Academic WritingAcademic Writing

Turn and Talk Turn and Talk

How do you begin the process How do you begin the process of researching and how do of researching and how do

you effectively write a you effectively write a persuasive argument? persuasive argument?

Academic Writing GoalsAcademic Writing Goals

I can effectively begin the research process.I can effectively begin the research process.

I can purposefully write an argument.I can purposefully write an argument.

I can thoughtfully write a counter-argument.I can thoughtfully write a counter-argument.

I can accurately cite sources in my writing.I can accurately cite sources in my writing.

I can create a bibliography for my writing.I can create a bibliography for my writing.

Where to beginWhere to begin

• Start with an Start with an Essential QuestionEssential Question

Evaluate – make a thoughtful choice between Evaluate – make a thoughtful choice between options, with a choice based upon clearly stated options, with a choice based upon clearly stated criteriacriteria

Synthesize – invent a new or different versionSynthesize – invent a new or different version

Analyze – develop a thorough and complex Analyze – develop a thorough and complex understanding through skillful questioningunderstanding through skillful questioning

Essential QuestionsEssential Questions

The essential question sparks our curiosity The essential question sparks our curiosity and comes from a deep wish to understand and comes from a deep wish to understand something which matters to us.something which matters to us.

Answers to essential questions cannot be Answers to essential questions cannot be found, they must be invented. People found, they must be invented. People construct their own answers to make their construct their own answers to make their own meaning from the information they own meaning from the information they have gathered. They create insight.have gathered. They create insight.

Prime QuestionsPrime Questions

WhyWhy do things happen the way they do? This do things happen the way they do? This question requires analysis of cause-and-effect and question requires analysis of cause-and-effect and the relationship between variables. It leads the relationship between variables. It leads naturally to problem solving or to decision making. naturally to problem solving or to decision making.

HowHow could things be made better? This question is could things be made better? This question is the basis for problem-solving and synthesis. Using the basis for problem-solving and synthesis. Using questions to pull and change things around until a questions to pull and change things around until a new, better version emerges.new, better version emerges.

WhichWhich do I select? This question requires thoughtful do I select? This question requires thoughtful decision-making, a reasoned choice based upon decision-making, a reasoned choice based upon clearly stated criteria and evidence. clearly stated criteria and evidence.

What to search for as What to search for as supportsupport

If your question If your question addresses a historical addresses a historical issue, you might look issue, you might look at reference works, at reference works, books, scholarly books, scholarly articles (in print or articles (in print or online), and primary online), and primary sources such as sources such as speeches.speeches.

If your question addresses If your question addresses a current issue, you a current issue, you might turn to magazine might turn to magazine and newspaper articles, and newspaper articles, web sites, government web sites, government documents, discussion documents, discussion groups on the Internet, groups on the Internet, and possibly opinion and possibly opinion surveys that you surveys that you conduct yourself.conduct yourself.

The ThesisThe Thesis

Once you have Once you have readread a variety of a variety of sources and sources and consideredconsidered all sides of all sides of your issue, you are ready to form a your issue, you are ready to form a tentative thesis: a one sentence tentative thesis: a one sentence statement of your central idea. The statement of your central idea. The thesis expresses not just your opinion, thesis expresses not just your opinion, but your informed, reasoned judgment.but your informed, reasoned judgment.

Brainstorm and FocusBrainstorm and FocusWhat should the audience/reader What should the audience/reader

do/feel/believe?do/feel/believe?

Who are the major players on Who are the major players on both/each side and how did both/each side and how did they contribute to?they contribute to?

Which are the most important?Which are the most important?

What was the impact of?What was the impact of?

Can I compare? How is X like or Can I compare? How is X like or unlike Y?unlike Y?

What if? Can I predict?What if? Can I predict?

How could we How could we solve/improve/design/deal solve/improve/design/deal with?with?

Is there a better solution to?Is there a better solution to?

How can you defend?How can you defend?

What changes would you What changes would you recommend to?recommend to?

Was it effective, justified, Was it effective, justified, defensible, warranted?defensible, warranted?

Why did this happen? Why did it Why did this happen? Why did it succeed? Why did it fail?succeed? Why did it fail?

What should be? What are/would What should be? What are/would be the possible outcomes of?be the possible outcomes of?

What are the problems related to?What are the problems related to?

What were the motives behind?What were the motives behind?

Why are the opponents protesting?Why are the opponents protesting?

What is my personal response to?What is my personal response to?

What case can I make for?What case can I make for?

What is the significance of ?What is the significance of ?

Where will the next move(s) occur?Where will the next move(s) occur?

How is this debate likely to affect?How is this debate likely to affect?

What is the value, or what is/are the What is the value, or what is/are the potential benefit(s) of?potential benefit(s) of?

What are three/four/five reasons for What are three/four/five reasons for us to believe?us to believe?

The ArgumentThe Argument

What is an argument and why do you need one?What is an argument and why do you need one?

Making an argument – expressing a point of view Making an argument – expressing a point of view on a subject and supporting it with evidence – is on a subject and supporting it with evidence – is the aim of academic writing.the aim of academic writing.

If you think that “fact,” not argument, rules If you think that “fact,” not argument, rules intelligent thinking, consider this. At one point, intelligent thinking, consider this. At one point, the great minds of Western Europe firmly believed the great minds of Western Europe firmly believed the Earth was flat. They assumed this was simply the Earth was flat. They assumed this was simply fact. You are able to disagree now because people fact. You are able to disagree now because people who saw that argument as faulty set out to make who saw that argument as faulty set out to make a better argument and proved it.a better argument and proved it.

Making a claimMaking a claim

In academic writing, an argument is usually a main idea, often In academic writing, an argument is usually a main idea, often called a “claim” or “thesis statement,” backed up with called a “claim” or “thesis statement,” backed up with evidence that supports the idea.evidence that supports the idea.

When beginning to write a paper, ask yourself, “What is my When beginning to write a paper, ask yourself, “What is my point?” If your papers do not have a main point, they point?” If your papers do not have a main point, they cannot be arguing for anything.cannot be arguing for anything.

The teacher will be looking for two things:The teacher will be looking for two things:1. Proof that you understand the material AND1. Proof that you understand the material AND2. A demonstration of your ability to use or apply the 2. A demonstration of your ability to use or apply the material in ways that go beyond what you have material in ways that go beyond what you have read or heard.read or heard.

EvidenceEvidence

Do not stop with having a point. You Do not stop with having a point. You have to back up your point with have to back up your point with evidence. The strength of your evidence. The strength of your evidence, and your use of it, can evidence, and your use of it, can make or break your argument.make or break your argument.

CounterargumentCounterargumentOne way to strengthen your argument and show One way to strengthen your argument and show that you have a deep understanding of the issue that you have a deep understanding of the issue you are discussing is to anticipate and address you are discussing is to anticipate and address counterarguments or objections. counterarguments or objections.

By considering what someone who disagrees with By considering what someone who disagrees with your position might have to say about your your position might have to say about your argument, you show that you have thought argument, you show that you have thought things through.things through.

You must not only present your side convincingly, You must not only present your side convincingly, but you must also show why the arguments of but you must also show why the arguments of the opposing side are less convincing.the opposing side are less convincing.

ExampleExampleArgumentArgument

The primary focus in medical end-of-life decisions should be The primary focus in medical end-of-life decisions should be on patient consent, rather than doctor intention, because it on patient consent, rather than doctor intention, because it is not a breach against a patient's rights if s/he consents to is not a breach against a patient's rights if s/he consents to the termination of their life.the termination of their life.

CounterargumentCounterargument

Terminally ill patients are likely to be depressed, and Terminally ill patients are likely to be depressed, and therefore unable to consent to their hastened death in a therefore unable to consent to their hastened death in a balanced or acceptable way.balanced or acceptable way.

Response to CounterargumentResponse to Counterargument

Depression can be managed. The relevance of depression Depression can be managed. The relevance of depression must be made on a case-by-case basis. Depression does not must be made on a case-by-case basis. Depression does not warrant a general rule prohibiting patients from consenting warrant a general rule prohibiting patients from consenting to a hastened death.to a hastened death.

The counterargument is presented fairly and merit is The counterargument is presented fairly and merit is acknowledged, leading to the modification of the original acknowledged, leading to the modification of the original position.position.

ExampleExampleArgumentArgument

The primary focus in medical end-of-life decisions should be on The primary focus in medical end-of-life decisions should be on patient consent, rather than doctor intention, because it is not patient consent, rather than doctor intention, because it is not a breach against a patient‘s rights if s/he consents to the a breach against a patient‘s rights if s/he consents to the termination of their life.termination of their life.

CounterargumentCounterargument

Allowing voluntary euthanasia will result in less respect for life Allowing voluntary euthanasia will result in less respect for life (for example in a greater tolerance of non-voluntary (for example in a greater tolerance of non-voluntary euthanasia), and this is to be avoided.euthanasia), and this is to be avoided.

Response to CounterargumentResponse to Counterargument

Evidence from the Netherlands shows that liberal euthanasia Evidence from the Netherlands shows that liberal euthanasia laws do not lead to an increase in non-voluntary euthanasia; if laws do not lead to an increase in non-voluntary euthanasia; if anything they lead to a decrease. Respecting individual choice anything they lead to a decrease. Respecting individual choice might lead to greater respect for life, not less.might lead to greater respect for life, not less.

Sometimes you will make no concessions at all to a counter-Sometimes you will make no concessions at all to a counter-argument. You will simply show it to be unjustified or irrelevant.argument. You will simply show it to be unjustified or irrelevant.

Counterargument Counterargument PhrasingPhrasing

Effective counter-argument is an essential Effective counter-argument is an essential component of building a convincing argument. So, component of building a convincing argument. So, how do you go about phrasing your counter how do you go about phrasing your counter argument? argument?

Many writers are successful at reminding the reader Many writers are successful at reminding the reader very briefly through the use of effective very briefly through the use of effective paraphrasing and quotations. paraphrasing and quotations.

Be sure to present the key phrases that indicate the Be sure to present the key phrases that indicate the counterargument counterargument beforebefore presenting the evidence presenting the evidence or reasoning that refutes the point.or reasoning that refutes the point.

The best for lastThe best for last

When you present reasons to When you present reasons to prove your point, present the prove your point, present the weakest argument first and save weakest argument first and save the strongest argument to use the strongest argument to use right before the conclusion. right before the conclusion.