural resources. In the outside of District of
Kulawi, some other clumps of Kaili can be found there such as IJA, Ado, Ledo, Daa and others.
They can understand each other even talking to each by using a different mother tongue.
Interestingly, ethnological identity in their atara kinship based on criteria determined by the use
of language that denies the word " no " that they use in their respective languages, the Moma,
Uma, Tado, Ado and so on, all meaning "not" (Mattulada, ? ).
Kulawi district is an area located in the buffer zone of the Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve.
District of Kulawi is geographically located as the buffer area in the mountainous areas and
along stream basins are Lariang with lies at an altitude of 500-1000 m above sea level. In
general, Kulawi District has an area of 1.053,56 km2, as the region with the largest area in the
district of Sigi or 20.28 percent of the total district. Administratively, Kulawi District consists of
14 villages and Toro is one of their villages.
Kulawi District includes the lowlands and highlands and, it can be grouped into two areas
based on altitude, areas located between 0-500 m above sea level covering about 21.42 percent
of total area of the District of Kulawi and another one located between 501 - 1,000 m above sea
level covering around 78.58 percent.
The district has a strategic role for Sigi regency, especially in relation to the increased
growth of the region and public services for the people who live relatively far from the center of
government. Nowadays, Kulawi has unique characteristics in the presence of protected areas and
indigenous areas which still survive. Existence of customary lands and protected areas might be
become authorized (social capital) for Kulawi regional development. The main priorities of
developing Kulawi are improving public services and accelerating the development of
environmentally sound.
In line with the development of the region, climatic conditions have an influence on the
concept of area development in those areas where people are expected to be able to adapt to
environmental changes that occur. In order to reveal people's perception on climate change and
38
adaptation strategies that will be developed, so the location of research is conducted in rural
areas directly adjacent to the core area of Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve (Lore Lindu National
Park area), Toro village.
Toro society is often referred to as the Toro or "to i Toro" who is one of the local
communities living in the area with mountainous topography in buffer zone of Lore Lindu
Biosphere Reserve, District Kulawi, Sigi. Toro village Or Ngata Toro is about 15 km from the
Capital District Bolapapu and about 86 km from the provincial capital of Palu.
In the language Kulawi, Toro means "rest". This terminology refers to a region that has
been abandoned by its inhabitants in a long time, so it becomes wilderness. Displacement of
population of Malino to Toro has been estimated about 500 years ago. The forced displacement
was caused by waging of war with other tribes. Family and was forced to flee when it was as
much as 7 households, under the leadership of Mpone (Shohibuddin, 2003).
Toro traditional societies have 3 hierarchical social stratifications that is "maradika" or
group of nobles, todea or ordinary folk, and Batua or slaves. Based on data processed, majority
of Toro communities who are subsistence farmers have educational background in high school
level by 42%. It can be seen in the composition of respondents that they are members of 10
farmer groups in Toro village. The proportion of respondent’s sample for education can be seen
in the following graph.
Figure 18. Education level of Toro Community (Source: Field Data 2012)
39
Communal areas Toro Society
Toro community land area is located in the valleys and slopes of the mountains, and
when it is viewed in passing, residential areas and farming communities Toro forming the letter
"M" that crept into the Lore Lindu National Park area is a core area of Lore Lindu Biosphere
Reserve. To go to this region, there is a narrow slit as the only one way in a mountainside
winding that connects the village with other villages. The geographical conditions lead to Toro
region is being almost an "enclave" surrounded by residential areas and farms and directly
adjacent to Lore Lindu National Park area. In general, the whole region is dominated by
mountains including Toro Pobailoa Mountains, Kalabui, Kaumuku, Toworo, Onco, Tawaeli,
Topolo, Potaka Jara, Powibia, and others. This area lies at an altitude between 700-800 meters
above sea level, so it has a cool air.
Figure 19. Traditional land ownership of Toro community in Lore Lindu Biosphere
Reserve (LLNP, 2012)
Ngata Toro region is dominated by mountains and it can be found several major rivers,
such as the River Sopa, Biro, Pengemoa, Alumiu, Leangko, Pono, Bola, Mewe and Kadundu.
40
The boundaries of indigenous territories claimed Toro community is bordered by Mataue
(natural boundary Mount Podoroa) and Katu (natural boundary river Biro and Hawuraga) in the
east; with Oo Parese (Mahue natural boundary) and Lawua (Potowoa Noa natural boundary) at
south and with Sungku (natural boundary Mount Toengi) and Winatu (natural boundary Halua
River) in the west.
Meanwhile, residential areas and rural farming of Toro is a stretch of mountain valley
surrounded by two rows of hills protruding. The result is a settlement that follows the contour of
the existing physical coincides to form the letter "W" when viewed from SIS in Lore Lindu
National Park area. Residential areas are concentrated in one of the pieces is almost symmetric,
while the area of rice fields spread evenly along the radius of the letter "W".
Toro communities for a long time and in the surrounding villages know that rice
cultivation is supported by a good regularly irrigation system. It can be assumed that in the past,
this region has a relatively high culture. Therefore, the irrigation system is only possible with an
effective government capable to mobilizing labor and is able to divide and arrange the water
regularly.
People who are considered to have meritorious in developing the farm system is "Balu".
He was the first person who introduces the cultivation of rice in the rice paddies to its people. In
addition, Balu is also considered to have meritorious in developing a strong defense system by
establishing a trained fighting force. In the past, waging of wars between tribes is common in this
area. During this period of Balu leadership, hegemony Kulawi reaches a very large region,
including the Rampi, Seko, Rongkong and Bada in the south, and Parigi in the East (Garang,
1985).
Until now, Toro is still an important rice producing areas. Until a few decades ago, Toro
has dozens of varieties of local rice known as: hamonu, toburasa and also lelo kuru, halaka,
kanari, gembira, togomigi, garangka, bengawan, baraya and banca rone (paddy rice) and all of
these are extinct. There was also a tingkalolo red, black tingkaloko, topada, drain, raki, karangi
sticky rice, and tens bete (paddy rice) which are rarely grown anymore.
Some of these local varieties become extinct since the introduction of new rice varieties
in the 1970s which are generally much shorter cropping period and provide more yields. Paddy
fields have been abandoned even after much cocoa cultivation since the early 1990s in this area.
The only one of local rice variety which is still often planted is raki.
41
In carrying agricultural activities, this community knows that labor relations system
called "mapalus" labor exchange that includes a variety of activities. Thus, implementation of
this mapalus is not only limited to agriculture, but also for other various activities, such as
construction of houses, weddings, ceremonies grief and so on.
Figure 20. Settlement area of Toro community in buffer zone of Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve
42
Generally, farming communities who live in the village of Toro, District Kulawi, have
rice fields as subsistence farmers and have a garden planted with chocolate and coffee as the
main commodities. Most communities (75%) have fields and gardens and only a small fraction
(17%) of Toro villagers who only have rice fields or their own fields, while at least 8% people
have the fields. The composition of agricultural land cultivated by villagers of Toro illustrated in
the following graph.
Figure 21. Land ownership of Toro community (Source: Field Data 2012)
Biophysics environment
Ngata Toro is geographically located between 120o 1’ BT - 120o 3’30’’ BT dan 1o
29’30’’ LS - 1o 32’ LS. Ngata Toro region has an area of approximately ± 229.5 km2 (22,950 ha)
and lay at an average altitude of 800 m above sea level. Ngata Toro has a topography including
mountains into categories, while settlements and agriculture are generally concentrated in the
valleys and slopes are surrounded by mountains like: Kalabui, Kaumuku, Toworo, onco,
Tawaeli, Topolo, Potaka Jara, and Powibia (see Figure Map).
According to the weather observation station in Kulawi, the average annual rainfall in
this area ranges from 200-3.500 mm per year in the period of 1997-2004, relative humidity
43
85.17%, with an average monthly temperature of 23,4oC. Heaviest rainfall occurred in April and
May (Gerold et al. 2002).
Knowledge of Toro community about biological resources and its environment
Toro community has a good knowledge about diversity of natural resources and its environment,
also has a wisdom in the management of them.
resources, especially in terms of spatial distribution and utilization. This society divides it in
accordance with the spatial system utilization as shown in the following table.
Table 3. Categorization of indigenous land of Toro The scope Function Traditional rules
Prohibition forest (wana ngkiki, Wana)
Sacred, spot wildlife, water resources, rituals, damar and rattan collection
- Givu - Forbidden to
processed
Forest reserve (pangale)
Legacy for posterity, traditional medicines, rattan and resin collection
- Mogane - Mehabi - Mosambulu gana - Givu
Processed forest (oma, Balingkea, Pohawa pongko)
Gardens, fields, grazing paddock - Nompehulu manu - Vunca
Villages Settlement, yards, villages, and gardens - Nompemhule manu - Vunca
Rice fields paddy farming - Nompehulu manu - Vunca
Source: Golar (2006)
However, at this time, there has been a change in their environment caused by the
intervention of market economy and political dynamics. Intervention in the economy caused by
the changing preferences of the market economy of society due to high demand for commercial
crops, such as cocoa (Theobroma cacao), coffee (Coffea sp.) and vanilla (Vanilla planifolia).
Meanwhile, political pressure that occurs in Toro is dominated by imbalance problems of land
44
tenure and land ownership in Toro. Then, it leads to weaken traditional institutions control
functions to the management and utilization of forest resources (Golar, 2006).
Toro society has divided the region according to its function and has been regulated by
the customary law such as residential areas, farming areas, the area of land conversion, forest
areas, protected areas and sacred. The spatial division is an adaptation to the environment to take
advantage of need fulfillment. Through the spatial distribution, society can use it as intended in
order to ensure its sustainability.
Figure 22. The spatial division and its utilisation (Source: Golar, 2006)
Areas for improvement in the spatial distribution of each unit are proportion of the
environment, so it will not suffer losses due to inadequate regional proportions. For example, the
proportion between the conservation areas for production activities should be proportional to the
ratio of 1 to 10, so that environmental balance will remain intact. Spatial distribution in term of
proportion will be explored in more depth study in the upcoming year to determine the extent to
which strategies developed by the Toro.
45
3.3. The Diversity of Biological Resources
a. The useful plant diversity
The observation about number and kinds of useful plants utilizated is presented in Table
2, which is the result of observations in 2012 and 2013. Numbers of useful plants are presented
in table represent the number of useful plant known to use by Napu and Toro. In daily life,
people in the two sites only use a small fraction of them. For example, knowledge of the type of
firewood is nearly 50 species of wood, but in life, only utilizing about 5-10 types of wood. By
the government's program on using of gas, the use of firewood is gradually decreased, especially
in the food stall owners in Valley of Napu and Kulawi. Similarly, for the use of other types of
medicinal plants, society did not take better advantage of the medicinal plants which are only 2-3
% of the overall species are known to the public. Numbers of useful plants and its utilization
categories is shown in Table 4.
Table 4. The category of the diversity of plant utilization The category of plant utilization
Number of useful species
Napu community
Toro community
A. Domesticated and cultivated plants 1. Prociple food 1 1 2. Supplement foods 2.1. Vegetable and pulse 20 12-15 2.2. Plant producing oil 2 1 2.3. Tuber 6 7 2.4. Spices 9 6 2.5. Drink material 5 5 2.6. Fruit and grain 14 14 3. Forage 3 3 4. Plants producing latex and resin 2 2 5. Plants producing fibre and rubber 1 1 6. Stimulant 2 2 7. Firewood 4 4 8. Ornamental plants 12 15 9. Aromatic and cosmetic plants 2 2 10. Coloring plants 5 4 11. Plants for ritual material and Adat 3 3 12. Fertilizer 2 1
46
13. Outil 5 4 14. Poison 1 1 15. Miscellaneous - - B. Wild Plant 1. Food material of non medicinal plants 1.1. Leaves, tronc and pouses 3 5 1.2. Flower, fruit and grains 9 10 1.3. Tuber, rhizoma, racines - - 1.4. Spices 2 1 1.5. Drink material 1 1 2. Plant producing latex and resin - - 3. Ropes materials - - 3.1. Canes 9 9 3.2. Binding/weaving - - 4. Coloring material 2 2 5. Ornamental plants 5 7 6. Fibre material (vetement and outil) 5 6 7. Outil material (home, agriculture, war material) 13 12 8. Music and game material 1 2-3 9. Aromatic and cosmetics 5 5 10. Stimulant 1 1 11. Building material (house) 11.1. Scaffold 52 50-60 11.2. Pole 24 20-30 11.3. Roof 34 20-30 11.4. Wall 15 10 12. Fire wood 34 45 13. Commercial timber 67 60 14. Ecological indicators 2 2 15. Custom and ritual material 1 2 16. Mushrooms 4 4 17. Poison 4 4 17.1. Fish poison 2 2 17.2. Other poison 2 2 18. Miscellaneous - - C. Medicinal plants 100 60 1. Cultivated plants 10 10 2. Wild plants 90 50 D. Special characteristic plants - - E. Semi-domestic plants - -
Sources: Purwanto and Susiarti (2003); Field Data (2012. 2013)
Napu communities living around protected areas have a good knowledge of diversity of
useful plants in their environment. Table 4 shows that people in the two study areas have a high
47
dependence on the presence of plant diversity. In general, they take advantage of its diversity of
by growing them at sourroundings for subsistence and meeting economic needs of the household.
At this time, the community has undertaken extractive activities rarely, especially in searching
non-timber forest products in surrounding forest area. They just take advantage of some species
of rattan, bamboo and some types of medicinal herbs when they need them.
Identification and characterization of diversity of useful plants show that there are some
kinds of plants which are economically beneficial that can potentially be further developed into
seed plant in the region, such as rattan, fruits and others. On the other side, field observations
indicate that majority Napu Valley is grassland areas within infertile soil conditions contain sand,
acidic pH, low nutrient soils and shallow solum. It has been cultivated for cassava on an
industrial scale through the application of its cultivation in a modern way. Land improvement
through organic fertilizer and temperature increased affect to the good results on growth of
cassava in the region.
b. The types of important and potential plants
Based on calculation of Index of Cultural Significance (ICS) of useful plants in Lore
Region of Napu, some kinds are contributed significantly to local communities in the region. The
types of plants that have a high value indicate that the type of ICS is important for people living
in Wuasa. Therefore, developments of these species are basically important for Wuasa
community.
Calculations are based on the use of ICS intensity value, exclusivity and quantity. The
value of ICS describing the types of plants that is considered important for local communities
and become a basis for futher development. ICS value of a useful plant species can be attributed
to its economic value and would be a good baseline for the development toward cultivating them
that have not been cultivated yet. In addition, ICS value of a useful plant might also be
associated with important values of useful plant in their natural habitat.
If ICS value of a useful plant is high and also high importance, its presence does not
interfere with sustainability aspects. Conversely, if ICS is low, then the plants will need special
treatment in order to save them from exploitation and extinction. Therefore, many kinds of
development alternatives are needed to be maintained and preserved them.
48
Useful plant that have a high ICS values are presented in Table 5. Some food of
carbohydrate sources that have the highest value of ICS are rice (Oryza sativa), cassava
(Manihot esculenta), maize (Zea mays), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and sago (Sago
metroxylon). Sweet potato has wide distribution ranging from lowlands to highlands, so it might
be developed as a type of plant that is resistant to changes in climatic variables. The types of
fruits that most people find them important are mango (Mangifera indica), jackfruit (Artocarpus
hiterophyllus), papaya (Carica papaya), banana (Musa spp.) and orange (Citrus spp.). Most
types of vegetables which have important value in community’s life are tomato (Lycoperssicon
esculentum), carrot (Daucus carota), cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var.botrytis), cabbage
(Brassica oleracea var. Capitata), and beans (Vigna unguiculata). The only two types of crops
that are considered essential in Lore Lindu are coffee (Coffea spp.) and clove (Eugenia
aromatica).
Table 5. ICS Value of Useful Plants
No Plant species and the utilization ICS value
A Food material
1 Food material as carbohydrate source
1. Pare (Oryza sativa) 74
2. Uwi kau (Manihot esculenta) 32
3. Gogoa (Zea mays) 29.5
4. Uwi ntepi (Ipomoea batatas) 32
5. Hinaku (Metroxylon sago) 32
2 Fruits
1. Asa (Mangifera indica) 27
2. Nanaka (Artocarpus hyterophyllus) 27
3. Papaya (Carica papaya) 27
4. Loka (Musa spp.) 26
5. Lemo (Citrus aurantifolia) 26
3 Vegetable
1. Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) 20
49
2. Carrot (Daucus carota) 20
3. Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var botrytis) 25
4. Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) 20
5. Beans (Vigna unguiculata) 20
4 Drink Material
1. Towu (Saccharum offcinarum) 30
2. Lemon (Citrus sp.) 30
B Estate Plant
1 Coffee (Coffea sp.) 46
2 Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) 40
C Non timber forest products (NTFPs)
1 Medicinal plants material
1. Hiha (Alstonia scholaris) 44
2. Kanau (Arenga pinnata) 26
3. Balakama (Ocimum utilisimum) 22
4. Kanuna (Cordia sp.) 22
5. Timbu (Glochidion sp.) 27
2 Handicraft material and others
1. Rattan (Calamus spp.) 36
2. Wone (Dysoxylum sp.) 42
3. Arogo (Premna obtusifolia) 31
4. Lebanu (Nauclea orientalis) 23
5. Pahabo (Ficus sp.) 20
Source: Purwanto (2010) and Field Data 2012)
Furthemore, for non-cultivation of useful plant, the important value is known for some
plants used in traditional medicines such as Alstonia scholaris, Arenga pinnata, Ocimum
utilisimum, Cordia sp., and Glochidion sp. Several economic potential plants that can be
developed forwards to become a flagship species in the region are rattan, fruits and others.
50
c. The utlization and development of plant resources
Utilization and development of natural resources by communities in Valley of Napu are
still not optimal if we refer to the wealth of natural resources and land fertility in this region.
3.4. Community strategies to face climate change
As we reported in 2012, a change of climate elements such as precipitation behaviour
change, increase in temperature, wind and humidity behaviour have been felt by Napu society.
However, people do not know how the expression of climate changes and its causes. In order to
reduce the risk of failure, Napu takes some local measurement methods to reduce the risk of crop
failure. They spend a lot concern about to find some kind of suitable crop varieties grown on
agricultural land and paddy fields as the action to response to climate change. Based on the field
survey, at least 41% of local farming community seeks other types of plants that are resistant to
pests and weather, so it will expect to earn the maximum yields. An overview of their responses
or strategies to climate change can be seen in the following graph.
Figure 23. Adaptation strategy of the Napu society on variable climatic change. (Source: Field Data 2012)
Community adaptation strategies to changing climatic variables mentioned in Figure 22
show that the majority of people still rely on farming activities for their production activities.
They are actually to seek the other jobs temporarily to meet their needs and generally, it has
51
carried out by the people who have limited arable land. They were looking for the other jobs if
the conditions of production activities have enabled.
Based on in depth observations (2013) about understanding Napu community to climate
change, it can be known that the phenomenon of climate change according to the people who
live in Valley of Napu is about uncertainty or difficulties of predicting weather conditions for
people in the region who rely on agriculture production activities in their life. The results showed
most people (90% of respondents) stated that by the change in weather over the last few years
has affected their farming activities, especially farming and plantation crops.
Climate change might have reflected uncertainty changes in temperature and weather in
the area around of the village of Toro, District Kulawi, Sigi and they response to this changes by
adaptation efforts. Adaptation activities are conducted by society and mostly dominated by
seeking the prospect elsewhere, especially find a job to the city (other) (over 50%), changing the
way farming 17%, adding of production tools (17%) and gathering forest products and look for
another job, respectively by 8%. The following figure ilustrate a detailed explanation on
community efforts to adapt to climate change if those changes have an influence on the failure of
farming activities.
Figure 24. Adaptation strategy of Toro Society on variable climate change
52
Advanced research results (2013) about the community’s efforts in dealing with climate
change are presented in Figure 24. The figure shows that the efforts of community in the face of
unpredictable weather changes are choosing to change the pattern of farming in accordance with
the characteristics of changes in the weather (85%), looking for the cause of failure, are looking
for what caused the climatic elements reductions in yield or production failure (10%) and 5 % of
respondents look for the other alternatives. For example, precipitation data continue to increase
in number over the last 3 years that the community would prefer to develop rice farming. This
choice is appropriate significantly because abundant rainfall is more suitable for rice farming
compared to commercialize type crops or horticultural crops.
Figure 25. The society effort face on variable climatic change. Source: Field Data 2013 (analyse)
The results showing the community's efforts to find out cause of failure on farming (10%
of respondents) indicated that the society has ability to examine whether failure on farming due
to climate change or by other causes. Examining ability of cause of failure or deterioration of
farming production can support efforts to select adaptation strategies developed in order to
reduce the risk of crop failure.
53
a. The production activities
Traditionally, main activities of local people who live in the valley area of Napu are a
farmer. However, since the arrival of settlers in the region who seek a variety of horticultural
crops, local communities in the Valley of Napu also tried many types of horticultural crops
especially vegetables. Shifting in agricultural activities as part of adaptation to climate change is
transmitted by learning of the growing immigrant community’s horticultural products produced
by the North Lore District. Improving production of horticulture crops is one way in which
community in addressing phenomenon of climate change in their neighborhood. It seems based
on the responses of respondents, 85% said the climate change it is to change the way they farm
(Figure 24). Newly developed farming activity is by improving plantations like coffee and cocoa
crops.
Biophysical characteristics of Valley of Napu region provide many opportunities for
people to pursue a variety of agricultural commodities. It can be an opportunity for the
community to undertake a wide selection of farming systems in the face of changing conditions
such as unpredictable weather in recent years.
According to the community, some commodities which have a chance to grown in the
Valley of Napu include horticulture, rice, cocoa and food crops (especially corn and peanuts).
Some commodities are promising to be developed as well as the adequacy of economic resources
and people's food needs. In general, the local communities tend to an open or pragmatic towards
agricultural commodities which contribute an economic value significantly and they will try to
work on that without prompting. Horticultural commodities that are currently pursued, are
assumed as promising products because they had been still earn good results and can be done
within a short span of time. Figure 25 shows the results of observations about some kinds of
farming which are considered to provide economic benefits and food for their households.
54
Figure 26. Farming activities that are considered beneficial to the local communities in the Napu Valley. (Source: Field data, 2013)
b. Rice Farming
Activities of rice farming communities in the Valley Napu include rice farming and rice
farming fields. Rice farming is grown in areas that have water sources, while the cultivated fields
of rice farming activities on dry land and water resources are highly dependent on the availability
of rainwater. In the past, people in this region are also seeking land for rice fields, but since the
settlers come, people prefer to cultivate rice farming and utilize wetlands in the region, especially
around the river. They started to build irrigation canals and creating farmer groups which are
trained by the Department of Agriculture through the Agricultural Extension.
Communities in the Valley of Napu have had planting calendar for paddy crop which is
based on the experience to know characteristics of climatic conditions in the region. Figure 26
shows rice crop planting calendar that developed in the Pekurehua community, Valley of Napu.
55
Figure 27. Rice planting schedule of the Napu Society in Napu Valley. (Photo: Purwanto, 2012)
The planting schedule above informs to farmers when safe and not safe to plant rice and
it has been proven highly effective for reducing the risk of failure due to attack by pests and
weather disturbances. Rice planting schedule with a red sign means not good time to paddy
cultivation and the months are January-February, June-August and December-January.
Furthermore, a sign of yellow means caution in performing activities of rice cultivation and the
months are April to June and October to December. In addition, a good schedule for planting is
green which includes February to April and August to October.
Most people of Napu also believe in the existence of the months that are not good for the
plant because these will be attacked by pests. According to the Napu statement, the months
which are not good for plant and will cause pests attack are in May, June and July. This
knowledge is based on the experiences of their ancestors that they do not conduct activities in
paddy fields during the growth due to pests and diseases.
However, within a few years (5 years) is that the last planting schedule has been ignored
by the people in the District of North Lore due to changes and unpredictable in climatic
56
variables. Actually, changes in cropping pattern are also an effort of adaptation strategies to the
conditions of climate change in the region, but due to changes in cropping patterns, these manage
individually and not performed in groups which lead to several consequences, such as:
- Different planting time remain the presence of pests and diseases because its cycle is not
broken, such as stem borer and rat;
- The uses of different cultivars can lead to different time of harvesting and planting stages.
Differences in planting and harvesting time also increase higher risk of pests and
diseases, mainly by pest birds, mice and stem borer.
- There is no coordination between in the pattern and timing of planting: planting time and
cultivar types which were developed resulting in the reappearance of some rice pests and
they are actually difficult to overcome such as rat, rice borer, planthopper and others.
In terms of the amount of agricultural land in the District North Lore, Poso, until 2010, it
has increased the amount of arable land area (Table 6). However, comparing the cultivated area
with the rice yield per hectare has decreased than the previous year. It can conclude that
agricultural activities carried out by local communities in the Valley of Napu turn to face the
problem. Issues related to agriculture is one of the starting amount of rice pests and diseases such
as the emergence of the disease white and red leaf stems and planthopper pests, rodents and birds
as well as the technical issues facing agriculture. So, production of paddy cultivated by local
communities has decreased by 0.25 tons/ha in 2010 and 0.49 tonnes/ha in 2009.
Table 6. Harvested Area and Production of Rice in Year 2008 – 2010
Types of plants Harvested area (ha) Production (ton)
2008 2009 2010 2008 2009 2010
Rice 703 655 1.356 2.907,43 1.327,66 5.367,63
Paddy field - - - - - -
Source: Kecamatan Lore Utara Dalam Angka 2010, BPS
57
c. Crop Farming
Farming system has shifted to the type of crops grown including maize (Zea mays),
cassava (Manihot esculenta), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) and
soybean (Glycine max). Corn acreage has increased dramatically, but its production has
decreased significantly (Table 7). Declining maize production in 2009 is likely due to the high
rainfall in the region in which is not found in dry and rainfall in the range of 100-300 mm per
month. Cassava planting area in the Valley of Napu also experienced a significant increase in
2010 (> 200 ha), because in this region, cassava is cultivated in marginal lands by employers of
tapioca starch and it can be a solution in utilizing marginal land. In general, the any kinds of
crops are cultivating by local communities in this region, except for peanuts and cassava which
are cultivated by employer. The productions of crops in the region until 2010 are presented in
Table 7.
Table 7. Harvested Area and Production of Crop in Year 2008-2010
Types of plants Harversted area (ha) Production (ton)
2008 2009 2010 2008 2009 2010
Corn 143 127 262 339,47 139,25 104,25
Cassava 20 15 24 286,86 114,58 432,62
Sweet potato 9 22 18 89,97 93,88 188,61
Peanuts 2 4 2 2,64 2,65 3,04
Green beans - - - - - -
Soya beans - 3 - - 3,04 -
Source: Kecamatan Lore Utara Dalam Angka 2010, BPS
d. Horticultural Crop Farming
Types of horticultural crops cultivated in the Valley of Napu are vegetables and fruits.
Diversity of plant species cultivated by horticultural society in the Valley of Napu is presented in
Table 6. Vegetable crops favored by the people in the Valley of Napu are tomatoes, onions,
cabbage and chili/pepper. However, the actual operation of vegetable crops based on market
demand and that there is a growing trend in the region. Communities in the region stated that in
58
determining the types of plants that will be planted vegetables they also calculate the time based
on market needs.
This stage is important because the outcome would have selling higher value and reduce
excess supply in the market, as revealed by one of the following sources:
"... We are farmers trying to find information about other areas that also have the same
characteristics as the Napu Valley area. Do not let the rest grow tomatoes then this region also
grows tomatoes in the same period. If that happens then the price will fall, so we are trying to
plant some crops that do not exist in the other region and the needs of the vegetables will be
supplied from this region " (a farmer from the village Alitupu).
e. Production
Productions of vegetables in Valley of Napu have up and down from year to year (Table
8 and Table 9). Some vegetable crops, such as onions in 2010 significantly increased from 47.6
tons to 2,685 tons. Increasing onion production from this area due to addition of onion crop areal
extents and it is not caused by the introduction of new technology or innovation of onion
cultivation. The addition of planting area is also promoted by interest of local community to
develop vegetable farming following the immigrant communities.
Table 8. Harvested Area and Production of Vegetable Plants (Year 2010)
Types of plants Land Area (ha) Production (ton)
2008 2009 2010 2008 2009 2010
Scallion 32 29 35 1.937,41 683,64 437,5
Red onion 5 10 7 302,70 186,96 47,6
Collards 11 27 35 510,10 429,66 472,5
Tomatoes 43 68 65 1.771,27 540,02 955,5
Potato 25 4 5 2.101,88 662,96 75
Snaps 4 8 10 87,34 40,76 140
Cucumber 3 3 5 88,38 58,92 82,5
Beans 40 12 15 1.220,67 272,52 16,5
Chilli 38 11 12 699,68 165,15 163,2
59
Eggplant 3 2 2 97,79 - 29
Spinach 2 2 2 18,38 17,04 24
Kale 2 1 1 96,48 50,76 12
Source: Kecamatan Lore Utara Dalam Angka 2010, BPS
Some vegetable crops production decreased significantly between 2008, 2009 and 2010
(Table 8). Declining vegetable production in 2009 and in 2010 is due to (1) decreasing in acreage
and (2) weather conditions (climatic variables) that occurred in 2010: the rainy season occurs
throughout the year. According to the public information, It was a year with no dry season in
2010. Precipitation data in 2010 shows that monthly average of more than 100 mm, so it means
that there was no dry month in 2010. Regarding the high rainfall conditions and the rainy season
occurs during the year led to the growth of vegetables and impaired production decreased,
especially for the types of vegetables that are not resistant to the abundance of water, such as the
types of pepper (Capsicum annuum, Capsicum frustescens), potato (Solanum tuberosum), tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum), onion (Allium cepa) and scallion (Allium sp.) and others.
Production declined in 2010 did not continue in 2011 and most of the vegetables
productions have increased dramatically. Increasing onion production is due to increased area of
planting onions and also the weather conditions that support which the amount of precipitation
does not occur throughout the year. Besides that, people began to make land drainage in
vegetable farming.
Table 9. Vegetable crops and production in North Lore District year 2009-2011. Source: Kecamatan Lore Utara Dalam Angka, 2012 (BPS)
Types of plants Number of production (ton/year)
2009 2010 2011
Scallion (Allium sp.) 673,64 437,5 213,0
Red onion (Allium cepa) 186,96 47,6 2.685,0
Collards (Brassica chinensis) 429,66 472,5 862,0
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) 540,02 955,5 555,5
Potato (Solanum tuberosum) 662,96 75 245,4
60
f. Plantantion farming
Plantation species cultivated by local communities in the Valley of Napu include coffee
and cocoa plant. In the last ten years, the local communities in the Valley of Napu prefer
commercialize cocoa on land mostly planted gardens compared with coffee plants. They tend to
choose cocoa because it is more profitable than coffee. Besides that, the price of cocoa beans
more stable and easier to sells than coffee beans. Thus, area of coffee plantations tends to decline
from year to year due to the conversion into cocoa.
In general, the production of chocolate is not as good as in previous years and continues
to decline results. Cocoa yield reduction can be seen in Table 8. Cocoa production in 2008
reached 645 tonnes, while in 2009 the production decreased by 50% which is only about 326.4
tons and in 2010 amounted to 338.63 tons. Cocoa prices at this time amounted to Rp 15,000 -
Rp. 16,000 per kilogram. The highest price ever received by cocoa farmers amounting to Rp.
20,000 per kilogram. Decline in cocoa production is attributed to the reduction in brown garden
outside the area are also caused by lack of good cultivation techniques developed societies, such
as lawn care, thinning systems, maintenance shade trees, irregular spacing and cleanliness of the
garden. As a result, many garden pests and diseases primarily of fruit rot diseases that decrease
production.
Cultivation of cocoa by the local communities in the Valley of Napu was copied and
adapted from the knowledge of migrant society of Napu which is from outside of the region. So,
the knowledge acquisition of cultivation is still not yet fully as immigrant communities. Recent
developments in the behavioural effects of changes in rainfall and increase in temperature as the
understanding of climate change, has led to the emergence of pests and diseasesof cocoa. People
Snaps 40,76 140 343,7
Cucumber (Cucumis sativum) 58,92 82,5 45,5
Beans (Vigna unguiculata) 272,52 16,5 178,2
Chili (Capsicum annum and C. frutescens) 165,15 163,2 112,2
Terung (Solanum melongena) - 29 162,0
Eggplant (Amaranthus spp.) 17,04 24 492,5
Kale (Ipomoea aquatica) 50,76 12 754,2
61
try various efforts to address pests and diseases problem such as creating smoke by burning the
litter around the cocoa.
Combusting organic materials and curing the garden area are expected to repel pests of
cocoa and even kill plants. However, this method has not been widely known by public. This is
quite reasonable because local communities’s culture does not even manage cocoa plantations
hereditary habits. Based on public information of cocoa plantation owners, pests causing fruit rot
can decrease in yield reached 30-50 % cocoa chocolate from the 50 to 80 kg per month.
Table 10. Land Area and Plantation Coffee and Chocolate Production Year 2008-2010
Types of plants Land area (ha) Production (ton)
2008 2009 2010 2008 2009 2010
Coffee 465 116,5 27 177 147,3 9,45
Cocholate 1.675 713 903 645 326,4 338,63
Vanili 12 3 1 21,3 - -
Source: Kecamatan Lore Utara Dalam Angka 2010, BPS
Cocoa plantation area in 2009 decreased due to a rejuvenation in several locations by
using superior cultivars derived from Research Center of Coffee and Cocoa in Jember, East Java,
which was introduced by the Forestry Department. Introduction of new cultivars of Jember is not
through trial and acclimation or adaptation to the region. This leads to concern about possibility
of new problems such as susceptibility to pests and diseases of fruit rot. Some experiences in
several areas such as in Serui show that the introduction of new cocoa cultivars has actually
created a new problem by the emergence of pests and diseases of fruit rot and cause significant
harm to cocoa plantations in the region.
g. Effect of Agricultural Activity Against Climate Change
Based on the results of research on the influence of climate change, according to the local
communities in the Valley of Napu, show that climate change affects the outcome of farming.
Most or 50% of the public believe that climate change has resulted in their earnings fell by more
than 10% when compared to the previous. Picture of magnitude of the effect of climate change
on farming results can be seen in Figure 27.
62
Figure 28. The effect of climatic condition change on farming activities. Source: Field data 2012
For example, the drought that occurred in 2005 has resulted in a decrease in rice yields of
25% and more than 40% cocoa. Climate change was also felt by the villagers Toro and has an
influence on their agricultural operations. According to respondents, conditions of climate
change are such as a change in temperature and weather changes lead them to become uncertain
and unpredictable. It influences on agricultural activity especially in planting time of rice
farming and cocoa crops. For rice farming activities, Toro villagers prefer to use an organic way than using artificial
fertilizers. Organic rice farming of Toro might be the mainstay of farming products with labeling of
organic products and agricultural products of the biosphere reserve. In addition, the Toro also has
produced a unique tasty ginger coffee. Agricultural products from the Toro region can also "branding" as
a biosphere reserve product and it will promote a high selling price.
Based on field observations, the Toro stated that climate change might lead to behavioral cocoa
crop losses by more than 5% compared to the previous periods. The effect of climate change on
agricultural production can be seen in the following figure:
63
Figure 29. The effect of climatic change on farming activities of Toro Society. (Field Data on 2012)
h. Efforts to confront climate change Pekurehua communities in the Valley of Napu have their own view in the face of climate change
or weather which is occuring in their environment. Many relevant actions are taken by community
as a strategy to tackle climate change and to seek how to increase the value of agricultural products
independently. Local communities have sought a breakthrough on farming indicators that have
economic and strategic opportunities for economic development continuously.
Willingness to be independent was revealed based on the statement of questionnaire
respondents in answering questions related to the strategy pursued, whether individually or in
community based groups. This is because the people who successfully manage agricultural
activities based on personal effort and most of them are migrant communities from another part
of Sulawesi, Java and Bali. The following figure shows that the people who create the effort
more independent (65%) compared to the way groups (35%) in fostering innovation and
vegetable crops farming strategies.
64
Figure 30. The society effort face on climatic change. Source: Field data (2013)
Based on data derived from the plant production of Napu Valley region, it shows that vegetable
crops play an important role in people's lives in this region. For local communities, seeking horticultural
crops, especially vegetables types which are adaptable to erratic weather conditions, requires a good
strategy. Beside that, they also argue that organicfertilizers is needed to increase production and to be
more environmentally friendly. The use of technology and organic fertilizer are guided and supported
by the Department of Agriculture through counseling. Some efforts should be taken to increase
community capacity in provisioning of organic fertilizer on their own, because it is still supplied from
outside the Valley of Napu. People consider using organic fertilizers because of its good retained in
soil when rainfall occured. Communities in the Valley Napu have a good opportunity to develop
their own abundant natural resources. So far, management of natural resources has been pursued more
independently so that the results have not been optimal yet. Therefore, it needs support from various
parties, especially in developing adaptation strategies to climate change or erratic weather.
Actually, the people in this region have undertaken some ways appropriately at this time in the
face of the phenomenon of erratic weather changes, such as adjusting the pattern and timing of planting,
but it still needs assistance of a technical nature related to choosing of crops, cropping patterns and
planting time. It is explained from interviews with repondents stating as follows:
65
"... We realize that there are many opportunities to manage this area becomes more economic
value, one of which we are looking for possibilities to grow apples on land that exists today. ... ".
And develop other types of more profitable crops such as farming of plants flowers and fruit
crops that have high economic value other than apples.
The above statement implies that some people who have been aware at farming activities
by introducing other horticultural crops consider its opportunities. However, public have not had
the ability yet to implement and realize their own wish. Therefore, it needs much support from
various stakeholders, especially local government, to be able to provide technical assistance in
bridging the needs of community in managing and developing their land become productive and
more profitable. Then, it also can provide measurement to face phenomenon of climate change or
weather during the time of uncertainty. Some technical assistance might include development of new innovations and appropriate
technology which are easily applied by public, such as water-saving in agriculture during water
shortages, developing water reservoir system to prevent flooding and others. The two important of non-
technical assistance to people are capital assistance and marketing. Napu Valley area is vegetables
producer for Central Sulawesi and surrounding region, and even partly exported to Kalimantan and
others, so that it is needed a better trading system leads to promote more profitable producer
communities. In addition, vegetable processing company in the region is needed to increase economic
value and to encourage increased development of vegetable farming in the region.
The observation of people's views in developing adaptation and mitigation strategies to climate
change by managing natural resources and its environment is presented in the following figure:
66
Figure 31. Point of view of local people on the increasing capability effort to capability development on biodiversity management strategy face on the climate change. (Source: Field Data, 2013)
i. Adaptation strategies to changing climatic elements and development In accordance with the research objectives that will observe local adaptation strategies in
addressing climate change conditions, the main thing that needs to be explored is related to
people's understanding of what is referred to climate change. Society of Napu incorporated in the
village farmer groups Wuasa show that most or 59% of public view about climate change is
uncertainty on temperature and weather conditions (amount of precipitation, number of rainy
days, a period of rainy season and dry season period) in their neighborhood. Society believes that
uncertainty on temperature and weather was affect current agricultural activity. Picture of
people's views on climate change can be seen in the following graph:
67
Figure 32. Percentage of local society point of view on climatic change. Source: Field Data (2013)
Climate change or changes in weather that felt by the people in Valley of Napu affecting farming
activities are:
(1) Air conditioning
One of local perceptions about climate change is already an increase in air temperature,
precipitation problems and erratic weather conditions (field observation, 2012). Data on changes in air
temperature in this region is not available either. Changes in air temperature are based only on the results
of perception observed about temperature which increase from year to year. Changes in air temperature
in the region also helped influence the pattern of farming activity in the region. For example, it affects to
the development of vegetables such as chickpeas, long beans and others. Some types of vegetables such
as peas and beans have a good prospect in the Valley Napu and they can be developed in intercropping
with other types of other vegetables.
Increased temperatures might also lead to emergence of new pests in the region. For example,
according to the public information that increased air temperature has led to enhance of rice borer
attacks and they became more severe than ever been before. It is still necessary to provide scientific
evidence.
(2) Precipitation
Rainfall conditions assumed by the people in Valley Pekurehua Napu are:
68
a) Excessive precipitation is the highest amount of rainfall each year which causes disruption
to farming. For instance, flooded rice fields beyond necessary and cause damage to the rice
crop; plantations (cocoa and coffee) get into stagnant water which lead to production failure;
vegetable farming areas inundated failure of production, and others.
b) Less rainfall is the lowest amount of rainfall for farming and has led to crop failure and loss
as others as well. The consequences of lack of water is suffer in growth for rice plants and
also experiencing drought in plantation area.
c) Generally, the unpredictable precipitation can cause disruption of cropping patterns, time of
planting, maintenance and other farm processes.
(3) Changes in uncertain seasons
Changes in the dry season and the rainy season are during the regular line with local knowledge
have changed the time to be irregular according to the season calendar. These have caused irregular
shifting of planting time. Planting time changes can affect in the risk of crop failure as depicted in the
cropping calendar which is developed by societies.
(4) Development of adaptation strategies Field observations indicate that local people simply develop adaptation strategies in order to cope
with weather changes or uncertain climate or face the occurrence of extreme events such as drought or
heavy rainfall which leads to flooding. The following table presents the results of identification of
adaptation strategies developed by local community in Valley of Napu and community of Toro in the
face of climate change. This study was also identify adaptation strategies developed by immigrant
communities in developing farming activities, particularly concerning about horticultural crops like
vegetables.
69
Table 11. Adaptation strategy of local community and alternatives development Local Knowledge Climate
Change Effects Adaptation and Mitigation
Strategy of Local Community Development of Adaptation
and Mitigation Strategy Socialization
and Coordination
Natural Resources Management and
Production Activities
Climate Change
A. Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve
1. Rice Field Farming Weather
Condition can
not be predicted
Planting time
changed and
Planting pattern,
Production yield
1. Adjusting planting time
according to changes weather
conditions in the growing season
individually or a few members of
the group
2. Using the new cultivars of rice
3. Toro communities construct a
simple system of dams around the
mountains to collect water (by
government assistance)
4. Keeping forests from illegal
activities by imposing a ban or
enforcing customary law
Adjusting planting time simultaneously in all regions and using crop cultivars which is
relatively the same age and adaptable
High
Precipitation
Inundation of rice
cultivation which can cause plants to rot and crop
failure
1. Communities in the Valley of
Napu are cleaning irrigation
canals
2. Toro communities in the Valley
of Kulawi develop irrigation
Build irrigation systems and build
a water reservoir that can be offset or water pockets that hold water during the rainy season and provide water during the dry
70
systems (semi-technical)
integrated with the water tank of
village equipped with a door that
is able to regulate water and
prevent surface water ponding
water in paddy fields
season
Precipitation
Minimal
Some rice fields and water shortages may
cause crop
failure
1. Regulating the distribution of
water sourced from springs of Lore Lindu National Park
2. Toro communities have been able
to manage the distribution of water throughout the year which is sourced
from springs in the environment, so
that people of Toro can grow paddy throughout the year
Build irrigation systems and build
a water reservoir that can be offset or water pockets that hold water during the rainy season and provide water during the dry
season
2. Palawija Farming Unpredictable
weather conditions
The community
meet some
difficulties to
determining the
time of planting and crop failure
1. Communities are planting types
of crops in the fields adjacent to
water sources
2. Cropping patterns are developed by various other crops to reduce risk
of failure
1. Developing a farming system
by intercropping pattern
(multiple cropping and
intercropping) of high economic
value crops as the main commodities
2. Building a water storage
system (reservoir) that
71
provisions water stocks during
dry season Conditions of
high precipitation Disturbed plant
growth and reduced production
1. Communities made drainage channel
2. Communities is already develop
some kind of staple crops in some places that have well drained soil
1. Develop a drainage system in any area that is integrated with irrigation system
2. Develop intercropping systems
that are integrated with crops and other annual crops
Less rainfall
conditions / drought
Drought and production failure
1. Communities is already trying to
plant types of plants that are more
resistant to drought
2. Communities are planting some
crops (potatoes and beans) in paddy
dike
1. Develop water collection
system (reservoir) which
provisions water stocks during
dry season
2. Develop intensive farming systems in the region adjacent to
water sources
1. Plantation Farming Unpredictable
weather conditions
Affect to crop management
activities and production
1. Maintaining the gardens remain
clean and doing maintenance and fertilization
2. Toro develops cocoa communities
among forest plants (agroforestry)
1. Developing plantation crops
(cocoa and coffee) by setting
plant spacing up and planting
trees as a good protector, doing
thinning and drainage canals.
2. The use of organic fertilizer
and preventive action against
pests and diseases by
72
conducting intensive lawn care
Conditions of
high precipitation Growth disturbed
of cocoa and
deciduous fruit,
rotten fruit pests
increased and crop failure
1. Local communities has done
garden maintenance such as cleaning,
thinning and thinning both staple crops and tree protectors to reduce
moisture.
2. Migrant communities in addition
to lawn care as item 1 are also constructing garden drainage as a
good drainage system
3. Toro Communities are pruning
shade trees to reduce moisture in the
gardens
1. Building a garden by
planting system in optimal
spacing according to
biophysical conditions of
shade garden and optimal
system settings according to
the needs for optimal growing
2. Building a plantation system
that refers to the rule of
ecology through drainage
system settings and keeps the
garden well managed
3. Building agroforestry
systems
Low
precipitation
condition
(Drought)
Fruit loss, crop
failure, impaired
harvesting
1. Local communities deal with
reduced leaf pruning
2. Toro Communities are pruning
tplant and shade trees as well
1. Building smallholders systems by practicing agroforestry for
various types of economic plants
2. Keeping upstream region
remain green and rehabilitated
4. Vegetable Farming Unpredictable
weather Impaired
vegetable
1. Farming communities plant vegetables in multiple cropping
1. Building vegetables farming
with a good drainage system that
73
conditions farming activity,
impaired
planting time,
impaired
production
systems to reduce risk of crop failure
2. Communities make choices by
planting vegetables which have the
high sales value
is integrated with irrigation system
2. Building multiple cropping
systems on vegetable farming by
planting the high economic
value
High
precipitation
condition
Land condition,
water saturated
and impaired
plant growth,
production
decreased and
failed harvesting
1. People plant vegetables in raised
bed so it does not stagnate
2. Migrant communities build
drainage systems to control waterlogging
1. Building vegetables farming
with a good drainage system that is integrated with irrigation system
2. Building multiple cropping
systems on vegetable farming by
planting the high economic
value
Low
precipitation
Condition or
Drought
Field drought,
plant yellowing
plants and crop
failure
(harvesting
failure)
1. Migrant communities (vegetable
farmer) make well and doing
watering
2. Migrant communities do watering by transporting water from water
source through pumping and others
1. Introducing water-efficient farming systems
2. Building a water storage
system (reservoir) that
provisions water stocks during
dry season
74
4.0. CONCLUSION
Adaptation and mitigation strategy research of biological resources management of local
people in Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve on climate change is aimed to: (a) identify the local
knowledge of communities in the study area in utilizing of biological diversity and its
environment as well as the way it is managed; (b) knowing the local knowledge of climate
change and climatic variables determine behavior change based on weather and climatic
elements of data (data source: Station Climatology and Geophysics in the study area and other
data from BMG and others) and (c) knowing the socio-economic aspects of the community in the
study area which are closely related to resource utilization biological resources and production
systems. In accordance with all of them, the results of the study can be summarized as follows:
(1) Local communities have a good knowledge about the biological resources including its
diversity and its potential utilization. For example, the community in Valley of Napu and Kulawi
recognize and utilize more than 300 species of useful plants to meet their life needs such as food,
clothing materials, building materials, traditional medicines, dyes, ritual materials, wood
materials, cosmetics materials, rope materials and some others.
(2) Most of the local people in Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve have knowledge of seasons and
behavior. Farmer communities in Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve have known better season
behaviour in the region so that they create the pattern and timing of planting rice cultivation.
(3) Local communities have knowledge about climate change and its impact on production
activities, although it is only limited to understand the symptoms. For example, both of
communities in the Valley of Napu and in Kulawi are familiar with the indications of climate
change such as drought, heavy rain, temperatures getting warmer and unpredictable weather
behaviour.
(4) Local communities have knowledge about impact of climate change on production activities.
For example, people in the Valley of Napu determine effect of prolonged drought and excessive
rain instead of the production of coffee and cocoa.
(5) Local communities in Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve have developed adaptation strategies
to climate change phenomenon by adapting or reducing the loss of production activities in
various ways. For example, people in the Valley of Napu and Kulawi pruning and cleaning of
chocolate and constructing drainage channels in the event of excessive rainfall.
75
REFERENCES
ADB.1994. ADB Annual Report. Annual Report of the Board of Directors to the Board of
Governors reviews ADB's operations, projects, internal administration, financial
management, funding, and regional highlights. Asian Development Bank. July 1994.
BMG-Sulawesi Tengah. 2012. Data Pengamatan Variabel Iklim Provinsi Sulawesi Tengah
Tahun 2008-2011 (Berupa data).
Bappenas dan Bakornas PB. 2006. Rencana Aksi Nasional Pengurangan Resiko Bencana.
Kementerian Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional/Bappenas dan Bakornas. 196 p
Burke, L., E. Selig, M. Spalding. 2002. Reefs at Risk in South East Asia. World Resource
Institute. 10 Street, NEWashington, DC 20002, USA.
CRTC- Coremap. 2001. Baseline Study Wakatobi Sulawesi Tenggara (in Indonesian) Rapid
survey on Wakatobi Marine National Park findings.
FDC IPB, BTNW, TNC-WWF. 2008. Eksplorasi Kembali Surga Nyata Bawah Laut Wakatobi.
A Joint Publication KNLH. 2007. Rencana Aksi National dalam menghadapi perubahan
iklim. Kementerian Negara Lingkungan Hidup. 50 p.
Golar. 2006. Adaptasi Sosio-Kultural Komunitas Adat Toro Dalam Mempertahankan
Kelestarian Hutan. Prosiding Piagam MAB. Komite Nasional Program MAB Indonesia.
LIPI.
KNLH. 2007. Rencana Aksi National dalam menghadapi perubahan iklim. Kementerian Negara
Lingkungan Hidup. 50 p.
MAN-UNESCO.1996. Biosphere Reserves: The Seville Strategy and the Statutory Framework of
the World Network. UNESCO. Paris. 1996. 22 p.
Moediarta, R and P. Stalker. 2007. “The other half of climate change: Why Indonesia must adapt
to protect its poorest people”. UNDP Indonesia: 2007
Phillips, O.L., C. Reynel, P. Wilkin & C. Gàlvez-Durand B. 1994. Quantitative ethnobotany and
Amazonian Conservation. Conservation Biology 8 : 225-248 p.
Purwanto, Y dan S. Susiarti. 2002. Studi Etnobotani masyarakat Pekurehua, di sekitar TN Lore
Lindu. Pusat penelitian Biologi-LIPI.
76
Purwanto, Y. 2008. Rencana Pengelolaan Cagar Biosfer Cibodas. Sarasehan Pengelolaan Cagar Biosfer
Cibodas Sebagai Daerah Tujuan Wisata Alam, Hotel Pangrango 2 Bogor, 23 Desember 2008.
Balai Besar Taman Nasional Gunung Gede Pangrango.
Purwanto, Y. & E. Sukara. 2008. Cultural diversity and biodiversity as foundation for
sustainable development. STORMA Stakeholder Workshop “Sustainable resource
management under global change-what can researchers tell decision makers? Widya
Graha LIPI, Jakarta 20-21 February 2008. 13 p.
Purwanto, Y., E.B. Walujo, J. Suryanto, E. Munawaroh dan M. Setiawan. 2012. Laporan
Kemajuan Tahap I Kegiatan Kompetitif LIPI Tahun 2012. Subprogram CSSI. Pusat
Penelitian Kependudukan-LIPI. 50 p. (Tidak diterbitkan).
Sivakumar, M.V.K. 2005. Impacts of natural disasters in agriculture, rangeland and forestry: an
overview. Pages 1-22 In: (M.V.K. Sivakumar, R.P. Motha and H.P. Das eds.) Natural
Disasters and Extreme Events in Agriculture. Berlin: Springer.
Shohibuddin, M. 2003. Artikulasi Kearifan Tradisional dalam pengelolaan Sumber Daya Alam
Sebagai Proses Reproduksi Budaya (Studi Komunitas Toro di Pinggiran Kawasan Hutan
Taman Nasional Lore Lindu, Sulawesi Tengah. Tesis IPB. Bogor.
Stanzel, K and Newman, H. 1997. Progress Report on the 1996 Marine Survey of The Tukang
Besi (Wakatobi) Archipelago South East Sulawesi Indonesia. Operation Wallacea One of
the early marine survey report in the area. Provides information on general coral cover,
distribution, and diversity.
STORMA. 2009. Storma Result Report Compilation. Gottingen University. 2009.
TNC and WWF. 2003. Rapid Ecological Assessment in Wakatobi National Park. Joint
Publication TNC and WWF. 2003.
Trenberth, K. E., and T. J. Hoar, 1996. The 1990-1995 El Niño-Southern Oscillation event:
Longest on record. Geo. Res. Letters, 23, 57-60
UNESCO. 2008. Madrid Action Plan. MAB UNESCO Porgramme. Paris.
77
ANNEX
Photo document of field work in Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve
Field work in Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve Sampling data: local knowledge
Forum Group Discussion (FGD) with local community in Wuasa Village (North Lore)
78
Field Work in Lore Lindu Biosphere Reserve
Figure. Cafee garden in Napu Valley
Cacao garden in Napu Valley, Lore Lindu BR
Field work with Prof. Purwanto Rice field in Napu Valley
79
Planting calender of rice Rice field in Napu Valley, Lore Lindu BR
Napu Valley, Transition area of Lore Lindu BR Buffer zone of Lore Lindu BR
Multiple cropping (cacao and vegetable) Vegetable garden, rice field and view of Napu
Valley, LoreLindu BR
80
Rice field, agroforestry, and Lore Lindu National Park
Lore Lindu National Park
Megalith in Buffer Zone of Lore Lindu BR
81
