ABRAHAMH.MASLOWMOTIVATIONANDPERSONALITYCopyright 1954 by Harper&Row,Publishers, Inc.Copyright 1970by Abraham H. MaslowReprinted fromthe English Edition by Harper&Row, Publishers 1954This bookwas made possiblebythegenerosityofmybrothersHarold, Paul, andLewof theUniversal Container CorporationCONTENTSfREFACE ix1. A Psychological Approachto Science 12. Problem Centering vs. Means Centering in Science 113. PrefacetoMotivationTheory 194. A Theory of HumanMotivation 355. The Role of BasicNeed GratificationinPsychologicalTheory 596. TheInstinctoidNature ofBasicNeeds 777. Higher andLowerNeeds 978. Psychopathogenesis andthe Theory of Threat 1059. Is Destructiveness Instinctoid? 11710. TheExpressive Component ofBehavior 131I I. Self-Actualizing People: A Study of Psychological Health 14912. Lovein Self-Actualizing People 181U. Cognition of the Individual and of theGeneric 20314. Unmotivated andPurposelessReactions 22915. Psychotherapy, Health, andMotivation 24116. Normality, Health, and Values 265Appendix A:Problems Generatedby aPositiveApproachtoPsychology 281 .AppendixB: Holistic-Dynamics, Organismic Theory. SyndromeDynamics 295BI8L1OGRAPHY 329INDEXOFNAMES 355Il\'DEXOFSUUJECTS 360viiI P I ~ I E I FACIEI have tried in thisrevisiontoincorporate themainlessons of the lastsixteenyears. Theselessons havebeenconsiderable. I consider it a realand extensive revision-eventhough Ihadto do only amoderate amountof rewriting-becausethemainthrust ofthebookhas beenmodifiedinimportantwayswhichI shall detail below.Whenthisbook appeared in1954 it was essentiallyaneffort tobuilduponthe classicalpsychologies available ratherthanto repudiatethem ortoestablishanother rival psychology. It attempted toenlarge our con-ception of thehumanpersonalityby reaching intothe"higher"levelsofhuman nature. (The title I hadfirst plannedto use for the book wasHigherCeilingsforHumanNature.) If I had hadtocondensethethesisof this book intoa single sentence, Iwouldhavesaidthat, inadditiontowhat thepsychologiesofthetimehadtosayabout humannature, manalsohada higher nature andthat this was instinctoid, i.e., part of hisessence. And if I couldhavehadasecondsentence, Iwouldhavestressedthe profoundlyholisticnatureof humannatureincontradiction to theanalytic-dissecting-atomistic-Newtonian approach of the behaviorismsandofFreudianpsychoanalysis.Or tosayit another way, I certainlyacceptedand built upon theavailabledataof experimentalpsychologyandpsychoanalysis. I acceptedalso the empirical and experimental spirit ofthe one, andtheunmaskinganddepth-probingof theother, while yet rejectingthe images of manixx Prefacewhichthey generated. That is, thisbookrepresentedadifferent philoso-phy of humannature, anewimageof man.However, what I tookthentobeanargument within the familyofpsychologists has inmy opinionturned outsincethentoberather alocalmanifestation of a new Zeitgeist, anew generalcomprehensivephilosophyoflife. Thisnew"humanistic" Weltanschauung s e e ~ s to be a newandfarmorehopeful andencouragingwayofconceivinganyandeveryareaofhumanknowledge: e.g., economics, sociology, biology, andeverypro-fession: e.g., law, politics, medicine, and all of the social institutions:e.g., thefamily, education, religion, etc. I haveacted upon this personalconvictioninrevisingthis book, writing into the psychology presentedherein, thebelief that it isanaspect ofamuchbroader world viewandofacomprehensivelife-philosophy, which is already partlyworked out,at least to the point of plausibility, andmust, therefore, betakenseriously.I must sayawordabout theirritatingfact that this veritable revolution(anewimageof man,of society, ofnature, of science, of ultimatevalues,of philosophy, etc., etc.) isstill almost completelyoverlookedbymuchoftheintellectual community,especiallythat portion of it that controls thechannels of communication tothe educatedpublic andtoyouth. (ForthisreasonI havetakentocalling it theUnnoticedRevolution.)Many members of this community propound an outlook characterizedbya profounddespair andcynicismwhich sometimes degene:-atesintocorrosive malice and cruelty. Ineffect they deny the possibility of im-'provinghuman nature and society, or of discovering intrinsic humanvalues, orofbeinglife-lovingingeneral.Doubting the realness of honesty, of kindness, of generosity, ofaffection, theygo beyond a reasonable skepticismor a withholding ofjudgment intoanactivehostilitywhenconfrontedbypeoplewhomtheysneer at as fools,"Boy Scouts," squares, innocents, do-gooders, or Polly-annas. This active debunking, hating and rending goesbeyondcontempt;it sometimes looks like an outraged counterattack against what theyconsider tobeaninsultingeffort tofool them, totake themin, topulltheir legs. The psychoanalyst would, I think, seeinitadynamicsofrageandrevengefor past disappointmentsanddisillusionments.This subculture of despair, this "more corrosivethanthou"attitude,this counter-moralityinwhichpredationand hopelessness are real amIgood will is not, is flatly contradicted by the humanistic psychologies.andbythekindof preliminary datapresentedinthisbookandinmanyof the writings listedintheBibliography. Whileitisstill necessarytohevery cautious aboutaffirmingthepreconditionsfor "goodness"inhumanPreface xinature(see Chapters 7, 9, II, 16), itisalreadypossibleto reject firmlythedespairing beliefthathumannatureisultimatelyandbasically depravedand evil. Suchabeliefisnolongeramatteroftastemerely.Itcannowbemaintainedonlybyadeterminedblindness and ignorance, bya re-fusal toconsider thefacts. It must therefore beconsidered tobe a per-sonal projection rather than a reasoned philosophical or scientific position.Thehumanisticandholisticconceptionsof sciencepresentedinthefirsttwochaptersandinAppendixBhave been powerfullycorroboratedbymany developments of the past decade, but especially by Michael Po-lanyi's great bookPersonal Knowledge (376). My own book, The Psy-chologyof Science(292), carriesforwardverysimilartheses. Thesebooksare inblunt contradiction to the classical, conventional philosophy ofsciencestill toowidely prevalent, and they offer a far better substituteforscientificworkwithpersons.Thebookis holisticthroughout, but amore intensive and perhapsmore difficulttreatmentis containedinAppendixB. Holismisobviouslytrue-afterall, the cosmosis oneandinterrelated; anysocietyis oneand, interrelated;anypersonis oneandinterrelated, etc.-andyet theholisticoutlook h ~ s a hardtimebeing implementedandbeingusedasit shouldbe, asawayoflookingat theworld. RecentlyI havebecome more andmoreinclined tothink that the atomisticwayof thinkingis a formofmildpsychopathology, or is at least one aspect of the syndromeof cog-nitive immaturity. The holistic way of thinking and seeing seems tocome quite naturally and automatically to healthier, self-actualizingpeople, and seems to be extraordinarily difficult for less evolved, lessmature, less healthypeople. To datethisis only animpression, of course,andI donot want topushit toohard. Yet I feel justifiedin presentingit here asa hypothesis to be checked, somethingwhich should be rela-tively easyto do.The motivation theory presented inChapters 3throllgh 7, and tosomeextent throughout the book, has had an interestinghist.ory. Firstpresented in1!)42toa psychoanalytic society, it wasaneffort tointegrateinto a single theoretical structurethepartial truthsIsawinFreud, Adler,Jung, D. M. Levy, Fromm, Horney, andGoldstein. I hadlearned frommyownscatteredexperiencesin therapythat eachof these writers wascorrect at varioustimes 'andfor various persons. Myquestionwas essen-tially the clinical one: which earlier deprivations produce neurosis?Which psychological medicines cure neurosis? Which prophylaxis pre-vents neurosis? In which order are thepsychological medicines demanded?Whichare mostpowerful? Whichmost basic?xii PrefaceIt is fairto say thatthis theory hasbeen quitesuccessful inaclinical,socialandpersonologicalway, but not inalaboratoryandexperimentalway. It hasfittedverywell withthepersonal experienceofmost people,andhasoftengiven themastructuredtheory that has helped themtomakebetter sense oftheir innerlives. It seemsfor most peopletohaveadirect, personal, subjective plausibility. Andyeti! stilllacks experimentalverificationandsupport. Ihavenot yet beenabletothinkof a goodwayto put it to thetest inthelaboratory.Part of the answerto thispuzzle came fromDouglasMcGregor(332),whoapplied this theoryof motivation to the industrial situation. Notonlydidhefind it useful inorderinghisdataandhisobservations, butalsothese dataservedretroactivelyasasourceofvalidationandverifica-tionforthetheory. Itisfromthisarea, rather thanfromthelahoratory,that empirical support is nowcoming. (The Bibliography contains asampling of suchreports.)ThelessonI hadlearnedfromthisand fromsubsequent validationfrom other areas of lifewasthis: when wetalkabout theneedsof humanbeings, we talkaboutthe essence of their lives. How couldIhavethoughtthat thisessencecouldbeput tothe test insome animal laboratoryorsometest tubesituation?Obviouslyit needsalifesituationof the totalhuman beingin his social environment. This is where confirmation ordisconfirmationwill comefrom.Chapter4betraysitsclinical-therapeuticoriginsbyitsstressonneurosis'producers rather than on motivations which do not make trouble [orthepsychotherapist, e.g., inertiaandlaziness, sensory pleasures, and. theneedfor sensorystimulationsandfor activity, thesheer zest for life, orthelackofit, thepronenesstohopeor tohopelessness, the tendency 10regress more or less easily under fear, anxiety, scarcity, etc.,notto mentionthe highest humanvalues whicharcalsomotivators: beauty, truth, excell ~ n c e , completion, justice, order, consistency, harmony, etc.Thesenecessarycomplements toChapters 3and4are discussed inChaplers3, 4, and5ofmy TowardaPsychologyof Being(295), in thechapter onLowerGrumbles, Higher Grumbles andMetagrumblesinmyEupsychianManagement (291), andinA Theory ofMetamotivation: theBiological Rootingof theValue-Life(314).Humanlife will never be understood unless its highest aspirationsare taken into account. Growth, self-actualization, the striving towardhealth, thequest for identityandautonomy. theyearningfor excellence(and other ways of phrasing the striving "upward") must by nowbePreface xiiiacceptedbeyondstance, let uspreferthemonkeytothewhiterat asasubject for motiva-tion experiments if onlyfor thesimplereasonthat wehumanbeingsaremuchmorelikemonkeysthanwearelikewhiterats. Harlowandmanyotherprimatologists haveamply demonstrated(172, 202).ENVIRONMENTSofarI havespokenonlyofthenatureoftheorganismitself. Itis nownecessary tosayat least a wordabout the situation or environment inwhich the organismfinds itself. We must certainly grant at once thathumanmotivationrarelyactualizesitself in behavior except inrelationtothesituationandtoother people. Anytheoryof motivationmust ofcoursetakeaccount of this fact, includingnot onlyin theenvironmentbutalsointheorganismitself, theroleofcultural determination.Oncethisisgrantedit remains tocautionthe theorizer against toogreatpreoccupationwiththeexterior, withtheculture, theenvironment,orthesituation. Ourcentralobject ofstudyhereis, after all, theorgan-ism orthe character structure. Itis easytogotothco,extremeinsituationtheoryof makingthe organismjust one additional object in the field,equivalent withperhapsabarrier, orsomeobject that hetriestoobtain.'Ve must remember that theindividual partlycreateshisbarriers andhisobjectsofvalue, that theymust bedefinedpartiallyin terms set bytheparticular organismin the situation. I knowof no wayof definingordescribingafield universallyinsuch awaythat thisdescriptioncanbeindependent of the particular organism functioning withinit. It certainlymust bepointedout that achildwhois tryingtoattainacertainobjectof value tohim, but whoisrestrainedbyabarrier of somesort, deter-minesnot onlythat theobject isofvalue, but alsothat thebarrier isabarrier. Psychologicallythereisnosuchthingasabarrier; thereisonlyabarrier for aparticular personwhois tryingtoget somethingthat hewants.It is myimpressionthat extremeorexclusivesituationtheoryftour-Prt:facetoMotivationTheory 29ishes best when it is based on inadequate theories of motivation. Forinstance. any purely behavioral theory needs situation theory togive itany sense at all. Amotivation theory that is based on existing drivesrather thanongoals orneedsalsoneedsastrongsituationtheoryifit isnot to fall. However, a theory that stresses constant fundamental needsfinds themto be relatively constant and more independent of the par-ticular situation in which the organismfinds itself. For not only doesthe need organizeitsactionpossibilities, sotospeak, inthemost efficientwayfeasibleandwithagreatdealofvariation, butit alsoorganizes andeven creates the external reality. Another way of saying this is, if weaccept Koffb's distinction between the g-eographical and psychologicalenvironment. that the only satisfactory way of understanding how ageographical em'ironment becomes a psychological environment is tounderstandthat the principle of organization of thepsychological environ-mentisthecurrent goalof theorganisminthat particularenvironment.Soundmotivation theory must then take account of the situation,but must never become pure situation theory; that is, unless we areexplicitly willing to give up our searchfor an understanding of thenatureofthe c o n s ~ a n c y of theorganisminfavor ofunderstandingtheworlditlives in.Toavoid unnecessaryargument, let mestress that we arenowcon-cerned, not withbehavior theory, but with motivation theory. Behaviorisdeterminedbyseveral classesofdeterminants, of whichmotivation isoneandenvironmental forces isanother. Thestudyof motivationdoesnot negate ordenythestudy of situationaldeterminants, butrathersup-plementsit. Theybothhavetheir placesinalargerstructure.INTEGRATIONAnymotivationtheorymust takeaccount not onlyof the fact that theorganismbehaves ordinarilyasanintegratedwhole, but alsoof the factthat sometimesit doesnot. Therearespecificisolatedconditioningsandhabits toaccount for, segmental responsesof various kinds, and a hostof phenomena of dissociation and lack of integrationthatweknow about.The organismfurthermore can even react in a nonunitary fashion indailylifeaswhenwedo ,manythings at the same time.Apparentlytheorganismismost unifiedinitsintegrationwhenitissuccessfullyfacingeitheragreat joy or creativemoment orelseamajorproblem orathreatoremergency. But whenthethreat isoverwhelmingorwhentheorganismis tooweakor helpless to manage it, it tends to30 Motivation and Personalitydisintegrate. Onthewholewhenlifeiseasyandsuccessful, theorganismcansimultaneouslydomanythings andturninmanydirections.Itismybelief that afair shareof the phenomena that seemtobespecificandisolatedactuallyarenot. Oftenit ispossibletodemonstratewith deeper analysis thattheytake a place inthewholestruc-ture, e.g., conversionhysterical symptoms. Thisapparent lackofintegra-tionmaysometimesbesimplyareflectionof our ownignorance, but wealso knowenough nowto be sure that isolated, segmental, or uninte- 'gratedresponses are possible under certain circumstances. Furthermoreisis nowbecomingmoreandmoreclear that such phenomena are notnecessarilytoberegardedas weakor bador pathological. Rather. theyareoftentoberegardedasevidence of oneofthemostimportantcapac-ities oftheorganism, viz., todeal withunimportant orwithfamiliar orwith easily conqueredproblems in apartial, specific, or segmentalfashionso thatthe maincapacities ofthe organismarestilIleft freefor themoreimportant ormorechallengingproblemsthatit faces (160).NONMOTIVATEDBEHAVIORItseems tomequiteclear, inspiteof near universal acceptanceof thecontrarybypsychologists, that not all behaviors or reactions are motivated, at least not inthe ordinary sense of seeking need gratifications, i.e.,seeking forwhat islacked orneeded. Thephenomenaofmaturati0!l' of,expression, and of growthorself-actualizationareall instances ofexcep-tions totheruleof universal motivation, andhadmuchbetter be.con-sideredexpressionrather thancoping. Theywill bediscussedat lengthbelow, especiallyinChapters 10and14.Inaddition, NormanMaier (284) has fon::ibly calledour attentiontoadistinctionoftenimpliedbythe Freudians but never made sharpandunmistakable bythem. Most neuroticsymptomsor trends amounttobasic-need-gratification-bent impulses that havesomehowgot stymiedor misdirectedor confused with other needs or fixated on the wrongmeans. Other symptoms, however, are no longer gratification-bent butare simplyprotective or defensive. Theyhave no goal but to preventfurther hurt orthreatorfrustration. Thedifferenceislike that betweenthefighter whostill hopestowinandtheonewhohasnohopeofwinning, trying only to lose as painlessly as possible.Sincegivingupandhopelessnessareverydefinitelyofconsiderablerelevancetoprognosis intherapy, toexpectations oflearning, evenprob-ablytolongevity, Maier'sdifferentiation, aswell as Klee'sinterpretationofit (233), must behandledbyanydefinitivemotivationtheory.PrefacetojUotivationTheoT)' 31POSSIBILITYOFATTAINMENTDewey(108) andThorndike(449) havestressedoneimportant aspect ofmotivation that has been completely neglected by most psychologists,namely, possibility. On the whole we yearn consciously for that whichmightconceivablybeactuallyattained. That istosaythat wearemuchmore realistic about wishing than the psychoanalysts might allow, absorbedas they are with unconscious wishes.As a man's income increases hefindshimself actively wishingforandstrivingforthingsthathenever dreamed' of afewyearsbefore. Theaver-age American yearns for automobiles, refrigerators, and television setsbecausetheyarereal possibilities; hedocsnot yearnfor yachtsor planesbecausetheyare infact not within thereachof the average American.It is quiteprobablethat hedoesnot longfor themunconsciouslyeither.Attention to this factor of possibility of attainment is crucial forunderstandingthedifferencesinmotivationsbetweenvariousclassesand. within our ownpopulationandbetweenit andother poorercoun-tries and cultures. OFREALITYRelatedtothisproblemisthatoftheinfluenceof realityonunconsciousimpulses.For Freud, anid impulseis adiscreteentityhaving nointrinsicrelatednesstoanything elseintheworld, not evenother idimpulses.\Vecancomenearer totheidwithimages, andcall it a chaos, a cauldronof seethingexcitement. ...Theseinstinctsfill it withenergy, butit has noorganizationand no unified will, onlyan impulsion toobtainsatisfactionfor the instinctual needs, in accordance with the pleasure principle. Thelaws of logic-aboveall, thelawof contradiction--donot holdfor processesin the id. Contradictory impulses exist side by side without neutralizingeachother or drawingapart; at most theycombine incompromise forma-tions under theoverpoweringeconomicpressure towards dischargingtheirenergy. Thereisnothing intheidwhichcanbecomparedtonegation, andweareastonished to find init anexception to the philosophers' assertionthat space andtime are ,necessary forms of our mentalacts....Naturally, theidknowsnovalues, nogoodandevil, nomorality. Theeconomic, or, ifyouprefer, the quantitativefactor, whichis soclosely boundup with the pleasure-principle, dominates allits processes. Instinctual cathexesseek.ingdischarge-that, in our view, is all that the id contains. (Freud,Sigmund, New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis, W. W. Norton,1933, pp, 103-105.)32 Motivation 11IIel PenonalityTotheextent that these impulses arecontrolled, modified, or heldbackfromdischarge byrealityconditions, they become part or the egorather thanthe id. 'One canhardlygowronginregardingtheego ,asthat part of theidwhichhasbeenmodifiedbyits proximitytotheexternal worldand theinfluencethat the latter has had on it, and which serves the purpose of receivingstimuli andprotectingtheorganismfromthem, likethecortical layerwithwhicha particle of li\'ingsubstancesurrounds itself. This relation to theexternal worldisdecisivefor theego. Theego has takenover the taskofrepresentingthe external for the idand soof savingit; for the id,blindlystrivingtogratifyitsinstinctsincompletedisregardof thesuperiorstrengthof outside forces, could not otherwise escape annihilation. Inthefulfillment of thisfunction, theegohas toobserve theexternal world preservea true pictureof it in the memory traces left by its perceptions.and, bymeans of the reality-test. it has to eliminate any clement in thispictureof theexternal worldwhichisacontributionfrominternal sourcesof excitation. Onbehalf of the id, the ego comrols the pathof access tomotility, but it interpolates betweendesire andaction, the factorof thought. duringwhich it makes use of the residuesof experiencestoredupinmemory. Inthiswayitdethronesthe pleasure-principle, whichexerts undisputedswayo\'Cr Ihe processes in the ill. andsubstitutes for itthe reality-principle. which promises greater security and greater success.(Ibid., p. 106.)It is, however, John Dewey's contention that all impulses in theadult-or at least the characteristic impulse-are integrated withandaffectedbyreality. Inaword, this is theequivalent ofmaintainingthattherearenoidimpulses, or, readingbetweenthelines, if thereare, thattheyareintrinsicallypathologicalrather thanintrinsicallyhealthy.Thiscontradictionisnotedhere, e\'enthoughnoempirical solutioncanbeoffered, becauseit isacrucial, he:td-ondifference.As it appears to us, the question is not whether there exist idim-pulsesof thesort Freuddescribes. Any psychoanalyst will testify totheocw'rrenceoffantasyimpulses that exist without regardtoreality, com-monsense, logic, or even persona I advantage. Thequestion is, are theyevidences of sickness or of regression, oraretheyrevelationoftheinmostcoreof thehealthyhumanbeing?At what point inthelifehistorydoestheinfantile fantasybegin tobemodifiedbyperceptionof reality?Isitthesamefor all, neuroticandhealthyalike?Cantheefficientlyfunction-ing humanbeing maintaincompletelyfreeofsuchinfluenceanyhiddencorner of hisimpulselife? Orifitdoesturnoutthat suchimpulses, com-pletelyintraorg;lt1ismicinorigin, doexist inall of us, thenwemllst ask,PrefacetoMotivationTheory 33Whendotheyappear?Under what conditions?Are theynecessarilythetroublemakersthat Freudassumedthemtobe?Must theybeinopposi-tionto reality?KNOWLEDGEOFHEALTHYMOTIVATIONMost of what we know of humanmotivation comes not frompsychologistsbut frompsychotherapists treating patients. These patients are agreatsourceof error as well asof useful data, for theyobviouslyconstitute apoor sample of the population. The motivational life of neuroticsufferersshould, eveninprinciple, berejectedasa paradigmfor healthymotiva-tion. Healthisnot simplytheabsenceofdiseaseor eventheoppositeofit. Anytheoryofmotivationthat is worthyof attentionmust deal withthehighest capacitiesof thehealthyandstrongmanaswell as withthedefensive maneuvers of crippled spirits. The most important concernsof thegreatest and finest people in human historymust all be encom-passed and explained.. , Thisunderstandingweshall never get fromsick people alone. Wemust turnour attention to healthy men as well. Motivation theoristsmust becomemorepositiveintheirorientation.4AT I H I E O I ~ YOFIHUM\ANMOTIIVATIONINTRODUCTIONThischapterisanattempt toformulate apositive theoryof motivationthat will satisfy the theoretical demands listedin the previous chapterandat thesametimeconformtothe knownfacts, clinical andobserva-tional as well as experimental. It derives most directly, however, fromclinical experience. This theoryis, I think, inthefunctionalist traditionof James andDewey. andisfusedwiththeholismofWertheimer, Gold-stein, and Gestalt psychology, and withthe dynamicism of Freud,Fromm,Horney, Reich, Jung, andAdler. This integrationor synthesis may becalled a holistic-dynamic theory.THEBASICNEEDSTHEPHYSIOLOGICALNEEDSTheneeds that are usually taken as the startingpoint for motivationtheory arethe so-calledphysiological drives. Tworecent lines of researchmake it necessary to revise our customary notions about these needs:first, the development of the concept of homeostasis, and second, thefinding that appetites (preferential choices among foods) are a fairlyefficient indicatian of actual needs or lacks in the body.Homeostasis referstothebody's automaticeffortstomaintainacon-3536 Motivation and Personalitystant, normal stateof the bloodstream. Cannon(78) has described thisprocessfor (1) thewatercontent of theblood, (2) salt content, (3) sugarcontent, (4) proteincontent, (5) fat content, (6) calciumcontent, (7) oxy-gencontent, (8) constant hydrogen-ion level (acid-base balance), and (9)constant temperatureoftheblood. Obviouslythislist couldbeextendedtoincludeother minerals, thehormones, vitamIns, etc.Young (491, 492)has summarizedthe work onappetite inits relationtobodyneeds. Ifthebodylackssomechemical, theindividual will tend,(inanimperfect way) todevelopaspecificappetiteor partial hunger forthat missing food element.Thus itseemsimpossibleaswell asuselesstomakeanylist offunda-mental physiological needs, for theycancometoalmost anynumberonemight wish, depending onthe degree of specificity of description: \Vecan-not identify all physiological needs as homeostatic. That sexual desire,sleepiness, sheer activityandexercise, andnlaternal behavior inanimalsare homeostatic has not yet been demonstrated. Furthermore, this listwouldnot include th.: various sensory pleasures (tastes, smells, tickling,stroking), whichare probably physiological andwhich maybecome thegoalsofmotivatedbehavior. Nor dowe knowwhat tomakeof the factthat theorganismhassimultaneouslya tendencytoinertia, lazinessandleasteffortandalsoaneedfor activity, stimulation, andexcitement.Tn the previouschapter it was pointedout that these physiologicaldrives orneedsaretobeconsideredunusual rather thantypical becausetheyareisolable, andbecausetheyarelocalizablesomatically. That istosay, theyarerelativelyindependent ofeachother, of other motivations,andof theorganismasawhole, andsecond, inmanycases,itispossibletodemonstratealocalized, underlyingsomaticbasefor thedrive. Thisistroelessgenerallythanhasbeenthought (exceptions are fatigue, sleepi-ness, maternal responses) but it is still true in the classic instances ofhunger, sex, andthirst.It shouldbe pointedout again that anyof the physiological needsand the consummatory behavior involved with themserve as channelsfor all sortsof otherneedsaswell. That is tosay, the personwhothinkshe ishungrymayactuallybe seekingmore for comfort, or dependence,than for vitamins or proteins. Conversely, it is possible to satisfy thehunger need inpart by otheractivities suchas drinking waterorsmokingcigarettes. Inotherwords, relativelyisolableas these physiological needsare, they are not completely so.Undoubtedlythesephysiologicalneedsare themost prepotent ofallneects. What this means specificallyis that in the human heingwho isATheoryofHUlIlanMotivation 37missing everything inlife inanextremefashion. itismost likelythat themajor motivation would be the physiological needs rather than anyothers. A personwhoislackingfood, safety. love, andesteemwouldmostprobablyhunger for foodmorestronglythanfor anythingelse.If all the needsareunsatisfied, andtheorganismis thendominatedby thephysiologicalneeds, all other needs maybecome simply nonexistentor be pushed into the background. It is then fair to characterize thewholeorganismbysayingsimplythat it is hungry, for consciousness isalmost completelypreemptedbyhunger. All capacities are put intotheserviceof hunger.satisfaction, and theorganizationof thesecapacities isalmost entirely determinedbytheonepurposeof satisfyinghunger. Thereceptorsandeffectors, theintelligence. memory, habits. all maynowbedefinedsimplyas hungergratifyingtools. Capacities that are not usefulfor this purpose liedormant, or are pushed into the background. Theurgetowritepoetry, thedesiretoacquireanautomobile, theinterest inAmericanhistory, thedesirefor anewpairofshoesare, intheextremecase, forgottenor becomeofsecondaryimportance. For themanwhois,extremelyanddangerouslyhungry, nootherinterestsexist hut food. Hedreams food, heremembers food, he thinks about food, heemotes onlyabout fooc,"- heperceivesonlyfood, andhewants only food. Themoresubtledeterminantsthat ordinarilyfuse withthe physiological drives inorganizingeven feeding, drinking, or sexual behavior, may nowbe socompletelyoverwhelmedastoallowustospeakat thistime(but onlyatthistime) of purehunger driveand behavior, with theoneunqualifiedaim of relief.Another peculiar characteristicof the human organismwhen it isdominatedbyacertainneedis that thewhole philosophyof the futuretends also to change. For our chronically and extremely hungry man.Utopia canbe definedsimply as aplace wherethereisplenty of food. Hetendstothinkthat, if onlyheisguaranteedfood for therest ofhis life,he willbeperfectlyhappyandwillnever want anythingmore. Lifeitselftendstobedefinedintermsofeating. Anythingelsewill bedefined asunimportant. Freedom,love,communityfeeling, respect, philosophy, mayall bewavedasideasfripperies that areuseless, sincetheyfail tofill thestomach. Suchamanmayfairlybesaidtolivebybreadalone.It cannot possibly be denied that such things are true, but theirgeneralitycanbedenied. Emergencyconditionsare, almost bydefinition,rareinthenormallyfunctioningpeaceful society. That this truismcanbeforgotten is attributable mainly to tworeasons. First. rats have fewmotivations other than physiological ones, and since so much of the38 Motivation m/{l Personalityresearchuponmotivation has beenmadewiththeseanimals, it iseasytoca'rrythe ratpicture overtothehumanbeing. Second, itistoooftennotrealizedthat cultureitselfisanadaptive tool, oneofwhose main func-tionsis tomake the physiological emergencies come less and less often.Inmost of theknownsocieties, chronic extremehungeroftheemergencytype is rare, rather thancommon. In any case, this is still true in theUnited States. The average American citizen is experiencing appetiteratherthanhunger when he says, "Iamhungry." Heis apt toexperiencesheer life-and-deathhungeronlybyaccident andthenonlya fewtimesthrough his entire life.Obviouslyagoodwaytoobscurethehighermotivations, andtogetalopsidedviewofhumancapacitiesandhumannature, is tomake theorganismextremelyandchronicallyhungryor thirsty. Anyone who at-tempts tomake anemergency picture intoa typical one, ;mdwho willmeasure all ofman'sgoals and, desires by his behavior duringextremephysiological deprivationis certainlybeingblindtomany things. It isquitetruethat inanlivesbybreadalone-whenthereis nobread. Butwhat happens toman'sdesireswhen there is plentyof breadandwhenhisbellyischronicallyfilled?At once other (and higher) needs emerge and these, rather thanphysiological hungers, dominate theorganism. Andwhen these in turnaresatisfied, againnew(andstill higher) needsemerge, and soon. Thisis what we meanby saying thatthebasic humanneeds areorganized intoa hierarchy of relative prepotency. 'Onemainimplicationof thisphrasingisthat gratificationbecomesas important a concept as deprivationinmotivationtheory, forit releasesthe organismfromthe domination of a relatively more physiologicalneed, permittingtherebytheemergenceofother moresocial goaL. Thephysiological needs, along with their partial goals, when chronicallygratifiedceasetoexist as activedeterminantsor organizersof behavior.Theynowexist onlyina potential fashion in the sense that theymayemergeagaintodominatetheorganismiftheyarethwarted. Butawantthat issatisfiedisnolonger awant. Theorganismisdominatedanditsbehavior organized only by unsatisfied needs. If hunger is satisfied, itbecomesunimportantinthecurrentdynamicsoftheindividual.This statement issomewhat qualifiedbyahypothesistobediscussedmorefullylater, namely, thatitispreciselythoseindividualsinwhomacertainneedhasalwaysbeensatisfiedwhoarebestequippedtotoleratedeprivationofthat needinthefuture, andthat furthermore, thosewhohavebeendeprivedinthe past will react differently tocurrent satisfac-tionsthantheonewhohasnever beendeprived.ATheory(}f HumanMotivation :l!JTHESAFETYl"EEDSIf thephysiologicalneeds arerelativelywellgratified, therethenemergesanewset of needs, whichwemaycategorizeroughlyas thesafetyneeds(security; stability; dependency; protection; freedom from fear, fromanxietyandchaos; needfor structure, order, law, limits; strengthintheprotector; andsoon). All that has heen saidtothe physiological needsisequally true, although in less degree, of these. desires. Theorganismmayequallywell bewhollydominatedbythem. Theymayserve as thealmost exclusive organizers of behavior,recruiting allthe capacities of theorganismin their service, and we may then fairly describe the wholeorganismasasafety-seekingmechanism. Againwemaysayof therecep-tors, theeffectors, of theintellect, andof the other capacities that theyareprimarilysafety-seekingtools. Again, asin thehungryman, we findthal thedominating goal isastrong determinant not onlyofhiscurrentworldoutlookand philosophybut alsoof his philosophyof the futureand of values. Practically everything lookslessimportant thansafetyand. protection (even sometimesthephysiologicalneeds, which, being satisfied,are now underestimated). A maninthis state,if itis extreme enoughandchronic enough, may be characterized asliving almost forsafetyalone.Althoughinthischapterweareinterestedprimarilyintheneedsofthe adult, wecanapproachanunderstanding of hissafetyneedsperhapsmoreefficiently byobservationof infants and children, inwhomtheseneeds are much more simple and obvious. One reason for the clearerappearance of thethreat or dangerreactionininfants isthat theydo notinhibit this reactionat all, whereas adults in our society havebeentaughtto inhibitit at allcosts. Thus evenwhenadults dofeel theirsafetytobethreatened, wemaynot be able tosee this on the surface. Infants willreact ina total fashionandas if theywereendangered, if theyaredis-turbedor dropped suddenly, startled byloud noises, flashing light, orother unusual sensorystimulation, byroughhandling, bygeneral lossofsupportinthe mother'sarms, or byinadequatesupport.1In infants we can also see a much more direct reaction to bodily, illnesses of various kinds. Sometimes these illnesses seemtobe immediately andper sethreatening, andseemtomakethechildfeel unsafe. ForI Asthechildgrows up. sheer knowledgeand familiarityaswell as better motor devel-opment make these dangers less and less dangerous and more and more manageable.Throughout lifeit maybesaidthat oneof themainconativefunctions of educationisthis neutralizing of apparent dangers through knowledge. e.g., I am not afraid ofthunderbecauseIknow something about it.40 Mo/ivatioll lind PCl".\olllllityinstance, vomiting, colic, or other sharp pains seemto make the chilolookat thewholeworldinadifferent way. At sucha moment of pain,it maybepostulatedthat, forthe child, the whole world suddenlychangesfromsunniness todarkness, so to speak, and become a place in whichanythingat all might happen, in which previQusly stable things havesuddenlybecomeunstable. Thusachildwhobecauseofsome badfoodis takenill mayfor adayor twodevelopfear, nightmares, anda needfor protectionandreassurancenever seeninhimhefOl'ehisillness. Therecent workonthe psychological effects of surgeryonchildrendemonmates this richly(270).Anotherindication ofthechild'sneedfor safetyishispreferenceforsome kindof undisruptedroutineor rhythm. Heseems towant a predictable, lawful, orderlyworld. For instance, injustice, unfairness, or inconsistencyintheparents seemstomakea childfeel anxiousandunsafe.This attitudemaybenot somuchbecauseof theinjusticeperseor anyparticularpainsinvolved, hut rather becausethis treatment threatens tomaketheworldlookunreliable, orunsafe, orunpredictable. Youngchilodrenseemtothrivebetterunderasystemthat has atleastaskeletal out-line of rigidity, in which there is a schedule of a kind, some sort ofroutine, somethingthat canbecountedupon, not onlyfor the presentbut also far into the future. Child psychologists, teachers, and psycho.therapistshavefoundthat permissivenesswithinlimits, rather thanunrestricted permissiveness ispreferredaswell as neededbychildren. Perhapsonecouldexpress. thismoreaccuratelybysayingthat thechildneeds an'organizedandstructuredworldrather than an unorganizedor unstruc-tured one.Thecentral roleoftheparentsand Ihenormal familysetupareindisputable. Quarreling, physical assault, separation, divorce, or deathwithinthefamilymaybeparticularlyterrifying. Alsoparental outburstsof rage orthreats of punishment directedto the child, calling him names,speaking to himharshly, handling him roughly, or actualphysical punish.ment sometimeselicit such total panicandterror that we must assumemoreisinvolvedthan the physical pain alone. While it is true that insome children this terror may represent also a fear of loss of parentallove, it canalsooccur incompletelyrejectedchildren, whoseemtoclingtothehatingparentsmore for sheer safetyandprotectionthanbecauseof hope of love.Confronting theaveragechild withnew, unfamiliar, strange, unmanageable stimuli or situations willtoofrequently elicitthe danger orterrorreaction, as for example, gettinglost or even beingseparated fromtheparentsforashort time, being confrontedwithnewfaces, newsituations,ATheoryof HumanM otiuation 11or newtasks, thesight ofstrange, unfamiliar, or uncontrollableobjects,illness, or death. Particularly at suchtimes, thechild'sfranticclingingtohisparentsis eloquent testimonytotheir roleas protectors (quiteapartfromtheirrolesasfoodgiversandlovergivers).2Fromtheseand similarobservations, wemaygeneralizeandsaythatthe average child and, less obviously, the average adult inour societygenerally prefers a safe, orderly, prediCtable, lawful, organized world,whichhecancount onand inwhichunexpected, unmanageable, chaotic,or otherdangerousthingsdonot happen, andinwhich, inanycase, hehaspowerful parentsor protectorswhoshieldhimfromharm.That these reactions may so easily be observedinchildren is in awayproofthatchildreninoursocietyfeel toounsafe(or, inaworld, arebadlybrought up). Childrenwhoarerearedinanunthreatening, lovingfamilydonotordinarily react aswehave described. Insuchchildrenthedanger reactions are apt to come mostly to objects or situations thatadultstoowouldconsiderdangerous.Thehealthyand fortunate adult inour culture is largely satisfiedInhissafetyneeds. Thepeaceful, smoothlyrunning, stable, goodsocietyordinarily makes its members feel safe enough fromwild animals, extremes of temperature, criminal assault, murder, chaos, tyranny, andsoon. Therefore, inaveryreal sense, henolonger hasanysafetyneeds asactivemotivators. Justasasatedmannolongerfeelshungry, asafemannolonger feels endangered. If we wish to see these needs directly andclearlywemust turntoneuroticorncar-neuroticindividuals, andtotheeconomic and social underdogs, or else to social chaos, revolution, orbreakdownofauthority. Inbetweentheseextremes, wecanperceivetheexpressionsofsafetyneedsonlyinsuchphenomenaas, for instance, thecommonpreferencefor ajobwithtenureandprotection, thedesire forasavingaccount, and for insurance of various kinds (medical, dental,unemployment, disability, oldage).Other broader aspectsof theattempt toseeksafetyandstabilityintheworld arc seen in the very common preference for familiar ratherthanunfamiliar things(309), orfortheknownratherthantheunknown.Thetendencytohavesomereligionorworldphilosophythat organizes2 A test batteryfor safetymight beconfrolltinl:' thechild with a small explodingfirecrarker. a bewhiskered face. or a hypodermic injection. having the mother leave theroom, pUllinI:' himupona high ladder, havinl:' a mouse crawl up to him, andso on.Of collrseI('annat seriouslyrecommendthedeliberatelISeofsuchtests, for theymight'cry\\'1'11 h:trInthechildbeingtested. Hut theseandsimilar situationscomeupbythesenn-inrherhild'sordinaryday. to-dayliving andIllaybeobserved.42 Motivation lind Personalitytheuniverseandthemeninit intosomesort of satisfactorilycoherent,meaningful wholeis alsoinpart motivatedbysafetyseeking. Heretoowemaylist scienceandphilosophyingeneral as partiallymotivatedbythesafetyneeds (weshall seelater that there arealsoother m()tivationsto scientific,philosophical, or religious endeavor)'.Otherwise the need for safety is seen as an active and dominantmobilizerofthe organism'sresourcesonlyinreal emergencies, e.g., war,disease, natural catastrophes, crimeswaves, societal disorganization, neu-rosis, braininjury, breakdown of authority, chronicallybadsituations.Some neurotic adults in our society are, in many ways, like theunsafechildintheirdesirefor safety, althoughintheformer ittakesona somewhat specialappearance. Theirreactionisoftentounknown, psy-chologicaldangersinaworldthat isperceivedtobehostile, overwhelm-ing, andthreatening. Such apersonbehavesas if a greatcatastrophe werealmost alwaysimpending, i.e., heisusuallyrespondingasif toanemer-gency. His safetyneeds often find specific expression in a search for aprotector, or a stronger person on whomhe may depend, perhaps aFuehrer.Theneuroticindividual maybedescribedwithgreat usefulnessasagrown-uppersonwhoretains his childhoodattitudes towardtheworld.That isto say, aneurotic adult maybesaidtobehaveas if hewereactu-ally afraidof a spanking, or of his mother's disapproval, or of beingabandonedbyhisparents, orhaving hisfoodtakenawayfromhim. It is'as if his childish attitudes of fear and threat reaction to a dangerousworld hadgone underground, and untouched by the growing up andlearning processes, werenowreadytobecalled out byanystimulusthatwouldmakeachildfeel endangeredandthreatened.3Horney(197)espe-ciallyhaswrittenwell about "basicanxiety."Theneurosisinwhichthesearchfor safetytakesitsclearest formisinthecompulsive-obsessiveneurosis. Compulsive-obsessivestryfranticallytoorder andstabilizetheworldsothat nounmanageable, unexpected,or unfamiliar dangers will ever appear. They hedge themselves aboutwithall sortsofceremonials, rules, andformulas so that every possiblecontingencymaybeprovidedfor andsothat nonewcontingenciesmayappear. Theyaremuchlikethebrain-injuredcases, described byGold-stein, whomanagetomainfaintheirequilibriumbyavoidingeverythingunfamiliarandstrangeandbyorderingtheir restrictedworldinsuchaneat, disciplined, orderly fashion that everythingin the world can he3 :-lotall neuroticindividualsfeel unsafe. Neurosis mayhaveat its corea thwartingoftheaffectionandcsleemneedsinapersonwhois generally safe.ATheoryof HumanMotivation 43countedon. Theytrytoarrangetheworldsothat anythingunexpected(dangers)cannot possibly occur. If, throughnofault oftheirown, some-thing unexpected does occur, they go into a panic reaction as if thisunexpected occurrence constituted a gravedanger. Whatwecan see onlyas anone-too-strongpreferenceinthehealthyperson, e.g., preferenceforthe familiar, becomes a life-and-deathnecessityinabnormal cases. Thehealthytastefor thenovel andunknownismissing orat aminimumintheaverage neurotic.Thesafetyneedscanbecomeveryurgent onthesocial scenewhen-ever there arereal threats tolaw, toorder, to the authorityof society.Thethreat of chaos or of nihilism canbe expected inmosthumanbeingstoproduce a regression fromanyhigher needs to the more prepotentsafety needs. Acommon, almost an expectable reaction, is the easieracceptanceof dictatorshiporofmilitaryrule. Thistendstobetrue forall humanbeings, includinghealthyones, since they too will tend torespondtodanger withrealisticregressiontothesafetyneedlevel, andwillprepareto defendthemselves. But it seemstobemost true of people'whoarelivingnear thesafetyline. Theyare particularlydisturbedbythreatsto authority, tolegality, andtotherepresentativesof thelaw.THEBELONCINCNESSANDLOVENEEDSIf both the physiological andthesafetyneeds are fairly well gratified,there will emergethe love and affection andbelongingness needs, andthewhole cycle already describedwill repeat itself withthis new center. Nowthepersonwill feel keenly, asnever before, theabsenceof friends, or asweetheart, or awife, or children. Hewill hunger for affectionaterela-tionswithpeopleingeneral, namely, for aplaceinhisgrouporfamily,andhewillstrive with great intensitytoachievethisgoal. Hewill wantto attain such a place more than anything else inthe world and may evenforget that once, whenhewashungry, he sneeredat love as unreal orunnecessary orunimportant. Nowhewill feel sharplythepangs of lone-liness, of ostracism, of rejection, of friendlessness, of rootlessness.We have verylittle scientific informationabout the belongingnessneed,althoughthis is a commonthemein novels, autobiographies, poems,andplaysandalsoin the newer sociological literature. Fromthese weknow inageneral waythedestructiveeffects onchildrenofmovingtoooften; of disorientation; of the general over-mobility that is forced byindustrialization;of being without roots, or of despising one's roots, one'sorigins, one's group; of being torn fromone's home and family, andfriendsandneighbors; of being atransient oranewcomerratherthananative. Westill underplaythedeepimportanceof theneighborhood, of44 Motivation andPersonalityone'sterritory, of one'sclan, of one's own"kind,"one'sclass, one'sgang,one'sfamiliarworking colleagues. I will content myself withrecommend-ingasinglebookthat saysall this withgreat poignancyandconviction(196) andthat helps usunderstandourdeeplyanimal tendencytoherd,toflock, tojoin, tobelong. Perhapsalso, Ardrey'STerritorial Imperative(14)will helptomake all ofthisconscious. Itsveryrashnesswas goodformebecauseitstressedascrucial what I hadbeenonlycasual about andforcedmetothink seriously about the matter. Perhaps it will dothesameforthe reader.I believe that the tremendous andrapidincrease inT-groups andother personal growthgroupsandintentional communitiesmayinpartbemotivatedbythisunsatisfiedhungerfor contact, for intimacy, for be-longingness and by the need to overcome the widespread feelings of aliena-tion, aloneness, strangeness, and loneliness, which have been worsenedbyourmobility, bythe breakdownoftraditional groupings, thescatter-ingof families, the generationgap, the steady urbanization anddisap-pearance of village face-to-faceness, and the resulting shallowness ofAmericanfriendship. Mystrongimpressionisalsothat someproportionof youth rebelliongroups-I don't knowhowmany or howmuch--ismotivatedbythe profoundhunger for groupiness, for contact, for realtogethernessinthefaceofacommonenemy, any enemythat canservetoformanamitygroupsimplybyposinganexternal threat. Thesamekind of thing was observed in groups of soldiers whowerepushed intoan '.unwontedbrotherlinessandintimacybytheir commonexternal danger,and whomaysticktogether throughout alifetimeasaconsequence. Anygood societymustsatisfythisneed, onewayoranother, ifit istosurviveandbe healthy.Inour society the thwartingof these needs is the most commonlyfoundcoreincasesof maladjustment and moresevere pathology. Loveandaffection, as well as their possible expressioninsexuality, are generallylookeduponwithambivalenceandarecustomarilyhedgedaboutwithmanyand inhibitions. Practically all tHeoristsofpsycho.pathology have stressedthwarting of theloveneeds asbasic inthepictureof Manyclinical studies havethereforebeenmade ofthisneed, andweknowmoreabout it perhaps thananyof the other needsexcept thephysiological ones. Suttie(442) haswrittenanexcellent analysis of our "taboo ontenderness."Onethingthat must bestressedat thispoint isthat loveisnot syn-onymous with sex. Sex may be studied as a purely physiological need.Ordinarilysexual behavioris multidetermined, thatistosay, determinedATheoryof HumanMotivation 45not onlybysexual but alsobyother needs, chief amongwhich are theloveandaffection needs. Alsonot to beoverlooked is the fact that thelove needs involve both giving and receiving love.THEESTEEMNEEDSAllpeople in our society(with afewpathological exceptions) haveaneedor desirefor astahle, firmlybased, usually highevaluationofthemselves,for self-respect, or self-esteem, andfor theesteemofothers. Theseneedsmaytherefore beclassifiedintotwosubsidiarysets. These are, first, thedesirefor strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for masteryandcompetence, for confidenceinthe face of the world, and for independenceand freedom.4Second, wehave what wemay call thedesireforreputationor prestige (definingit as respect or esteemfromother people), status,fame and glory, dominance, recognition, attention, importance, dig-nity, orappreciation. TheseneedshavebeenrelativelystressedbyAlfredAdler and his followers, and have been relatively neglec;ted by Freud.Moreandmore today, however, thereisappearingwidespreadapprecia-rionoftheircentral importance, amongpsychoanalystsaswell asamongclinicalpsydlOlogists.Satisfaction of the self-esteemneed leadstofeelings of self-confidence,worth, strength, capability, andadequacy, of beinguseful andnecessaryintheworld. But thwarting ofthese needsproduces feelings of inferior-ity, of weakness, ,mdofhelplessness. These feelings in turngive rise toeither basicdisc:Duragement orelsecompensatoryor neurotictrends. Anappreciationof thenecessityof basicself-confidenceandanunderstanding of howhelpless people are without it can be easilygained fromastudyofseveretraumaticneurosis(222).5From the theologians' discussion of pride and hubris, from theFrommian theories about the self perception of untruth to one's ownt Whetheror not thbparticular desire is universal wedonot know. Thecrucial ques-lion. especiallyimpOltanl today. is, Will men who arc enslaved and dominated inevi-tahlyfeci dissalisfiedand rehellious? \\'e mayassumeon Ihe basis of commonlyknownclinical dala that amanwhohas known ttuefreedom(nol paidfor hyKh'ingIll' safetyand securin hUl. ralloer uuilt on lloe basis of adeyuale safelv' and secnrity) will notwillinglyorcasilyallowhis freedomtobetakenawayfromhim. lIllI we donot knowforsurethal lhisislJ uefor l l o ~ personbornintoslavery. Seediscussionof this probleminRef. 145.r'I'or lIIoreeXlensive dillCussionof normal self-esteem, as well as for reports of variousre!'earches, sec the bibliographyon page 61. Alsosec the work of McClellandand his((I. workers(326, 327, ~ 2 8 ) . Also(473).4ti Motivation llndPersoualit),nature, fromtheRogerianworkwithself, fromessayistslikeAyn Rand(388), andfromother sourcesas well, we have beenlearningmore andmore of the dangers of basing self-esteem onthe opinions of others ratherthanon real capacity, competence, andadequacy tothe task. The moststable andthereforemosthealthyself-esteemisbased ondeservedrespectfromothersrather thanonexternal fameor celebrityandunwarrantedadulation. Evenhere it is helpful todistinguish the actual competenceand achievement that is basedon sheer will power, dctermination andresponsibility, fromthat which comes naturally andcasilyout of one'sowntrueinner nature, one's constitution, onc'sbiological fateordestiny, .or asHorneyputsit, out of one'sReal Self ratherthanout of theideal-izedpseudo-self (199).THENEEDFORSELF-ACTUALIZATIONEven if all these needs are satisfied, we may still often (if not always)expect that a new discontent andrestlessnesswill soondevelop. unlesstheindividual isdoing what he, individually, is fittedfor. Amusicianmustmakemusic, anartist must paint, a poet must write, if he is tobe ulti-matelyat peacewithhimself. \Vhat amancan be, he must bc. Hemustbetrue tohisownn;tture. Thisneedwe maycall self-actllalization. SeeChapter II for fuller description.Thisterm, first coinedbyKurtGoldstein(160), is beingusedinthisbook in a much more specific and limited fashion.' It refers to man's'desire fornamely, to the tendency for himto becomeaClllalizedinwhat heis pptentially. Thistendencymight be phrased asthe desire to become more and more what one idiosyncratically is, tobecome everything that one is capable ofbecoming.The specific form that these needs will take will of course varygreatlyfrompersall to person. Inone individual it may take the formof the.desire to be an ideal mother, in another it may be expressedathletically, andinstill anotherit maybeexpressedinpaintingpicturesor in inventions.6At this level,individual differences aregreatest.u Clearlycrcativebehavior, likc is likeanyother behavior in havingmultipledetcrminants. It may beseen in innatelycreative people whether theyarc satisfied ornot. happyor unhappy. II\!ngryor sated. Also it is clear that Clcative activity may becompensatory, ameliorative, or purely economic. It is my impression (from inIormalexperiments) that it is possible todistingl.ish the artistic and intellectual products ofbasicallysatisfied people fromthoseof basicallyunsatisfied people by inspection alone.(n any case, here too we must distinguish, in a dynamic fashion, the overt behavioritselffromitsvariousmotivations orpurposes.AThcOlJofHufttM,n,VIativation,g.Thcdcar cmcrgenceof these needs usually rests upon some priorsatisfaction of thephysiological, safety, love, and esteemneeds.THEPRECONDITiONSFORTHEBASICNEEDSATISFACTIONSThere arc certain conditions that are immediate prerequisites for thcbasicneedsatisfactions. Danger totheseisreacted toas if it weredirectdanger to the basic needs themselves. Such conditions as freedom tospeak, freedomto dowhat one wishes so long as no harmis done toothers, freedomtoexpress oneself, freedomto investigate and seek forinformation, frcedomtodefendoneself, justice, fairness, honesty, order-liness in the group are examples of such preconditions for basic needsatisfactions. Thwarting in these freedoms will be reacted to with athreat or emergency response. These conditions are not ends in them-selvesbut theyarealmost sosincetheyaresocloselyrelatedtothe basicneeds, which are apparently the onlyends in themselves. These concli-tionsaredefendedhecausewithout themthe basicsatisfactionsarequiteimpossible, or at least, severelyendangered.. , J[ we remember that the cognitive capacities (perceptual, intellec-tual, learning) are a set of adjustive tools, which have, among otherfunctions, that of satisfactionof ourbasicneeds, thenit isclear that anydanger tothem, anydeprivationor blockingoftheir free use, mllst alsobeindirectlythreateningtothebasicneeds themselves. Suchastatementis a partial solutionof thegeneral problems of curiosity, thesearch forknowledge, truth, andwisdom, and theever-persistent urge tosolve thecosmic mysteries. Secrecy, censorship, dishonesty, blockingof communi-cationthreatenall thebasicneeds.'Ve musttherefore introduce another hypothesis andspeakof degreesof closenesstothebasicneeds, for wehavealreadypointedout that an)'conscious desires (partial goals) are moreor less important as they aremoreor lessclosetothe basicneeds. Thesamestatement maybe madefor variow; behavior acts. An act is psychologically important if it con-tributes directly to satisfaction of basic needs. The less directly it socontributes, or the weakcr this contribution is, the less important thisact must beconceivedto be fromthepointof viewofdynamicpsychol-ogy. Asimilarstatcment maybemadefor the variollsdefenseor c o p i n ~mechanisms. Some are directly related to the protectionor attainmentofthe basicneeds, others areonlyweaklyanddistantlyrelated. Indced,if wewished, wecouldspeakofmorebasicandlessbasicdefensemecha-nisms. and then affirmthat danger to the more basic defenses is morethreateningthandanger toless basicdefenses (always rememberingthatthis issoonlybecauseof their relationshiptothe hasic needs).48 Motivation andPersonalityTHEDESIRESTOKNOWANDTOUNDERSTANDThe main reason we knowlittle about the cogmtIve impulses, theirdynamics, or theirpathology, isthat theyarenotimportantintheclinic,and certainly not in the clinic dominated by, the medicaltherapeutictradition, i.e., gettingridof disease. Theflorid, exciting, aI}dmysterioussymptoms found in the classical neuroses are lacking here. Cognitivepsychopathologyis pale, subtle, and easily overlooked. or defined as 'normal. It does not cry forhelp. As a consequence wefindnothing onthesubject inthewritingsof thegreat inventorsof psychotherapyand psychodynamics,Freud, Adler. Jung, etc.Schilder is the onlymajor psychoanalyst I knowinwhose writingscuriosityandunderstandingareseendynamically.7AmongtheacademicpsychologistsMurphy, \Vertheimer, andAsch(19, 142, 466) havetreatedthe problem. So far, wehavementionedthecognitiveneedsonlyinpassing. Acquiring knowledgeandsystematizingtheuniversehavebeencon-sidered as. inpart, techniquesfor theachievement ofbasicsafetyintheworld. or for theintelligent man, expressions of self-actualization. Alsofreedomofinquiryandexpressionhave beendiscussedas preconditionsofsatisfactionofthebasicneeds. Useful though these formulations maybe, theydonot constitutedefinitive answers to the questions as to themotivational role of curiosity, learning, philosophizing. experimenting,etc. They are at best no morethanpartialanswers.Above andbeyondthesenegativedeterminantsfor acquiringknowl-edge (anxiety, fear), there aresome reasonable grounds for postulatingpositiveperseimpulsestosatisfycuriosity. toknow, toexplain, andtounderstand (295).l. Something like human curiosity can easily be observed in thehigheranimals. Themonkeywill pickthingsapart, will pokehis fingerintoholes. will exploreinall sortsof situationswhere it isimprobablethat hunger, fear, sex, comfort status. etc., areinvolved. Harlow'sexperi-ments(174)haveamply demonstratedthisinanacceptablyexperimentalway.2. The history of mankind suppliesuswithasatisfactory number of1 "However, humanbeingshaveagenuineinterest inthe world, inaction, andinexperimentation.They deriveadeepsatisfactionwhentheyventureintotheworld. Theydo not experience reality as a threat to existence. Organisms, and especially humanorganisms, have a genuine feelingof safetyand security in this world. Threats comemerelyfromspecificsituationsanddeprivations. Eventhen. discomfort anddangerareexperiencedaspassingpoints, whichfinallyleads toa newsecurityandsafetyintouchwiththeworld."(412. p.220).ATheoryof HumanMotivation 49instancesinwhichmanlooked for facts andcreatedexplanations inthefaceofthegreatestdanger, eventolifeitself. Therehavebeeninnumer-ablehumblerGalileos.3. Studiesof psychologicallyhealthy peopleindicate that they are,asadefiningcharacteristic, attractedtothemysterious, tothe unknown,tothechaotic, unorganized, andunexplained. Thisseems tobe aperseattractiveness; theseareasare inthemselvesandoftheirownright inter-esting. Thecontrastingreactiontothewell knownisoneof boredom.4. It maybefoundvalidto extrapolatefromthepsychopathological.Thecompulsive-obsessiveneurotic(andneuroticingeneral), Goldstein'sbrain-injuredsoldiers, Maier'sfixatedrats (285), all show(at theclinicallevel of observation) acompulsive andanxiousclinging to the familiarandadreadof the unfamiliar, theanarchic, the unexpected, the un-do-mesticated. Onthe other hand, therearesomephenomenathat mayturnout tonullifythispossibility. Amongtheseare forced unconventionality,achronicrebellionagainst anyauthoritywhatsoever, Bohemianism, thedesiretoshockandtostartle, all of which'maybe found incertain nell-oroticindividuals, aswell asinthosein the processofdeacculturation.Perhaps also relevant here are the perseverative detoxificationsdescribedinChapter 10, whichare, behaviorallyat any rate, an attrac-tiontothedreadful, tothenot understoodandtothe mysterious.5. Probably there are true psychopathological effects when thecognitiveneeds are frustrated (295, 314). The followingclinical impres-sionarealsopertinent.6. I haveseenafewcases inwhichit seemedclear to me that thepathology(boredom, loss ofzest inlife, selfdislike, general depressionofthebodilyfunctions, steady deterioration of theintellectual life, oftastes,etc.)8wereproducedinintelligent people leadingstupidlives instupidjobs. 1 haveat least onecaseinwhich theappropriatecognitive therapy(resuming parttime studies, getting a positionthat wasmoreintellectuallydemanding, insiglll)removedthesymptoms.I have seen many women, intelligent, prosperous, and unoccupied,slowly developthesesamesymptomsof intellectual inanition. Thosewhofollowedmy recommendationto immersethemselvesin something worthyof themshowedimprovement orcureoftenenough to impress me withthe realityof the cognitiveneeds. Inthosecountries in which access tothenews, to information, andtothefactswerecut off, andinthosewhereofficial theories were profoundly contradicted by obvious facts, at least8 This syndrome is very similar to what Ribot (396) and later Myerson (349) called"anhedonia"but whichtheyascribedto other sources.50 Motivation andPersonalitysomepeoplerespondedwithgeneralizedcynicism, mistrust ofall values,suspicionevenof theobvious, a profounddisruptionof ordinary inter-personal relationships, hopelessness, loss of morale, etc. Others seemtohaverespondedinthemorepassivedirection with dullness, submission,loss of capacity, coarctation, andloss of initiative.7. Theneeds toknowand tounderstandare seen inlate infancyandchildhood, perhapsevenmorestronglythaninadulthood. Further-morethisseemstobeaspontaneousproduct of maturationrather than >oflearning, however defined. Childrendonot have to be taught tobecurious. But they may be taught, as by institutionalization, not to becurious, e.g., Goldfarb(158).8. Finally, thegratificationofthecognitiveimpUlses issubjectivelysatisfyingandyields end-experience. Though this aspect of insight andunderstandinghasbeenneglectedinfavor ofachievedresults, learning,etc., it neverthelessremains true that insight is usuallya bright, happy,emotionalspot inanyperson'slife, perhapsevenahighspot in thelifespan.The overcoming of obstacles, the occurrence of pathology uponthwarting, the widespread occurrence (cross-species, cross-cultural), thenever-dying (though weak) insistent pressure, the need of gratificationof this need as aprerequisite forthefullest development of humanpoten-tialities, the spontaneous appearance in the early history of the indi-vidual,allthesepointtoabasic cognitiveneed.Thispostulation, however, is not enough. Evenafter we know, weareimpelledtoknowmoreandmore minutelyand microscopicallyonthe onehand, and ontheother, moreandmoreextensivelyinthedirec-tion of a world philosophy, theology, etc. The facts that we acquire,if they are isolated or atomistic, inevitably gettheorizedabout, andeitheranalyzed or organized or both. Thisprocesshasbeenphrasedby someasthesearchfor meaning. Weshall thenpostulateadesire to understand,to systematize,to organize, toanalyze, to lookforrelationsandmeanings,to construct asystem ofvalues.Oncethesedesiresare acceptedfor discussion, we see that theytooformthemselves into. a small hierachy in which the desire to knowisprepotent over the desire to understand. All the characteristics of ahierarchyofprepotencythat wehavedescribedabove seemtoholdforthis oneas well.Wemust guardourselves against the tooeasytendency toseparatethesedesiresfromthebasicneedswehavediscussedabove, i.e., tomakeasharpdichotomybetweencognitiveandconative needs. Thedesire toATheoryof HumanM olivalion 5\knowandtounderstandare themselves conative, i.e., havinga strivingcharacter, andareasmuchpersonalityneedsas thebasicneedswehavealreadydiscussed. Furthermore, as wehaveseen, thetwohierarchiesareinterrelated rather than sharplyseparated; and as we shall see below,theyare synergicrather than antagonistic. For further development ofthis section, see (295, 314).THEAESTHETICNEEDSWeknowevenlessabout thesethanabout theothers, andyet thetesti-mony of history, ofthehumanities, and of aestheticiansforbids us toby-passthisuncomfortable(tothescientist) area. I haveattemptedtostudythis phenomenon on a clinical-personological basis with selected indi-viduals, and have at least convincedmyselfthat in someindividualsthereisatrulybasicaestheticneed. Theyget sick(inspecial ways) fromugli-ness, andarecuredbybeautiful surroundings; they crave actively, andtheir cravings canbe satisfiedonlybybeauty(314). Itisseenalmost uni-versallyinhealthychildren. Someevidenceofsuchanimpulseis foundin every culture and in every age as farback as the cavemen.Much overlapping with conative and cognitiveneeds makes itimpos-sible toseparate themsharply. Theneeds for order, for symmetry, forclosure, for completionof the act, for system, andfor structuremaybeindiscriminately assigned to either cognitive, conative, or aesthetic, orevento neurotic needs. Formyself Ihavethought of thisarea of studyasameetingground for Gestalters anddynamic What, forinstance, doesit meanwhenaman feels astrongconscious impulse tostraightenthe crookedly hung picture onthe wall?FURTHERCHARACTERISTICSOFTHEBASICNEEDSTHEDEGREEOFFIXITY OFTHEHIERARCHY OFBASICNEEDS, We have spoken so faras if this hierarchy were afixed order, but actuallyitisnot nearlysorigidaswemayhaveimplied.Itis truethat most oflhepeoplewithwhomwehaveworkedhaveseemedtohavethesebasicneedsinabout theorder ,that hasbeenindicated. However, there havebeen a number of exceptions.1. Therearesome peopleinwhom, for instance, self-esteemseemstobe moreimportant thanlove. Thismostcommonreversal inthehier-archyis usuallydue to the development of the notion that the person52 Motivation andPersonalitywhois most likelytobelovedis astrongor powerful person, onewhoinspires respect orfear, andwhoisself-confident oraggressive. Thereforesuchpeoplewholackloveandseekit maytryhardtoput onafront ofaggressive, confident behavior. But essentiallytheyseek highself-esteemandits behaviorexpressionsmoreasameansto anendthanfor itsownsake; they seek self-assertion for the sake of love rather than for self-esteemitself.2. Thereare otherapparentlyinnatelycreativepeopleinwhomthedriveto creativenessseemstobemoreimportant thananyothercounter-determinant. Their creativeness might appear not as self-actualizationreleasedbybasicsatisfaction. but inspiteof lackofbasicsatisfaction.3. In certain people the level of aspiration may be permanentlydeadened orlowered. Thatistosay, thelessprepotent goalsmaysimplybelost, andmaydisappear forever, so that the person who has experi-encedlifeat averylowlevel, i.e., chronicunemployment, maycontinuetobesatisfiedfor therestofhislifeif onlyhecanget enoughfood.4. The so-called psychopathic personality is another example ofpermanentlossoftheloveneeds. Thesearepeoplewho, accordingtothebest dataavailable, havebeenstarvedfor loveintheearliest monthsoftheirlivesandhavesimplylost forever thedesireandtheabilitytogiveandtoreceiveaffection(asanimalslosesuckingor peckingreflexes thatare not exercised soon enoughafterbirth).5. Another causeof reversal of the hierarchyis that when a need.hasbeensatisfiedfor alongtime, thisneedmaybeunderevaulated. Peo-plewhohavenever experiencedchronic hunger areapt tounderestimateitseffectsandtolookuponfood as arather unimportant thing.Iftheyare dominated bya higher need, this higher need will seemto be themost important of all. Itthenbecomespossible, andindeeddoesactuallyhappen, that theymay, for thesakeof thishigher need, put themselvesintotheposition of being deprived inamorebasicneed. Wemayexpectthat afteralong-timedeprivationofthemorebasicneedtherewill beatendencyto-reevaluatebothneedssothat themoreprepotent needwillactuallybecomeconsciollslyprepotent for theindividual whomayhavegivenit uplightly. Thus aman whohas givenuphisjobrather thanlosehisself-respect, andwho thenstarves for sixmonthsor so, maybewillingtotakehis jobbackevenat thepriceof losinghisself-respect.6. Another partial explanationofapparent reversals isseeninthefactthat we have beentalking about the hierarchy of prepotency intermsof consciouslyfelt wantsor desiresrather thanof beQavior. Lookingatbehavioritself maygiveusthewrong impression. WhatwehaveclaimedATheoryof HumanMotivation 5:1isthat the personwill want themorebasicof twoneedswhendeprivedinboth. Thereisnonecessaryimplicationherethat hewill act uponhisdesires. Let usstressagainthat therearemanydeterminantsofbehaviorotherthanthe needs and desires.7. Perhaps more important than all these exceptions are the onesthatinvolveideals, highsocial standards, highvalues, andthelike. \Vithsuchvalues peoplebecomemartyrs; theywill giveupeverythingfor thesakeoEaparticularideal, orvalue. Thesepeoplemaybe understood, atleast inpart, byreferenceto onebasic concept (orhypothesis), whichmaybecalledincreased frtlstration-tolerance throughearlygratification. Peo-plewhoha\'e beensatisfiedin their basic needs throughout their lives,particularly in their earlier years, seemto develop exceptional power10 withstand present or future thwartinl{ o ~ these needs simply becausetheyhavestrong. healthycharacterstructureas aresult of basicsatisfac-tion. Theyarethestrongpeoplewhocaneasilyweatherdisagreementoropposition, \\'!locanswimagainst thestreamofpublicopinion, andwhocanstandupfor Ihetruthat great personal cost. Itisjust theones whohave loved andbeenwell loved, and whohave had many deepfriendshipswho' can hold out against hatred, rejenion, or persecution.Isay all this inspite of thefact that acertainamountofsheerhabit-uationisalsoinvolvedinanyfull discussionoffrustrationtolerance. Forinstance. it islikelythat thosepersons whohavebeenaccustomedtorela-tivestarvation foralongtimearepartiallyenabledtherebytowithstandfooddeprivation. 'Vhatsort ofbalancemust bemadebetweenthese twotendencies, of habituation onthe one hand; and of past satisfactionbreed-ing present frustrationtolerance onthe other hand, remainstobe workedout byfurther research. l\-feanwhilewemayassumethat bothareopera-tive. sidebyside, since theydonot contradict eachother. Inrespect tothis phenomenon or increased frustration tolerance, it seems probablethat themost important gratificationscomeinthefirst fewyearsoflife.That is to say, people who have been made secure and strong in theearliest years. tendtoremainsecureandstronl{thereafter in the faceofwhatever threatens.DEGREESOFRELATIVESATISFACTIONSo far, our theoretical discussion may have given the impression thatthese five sets of needs are somehow insuchtermsasthefollowing:If oneneedis satisfied, then another emerges. This statement might give thefalseimpressionthat aneedmustbesatisfied100percentbeforethenextneed emerges. In actualfact,most members of oursociety whoare normal54 Motivation andPersonalityarepartiallysatisfiedinall their basicneeds andpartiallyunsatisfiedinall their basicneedsat thesametime. Amorerealisticdescriptionofthehierarchywouldbeintermsofdecreasingpercentages of satisfactionaswegoupthehierarchyofprepotency. Forinstance, ifI mayassignarbi-traryfigures for thesakeofillustration, it isas if theaveragecitizenissatisfiedperhaps85percent inhisphysiological needs, 70percent inhissafetyneeds, 50percent in his love needs, 40 percent inhis self-esteemneeds, and 10percent inhisself-actualizationneeds. 'As for theconceptofemergenceofanewneedafter satisfactionofthe prepotent need, this emergence is not a sudden, saltatoryphenom-enon, but ratheragradualemergencebyslowdegreesfromnothingness.For instance, if prepotent need Ais satisfied only10 percent, thenneedBmaynot bevisible at all. However, as thisneedAbecomes satisfied25percent, need Bmayemerge5percent, as nep.d Abecomes satisfied 75percent, needB may emerge 50 percent, and so on.UNCONSCIOUS CHARACTEROF NEEDSThese needs are neither necessarilyconscious nor unconscious. On thewhole, however, intheaverageperson, theyaremoreoften unconsciousthanconscious. Itisnot necessaryat thispoint tooverhaul the tremen-dous mass of evidence that indicates the crucial importance of uncon-sciousmotivation. What wehavecalledthebasicneedsareoftenlargelyunconscious although they may, with suitable techniques, and withsophisticatedpeople, becomeconscious.CULTURALSPECIFICITYANDGENERALITYOFNEEDSThisclassificationof basic needs makes some attempts to take accountof therelativeunitybehindthesuperficial differences inspecificdesiresfromoneculturetoanother. Certainlyinanyparticularcultureanindi-vidual'sconsciousmotivationcontent will usuallybeextremelydifferentfromthe conscious motivational content of an individual in anothersociety. However, it iscommon experience of anthropologists thatpeople, evenindifferent societies, aremuch more alike thanwe wouldthinkfromourfirst contactwiththem, andthat as weknowthembetterweseemtofindmoreandmoreofthiscommonness. We thenrecognizethemost startling differencestobesuperficial rather thanbasic, e.g., dif-ferences instyle of hairdress, clothes, tastes infood, etc. Ourclassificationofbasicneedsis inpart anattempt toaccount for thisunitybehindtheapparent diversity fromcultureto culture. Noclaim is madeyet that itisultimateor universal for all cultures. Theclaimis madeonlythat it isrelativelymoreultimate, moreuniversal, morebasicthanATheoryof Humall Mutivation 55consciousdesires, andmakesacloser approach tocommonhumanchar-acteristics. Basic needs are more common human than are superficialdesires or behaviors.MULTIPLEMOTIVATIONS OFBEHAVIORThese needsmustbeunderstood not to be exclusive or singledeterminersofcertainkindsof behavior. Anexamplemaybefoundinanybehaviorthat seems to be physiologicallymotivated, suchas eating, sexual play,or the like. The clinical psychologists have longsince found that anyhehavior maybeachannel throughwhichflowvariousimpulses. Or tosay it in another way, most behavior is overdetermined or multimotivated.Within the sphereof motivational determinants anybehavior tends tobedeterminedbyseveral orallofthebasicneedssimultaneouslyratherthanbyonlyoneofthem. Thelatterwouldbemore anexceptionthanthe former. Eatingmaybe partiallyfor the sakeof filling the stomach,andpartially for the sake of comfort andameliorationof other needs.One may makelove not onlyforpure sexualrelease, butalsotoconvinceoneselfof one'smasculinity, or tomakeaconquest, tofeel powerful, towin more basic affeof expressive, nonfunctional behavior. Alsothe style inwhichamancar-ries out almost all his behavior, motivatedas well as unmotivated, ismostoften expressive(8, 486).Wemaythenask, is allbehaviorexpressiveorreflectiveofthechar-acter structure?Theanswer is No. Rote, habitual, automatized, or con-ventional behaviormayor maynot beexpressive. Thesameis trueformost stimulus-bound behaviors.It is finally necessary to stress that expressiveness of behavior andgoal-directedness ofbehaviorarenotmutuallyexclusivecategories. Aver-agebehaviorisusuallyboth. See Chapter IOfor afuller discussion.ANIMALANDHUMANCENTERINGThistheorystarts withthehumanbeing rather thananylowerandpre-sumably simpleranimal. Toomanyofthefindings thathave been ,madein animals have beenproved tobe truefor animals but not for the humanbeing. Thereisnoreasonwhatsoever whyweshouldstart withanimalsinordertostudyhumanmotivation. Thelogicorrather illogicbehindthisgeneral fallacyofpseudosimplicityhas beenexposedoftenenoughby philosophers and logicians as well as by scientists in each of the variousfields. It is nomorenecessarytostudyanimalsbeforeonecanstudy manthanitistostudymathematicsbefmoeonecanstudygeologyor psychol-ogy or biology.MOTIVATIONANDTHE THEORYOFPSYCHOPATHOGENESISThe conscious motivational content of everydaylife has, according totheforegoing, been conceived to be relatively important or unimportantaccordingly as it is more or less closely relatedtothebasic goals. Adesirefor ice creammight actually be anindirect expressionof a desire forlove. If itis, this desireforicecreambecomes extremelyimportantmoti-vation. If,however, theicecreamissimplysomethingtocool themouthwith, oracasual appetitivereaction, thedesireisrelativelyunimportant.Everydayconscious desires are to be regarded as symptoms, as surfaceindicators of morebasic needs. If we weretotakethesedesiresATheoryof HumanMotivation 57at their face value wewouldfind ourselves ina state of complete con-fusionthat couldnever beresolved, sincewewouldbedealingseriouslywithsymptoms ratherthanwithwhat laybehindthesymptoms.Thwartingof unimportant desires produces no psychopathologicalresults; thwarting of basically importantneeds doesproducesuchresults.Anytheory ofpsychopathogenesismust thenbebased onasoundtheoryof motivation. Aconflict or a frustration is not necessarily pathogenic.It becomes so onlywhen itthreatens orthwartsthebasicneeds orpartialneeds 'thatarecloselyrelatedtothebasicneeds.THEROLEOFGRATIFIEDNEEDSIt hase been pointed out above several times that our needs usuallyemergeonly "henmoreprepotent needshavebeengratified. Thusgrati-fication has an important role in motivation theory. Apart fromthis,however, needs ceasetoplaceanactivedetermining ororganizingroleassoon as they arc gratified.What this meansis that, c.g., a basicallysatisfied personno longer theneeds for esteem, love, safety, etc. Theonlysense inwhichhemight besaidtohave themis in the almost metaphysical sense that asated man has hunger, or a filledbottle has emptiness. If we are interestedinwhat actuallymotivatesus, andnot inwhat has, will, ormight moti-vateus, then a s.atisfied need is not amotivator. It mustbe consideredforall practicalpurposes simply not to exist, to have disappeared. Thispointshould beemphasized because it has beeneither overlookedor contra-dictedineverytheoryofmotivationI know. Theperfectlyhealthy, nor-mal, fortunatemanhas no sexneeds orhungerneeds, orneedsforsafety,or for love, or for prestige, or self-esteem, except in stray moments ofquicklypassingthreat.If weweretosayotherwise, weshouldalsohavetoaffirmthat everymanhadall thepathological reflexes, e.g., Babinski,etc., because if his nervous systemwere damaged, these would appear.It is suchconsiderations as these that suggest the bold postulationthat amanwhoisthwartedinanyofhisbasicneeds mayfairlybeenvis-agedsimply as a sickman or atleast lessthanfullyhuman. Thisisafair. parallel to ouras sickofthemanwholacks vitamins ormin-erals. Whowill saythat alackof love is less important thana lackofvitamins?Since we know,the pathogeniceffects of lovestarvation, whois to say that weare invoking valuequestionsinanunscientific orillegit-imateway, anymore thanthephysiciandoes whodiagnoses andtreatspellagra orscurvy? If I werepermittedthisusage, I shouldthensaysim-plythat ahealthymanis primarilymotivated byhis needs to developandactualizehis fullest potentialitiesandcapacities. If a manhas any58 MolivalionandPersonalityotherbasicneedsinanyactive, chronicsense, heissimplyanunhealthyman. Heisassurelysickasifhehadsuddenlydevelopedastrongsalthunger or calcium hunger.sIf thisstatement seems unusual or paradoxical, the reader maybeassuredthat this is only one among many such paradoxes that will appearaswereviseourways of lookingat man'sdeeper motivations. Whenweaskwhatmanwants of life, we dealwithhisvery essence.FUNCTIONALAUTONOMYGordonAllport (6, 7) hasexpoundedandgeneralizedtheprinciplethatmeans toan endmaybecomeultimatesatisfactionsthemselves, {;onnectedonlyhistoricallytotheirorigins. Theymaycometobe for theirownsake. Thisreminder ofthetremendousimportanceoflearningandchangeonthemotivational lifesuperimposes uponeverythingthat hasgonebeforeanenormousadditional complexity. Thereis nocontradic-tionbetweenthesetwosets of psychological principles; theycomplementeach other. Whether or not any needs so acquired may be consideredtruebasicneedsbythecriteriasofar usedisaquestionfor further research.Inanycase, wehave alreadyseen that higher basicneeds maybe-come, after long gratification, independent bothof their morepowerfulprerequisites and of their ownproper satisfactions, i.e., anadultwhowaslove-satisfiedinhisearlyyearsbecomes moreindependent thanaveragewithregardtosafety, belongingness, andlovegratificationat the time. I prefer tothinkofthecharacter strvctureas themost importantsingle instanceof functional autonomy in psychology. It is the strong,healthy, autonomouspersonwhoismost capableofwithstanding loss ofloveandpopularity. But this strengthandhealthhavebeenordinarilyproduced in our society byearlychronic gratifications of safety, love,belongingness, and esteem needs. Whichisto saythat theseaspects ofthepersonhave become functionally autonomous, i.e., independent of theverygratificationsthat createdthem.9 If weweretolisethewordsickinthisway, weshouldthenalsohavetofacesquarelythe relations of man to his society. One clear implication of our definition would bethat (I) sincea man is tobecalledsick who is basicallythwarted, and (2) since suchbasicthwartingismade possibleultimatelyonlybyforces outsidethe individual, then(3) sicknessintheindividual must come ultimatelyfrOmasickness in thesociety. Thegood or healthysociety would then be defined as one that permitted man's highestpurposesto emergeby satisfying all hisbasic needs.5l ~ I H I I E I ~ O I L I EOFIBASIICNIEIEIDG1R.AlllilFllCATIIONliNIPSYCIHIOILOGIICALl,IHIlEOIR.YThis chapterexploressomeof themanytheoretical consequencesof theapproachtohumanmotivationset forthinthelastchapter, andshouldserveasapositiveorhealthybalanceto thecurrent one-sidedstressonfrustration and pathology.We have seen that the chief, principle of organization in humanmotivational lifeisthearrangemelJ' ofbasicneedsinahierarchyoflessor greater priorityor potency. The chief dynamic principle animatingthisorganizationis theemergenceinthehealthy personof less potentneeds upon gratification of the more potent ones. The physiologicalneeds, when unsatisfied, dominate the organism, pressingall capacitiesinto their service and organizing these capacities so thattheymaybemostefficient inthisservice. Relativegratificationsubmergesthemandallowsthenext higher set ofneeds inthehierarchy toemerge, dominate, andorganize the personality, sothat insteadof being, e.g., hunger obsessed,, it nowbecomessafetyobsessed. Theprincipleis thesamefor theothersets of needsinthehierarchy, i.e., love, esteem, andselfactualization.Itisalsoprobablytrue that higher needsmayoccasionallyemerge,not after gratification, but rather' after forcedor voluntarydeprivation,renunciation, or suppression of lowerbasic needs and gratifications (ascet-icism, sublimation, strengtheningeffectsof rejection, discipline, persecu-tion, isolation, etc.). Weknowverylittleabout either the frequencyorthenatureoftheseevents, althoughtheyarereportedtobecommon in!i9GO Motivation andl'er.wnalityEastern cultures. In any case, such phenomena do not contradict thethesesof this book, sinceit is not claimedthat gratificationis the onlysource of strengthor of other psychological desiderata.Gratificationtheoryisobviouslyaspecial, limited, orpartial theory,not capable of independent existence or validity. It may achieve suchvalidityonly when structured with, at least, Xl) frustration theory, (2)learningtheory, (3) theory of neurosis, (4) theory ofpsychological health,(5) theory ofvalues, and(6) theoryofdiscipline, will, responsibility, etc. ,This chapter attemptstotrace only onethreadthroughthecomplexwebof psychological determinants of behavior, the subjective life, and thecharacterstructure. Meanwhile, inlieuofamorerounded picture, it isfreely grantedthat thereare determinants other thanbasic needgratifica-tion, that basicneedgratificationmaybenecessarybut it iscertainly notsufficient, that gratificationand deprivationeachhavebothdesirableandundesirableconsequences, andthat basic needgratificationdiffers fromneuroticneed gratificationinimportant respects.SOMEGENERALCONSEQUENCESOFSATIATINGANEEDThemost basicconsequenceofsatiationofanyneedisthat this needissubmerged andanew andhigherneedemerges.! Otherconsequencesareepiphenomena of this fundamental fact. Examples of these secondaryconsequences are 'I. Independenceof -andacertaindisdainfor theoldsatisfiers andgoal objects, with a newdependenceon satisfiersandgoal objects thathithertohadbeenoverlooked, notwanted, oroQlycasuallywanted. Thisexchange of old satisfiers for new ones involves many tertiary consequences.Thustherearechangesininterests. That is, certainphenomena becomeinterestingfor thefirst timeand oldphenomenabecomeboring, orevenrepulsive. This is the same as sayingthat there are changes inhumanvalues. Ingeneral, theretendtobe: (I)overestimationofthesatisfiersofthe most powerful of the ungratified needs; (2) underestimation of thesatisfiers of theless powerful oftheungratifiedneeds(andofthestrengthof these needs); and (3) underestimation and even devaluation of thesatisfiers of the needs already gratified (and of the strength of theseneeds).This shift invalues involves,as a dependent phenomenon, reconstructioninphilosophy of thefuture, ofthe Utopia, oftheheavenandhell, ofthe1.\11IheseslatemenlS apply10hasicneedsonly.Tltl' Holtof BasicN(,l'ci Grali/iwlioll inPsychological Tlll'ory Ii Igoodlife, andoftheunconsciouswish-fulfillment stateoftheindividualin a crudelypredictable direction.Inaword, wetendtotakeforgrantedtheblessings wealreadyhave,especiallyifwedon't have toworkor struggle for them. The food, thesecurity, the love, the admiration, the freedomthat have always beenthere, that havenever beenlackingoryearnedfor tendsnot onlytobeunnoticedbut alsoeven to be devaluedor mockedor destroyed. Thisphenomenonof failingtocount one'sblessingsis, ofcourse, not realisticandcan thereforebeconsideredtobea formof pathology. Inmost in-stances it is cured very easily, simply by experiencing the appropriatedeprivationor lack, e.g., pain, hunger, poverty, loneliness, rejection, in-justice, etc.This relativelyneglectedphenomenonof postgratificationforgettingand devaluation is, in my opinion,of very great potentialimportanceandpower. Further elaborations canbefoundinthechapter, OnLowGrulII-bles,HighGrumbles, andMetagrumbles, inmy ElipsycitianManagement:AJournal (291), invarious writings byF. Herzberg(193), andinColinconcept ofthe"St. Neot Margin" (481, 483).Innoother waycanwemakesense of the puzzlingway in whichaffluence (economicand psychological) canmake possible either growthtoloftierlevels of humannatureor thevariousformsofvaluepathologyjust hintcd at, and spellcd out inthe newspaper headlines of recentyears.Long ago, Adler in many of his writings (2, 3, 13)talked of the "pamperedstyleoflifc"andperhapsweshouldusethistermtodifferentiate patho-genicgratificationsfromhcalthy, necessaryones.2. Withthis change invalues gochanges inthecognitivecapacities.Attention, perception,learning, remembering, forgetting, thinking, allarechangedinacrudelypredictabledirectionbecause of the newinterestsandvalues of the organism.3. Thesenewinterests, satisfiers, andneeds, are not only new, butincertainsensesarealsohigher (seeChapter 7) 'N"hen the safetyneedsaregratified, theorganismisreleasedtoseekfor love, independence, re-spect, self-respect, etc. Theeasiest technique for releasing the organismfromthe bondage of the lower, more material, more selfish needs is togratifythem. (Needless tosay, thereareother techniquesaswell.)4. Gratificationof anyneedwhatsoever, solongas this be a truegratification, i.e., of arather than of a neurotic or pseudo need,helps to determine character formation (see below). Furthermore, anytrueneed gratificationtendstowardthe improvement, strengthening, andhealthydevelopment oftheindividual. Thatis, gratificationofanybasic62 MotivationandPersonalityneed in so faraswecanspeak of it inisolation, isamoveinthehealthydirection, away fromthe neurotic direction. It is in this sense undoubtedlythat Kurt Goldstein spoke of any specific need gratification as being in thelong run a step toward selfactualization.5. Specific need gratifications and satiations have in additionto thesegeneral resultscertainspecificadhocresultsas' well. For instance, otherfactorsbeing equal, asatisfactionofthesafetyneedsbringsspecificallyasubjectivefeelingofsafetymorerestful sleep, lossof feelingof danger, ,greater boldness, courage, etc.LEARNINGANDBASICNEEDGRATIFICATIONA first consequence of exploringtheeffects ofneedgratificationmust bea growing dissatisfactionwiththe overexpandedroleattributedtopurelyassociativelearningbyitsproponents.Ingeneral, gratification phenomena, e.g., anylossof appetite aftersatiation, the change inquantityand type of defensiveness after safetyneed gratification, etc., demonstrate (I)disappearance with increased exercise(orrepetition, use, orpractice)and(2) disappearancewithincreasedreward (or satisfaction, praise, or reinforcement). Furthermore, not only dogratificationphenomenasuchas those listedinthe tableat theendofthis chapter flout thelaws of association inspiteofthefact that theyareacquiredchanges inadaptation, but examinationshows alsothat arbi.'trary association is not involved except in ct'secondary fashion. Any definition of learning mustthereforebe insufficient if it stresses simply changesin the connectionbetweenstimuli andresponses..Thetaskof needgratification is almost entirelylimited to intrinsically appropriatesatisfiers. Inthelong run, therecanbenocasual andarbitrarychoice, except for nonbasicneeds. For the love-hungry, thereis only one genuine, long-runsatisfier, i.e.,honest and satisfying affection.Forthesex-starved, food-starved, orwaterstarvedperson, onlysex, food,orwaterwill ultimatelyserve. Thisis thesort ofintrinsicappropriate.ness stressed by Wertheimer(465), Kohler(238), andotherrecent Gestaltpsychologists, suchasAsch, Arnheim, Katona, etc., as a central conceptinall fields ofpsychology. Here, nofortuitous collocationor accidentalor arbitraryjuxtapositionwill do. Nor will signals or warningsor asso-ciates of the satisfiers do(350);onlythe satisfiers themselves gratifyneeds.We must speak with Murphy of canalization ratherthan mere association.The essence of this critique of associative, behavioristic learningTltcUolt ofIlasicl\'el,r/ Cm/if/calioninPsycltological Thcm")' Ii:!theoryis that it takesentirelyfor grantedtheends (purposes, goals) of. the organism. It deals entirely with the manipulation of means to unstatedends. Incontrast, thetheoryofbasicneeds presentedhereisatheoryofthe ends andultimate values of the organism. These ends are intrinsically,and in themselves, valuabletothe organism. It willthereforedoanythingnecessary to achieve these goals, even to learning arbitrary, irrelevant,trivial or silly procedures that anexperimenter mayset upas the onlywaytoget tothesegoals. Thesetricksareofcourseexpendable, andarediscarded(extinguished) whentheynolonger buyintrinsicsatisfactions(or intrinsic reinforcements).Itseemsquiteclear thenthat thebehavioral andsuhjectivechangeslistedonpages97-101 cannot possiblybeexplainedbythelawsof associative learningalone. Indeed, it is more likely that they