Endosymbiosis- “inside relationship” This is the theory that prokaryotes ate other prokaryotes but instead of dying these eaten prokaryotes developed a mutualistic relationship with the prokaryote that ate them. They became organelles. AND now that the prokaryotes had organelles they are Eukaryotes. Proof—the mitochondria and the chloroplast have their own DNA separate from the nuclear DNA. Also they will reproduce themselves.

Charles Darwin- often called the Father of Evolution. He first came up with the idea that perhaps species change through time and came from one common ancestor. He developed the idea of Natural Selection.

Natural Selection- “survival of the fittest” But really it is that the organism who can best reproduce gets to pass on more of its genes and traits.

Darwin developed this theory when he traveled to the Galapagos islands. He studied finches and was able to see that perhaps they had a common ancestor even though they had different beaks.

Darwin was able to show that either a species will adapt to its environment or it will die. And that the organism with the best adaptation will reproduce the most to pass this adaptation on to future generations.

A population can change due to natural selection. Classic example is of the dark and light moths. At first there were more light colored moths on light trees. But when pollution came and changes the trees the light ones were eaten and the dark ones survived. As the trees got darker so did the moths.

Due to natural selection our pests are becoming resistant to pesticides and our bacteria are becoming resistant to antibiotics (medicines). Only the weak ones were killed off which left the strong and resistant ones to reproduce which is now all we have.

Camouflage- when an organism blends in with its surroundings Mimicry- when a harmless organism acts or looks like a harmful one. (remember the chocolate).

Classic mimicry example- the monarch butterfly is poisonous to birds and the viceroy is not. But the viceroy looks like the monarch the birds do not eat it.

Camouflage and mimicry help organisms because it allows them to survive to reproduce—natural selection.

How do new species evolve?

Sometimes a part of a species is separated from the rest of the group either by a highway, mountains, ocean, or any other physical barrier. This is called geographic isolation.

Once they have been separated for a long time each group will change with their environment—natural selection again.

This will result in them being so different that even if they were to come back together again they could not mate. This is called reproductive isolations. This can be because their bodies no long match up or perhaps their social behaviors are now different (mating seasons or mating rituals).

When the two can no longer mate they are now two different species and this creation of a new species is called Speciation.

(remember the mice on the video and the M&Ms)

There are four major evolution patterns:

Adaptive Radiation- when several different species of organisms evolve from one common ancestor.

Divergent Evolution- this is when changes cause species to branch off from each other. Results in different species from a common ancestry.

For both adaptive radiation and divergent evolution the closer they are together on the map the closer related they would be. The oldest species branched off first.

Convergent evolution- this is when unrelated species evolve similar traits because they live in similar environments. Ex. bird, bat, and butterfly wing

Coevolution- this is when two different and unrelated species evolve characteristics that compliment each other. Or help each other out. Ex. Bumble Bee and Flower. Both have traits that attract the other and they evolved these traits so they could have a mutualistic relationship.

Cladogram- a tree like map which shows the evolutionary relationships of organisms

There are several different “proofs” for evolution:

Fossils- show how organisms changed through time and can show relationships. Fossils can be dated in two ways- relative or radiometric dating

Anatomical- by comparing the anatomy or body structure of organisms we can determine how closely related they are.

Human, bird, and porpoise are more closely related to each other than the fly.

Biochemical similarities- by comparing the DNA or the Amino Acids in protein we can determine how closely related organisms are. They closer their DNA and proteins are they closer related they are.

(remember comparing the horse, human, and gorilla).

Classification

First classification system was developed by Aristotle, but it had a few problems.

The modern day classification that we use today was developed by Carolus Linnaeus.

He classified organisms on their body structure and on many different characteristics.

There are 8 levels of classification

Did Domain King Kingdom Philip Phylum Come Class Over Order For Family Good Genus Spaghetti Species

The largest and most general or broad classification would be the Domain and Kingdom.

The smallest and most specific classification is the species. Organisms can only interbreed if they are in the same species.

The naming system we use today was also developed by Linnaeus. It is called Binomial Nomenclature= the 2 name naming system. It is written in Latin.

Common names can often be confusing so scientists use the scientific name. This name has two parts = the genus and species.

Genus is always capitalized. The species in not capitalized. The whole thing is in italics or underlined.

If two organisms are in the same genus it means they are related.

KingdomPhyl umCl assOr der

Famil y

Genus

Spec ies

K ingdomPhyl umCl assOr der

Famil y

Genus

Spec ies

Felisdomesticus (house cat)Felisleo (Lion)Felistigris (Tiger)Homo sapiens (human)

The tiger, house cat, and lion are closely related. We can tell because they all have the same Genus.

Dichotomous Key—this is like scavenger hunt to find out the scientific name of an organisms

There are 6 kingdoms and you must know the characteristics of each:

Domain: Eukarya Bacteria ArchaeKingdom: Animal Plant Fungi Protist Eubacteria ArchaebacteriaCell type Eukaryote Eukaryote Eukaryote Eukaryote Prokaryote ProkaryoteMovement? yes no no yes yes yesUni or Multi Multi Multi Multi

Uni-yeastMultiUni

Uni Uni

Hetero or Auto

Hetero Auto Hetero-absorb

HeteroAuto

HeteroAuto

HeteroAuto

Cell wall no Yes-cellulose

Yes- chitin

sometimes Yes- peptidoglycan

Yes- cellulose

Reproduction sexual Sexualasexual

asexual asexual Asexual- binary fission

Asexual-Binary fission

Animal Kingdom:

Annelids- the segmented worms Ex. Earthworm or leech

Body structure- is an invertebrate and has segments called Septa

Circulatory system- has a closed system which means it has veins and arteries

Respiration- they can breathe through gills or through their skinDigestive system- the eat through a pharynx and eat decaying matter (decomposer)

1. Has pointed ears .............. go to 3 Has rounded ears ....... .....go to 22. Has no tail ................... Kentuckyus Has tail ........................ Dakotus3. Ears point upward ................... go to 5 Ears point downward ..............go to 44. Engages in waving behavior ..... Dallus Has hairy tufts on ear...........Californius 5. Engages in waving behavior …… WalaWala

Dallus

Movement- the move by contracting muscles like an inch worm. The trails that they make through the soil help plants with water and oxygen for the roots.

Reproduction- asexual or external fertilization

Insects- an arthropod with three body parts and 6 legs (remember the song)

They have an exoskeleton- a hard outer covering instead of having bones. It provides them with structure and support. Reproduction- sexual Circulatory system- open Respiration- they breath through tubes in their abdomen

All insects will change throughout their life and this is called Metamorphosis

There are two types of metamorphosis:

Complete- eggs—larva—pupa—adult Ex. Butterfly and cocoon

Incomplete- egg---nymph—bigger nymph—adult ex. Grasshopper

Amphibians-

Antennae Head

Compound Eye

Thorax

Abdomen

P eter Breathes through tubes in the abdomen

Allows them to see in all directions

Appendages

Most Organs here

Antennae Head

Compound Eye

Thorax

Abdomen

P eter Breathes through tubes in the abdomen

Allows them to see in all directions

Appendages

Most Organs here

Reproduction- sexual Circulatory system- closed. First they have 2 chambers in their heart and then three They have moist skin which they partly breathe through it. Have lungs Their eggs are moist and must be kept in or near water. They have no shell. Ex. Salamander and frogs Ectotherms—meaning cold blooded They have a backbone so they are vertebrates and Chordates.

Mammals Reproduction-- sexual Circulatory system—closed They have 4 chambered hearts. They have hair or fur, give live birth and feed their young milk. Endotherms—warm blooded Ex. Human or dog Placenta- when the baby is in the womb of a mammal it is attached to the mother through a placenta. This provides the baby with nutrients and oxygen from the mother and gets rid of the baby’s waste.

Protists Kingdom:

There can be animal or plant like protists

The Animal like protists (protozoans)-

Heterotrophs (protozoans)- absorb their food oral and anal pore- a crude mouth and butt Autotrophs (Euglena-plant like) – use photosynthesis

Reproduction- they usually reproduce asexually

amoebaparamecium

Euglena Move towards light

a. spores- which are like eggs that don’t have to be fertilizedb. binary fission

Malaria— This disease is caused by a plasmodium (a type of protist). It is transferred to humans by a mosquito. The protist spends some part of its life in the liver cells and some time of its life in the blood cells. This is why people with sickle shaped blood cells (sickle cell anemia) are resistant to the disease.

Plants--- Plants evolved from plant like protists

Vascular tissue- this is like the plant’s cardiovascular system. There are two types: Xylem- carries water up the plant Phloem- carries sugar down the plant

Pollination- when pollen lands on the female part of the flower. Often a pollinator (bird or insect) helps with this.

Fertilization- when the sperm of plant reaches the plant’s ovary. This results in a seed.

Germination- when a seed begins to grow into a seedling.

Cross section of a leaf:

Algae

ProtistMoss Fern Gymnosperm

Naked seeds

Angiosperm

Enclosed seed

Moved onto land

Developed vascular tissue

has spores

Developed seeds

Developed flowers and

fruit

A non-vascular plant

Algae

ProtistMoss Fern Gymnosperm

Naked seeds

Angiosperm

Enclosed seed

Moved onto land

Developed vascular tissue

has spores

Developed seeds

Developed flowers and

fruit

A non-vascular plant

The stamen is the male part of the flower that makes the pollen (sperm).

The stigma, style, and ovary are the female part of the flower.

The ovary contained the eggs. When it is fertilized it turns into fruit.

Cuticle Mesophyll

Viruses They are not thought to be alive because they do not carry out all life functions.

They have a capsid (a protein coat) with DNA or RNA on the inside.

Viruses usually have the word-phage at the end of their name. Ex. Bacteriophage is a virus which infects bacteria

Vascular Bundle

Cuticle- a waxy on the outside of the leaf that holds in moisture

Mesophyll- the middle of the leaf where most of photosynthesis occurs

Vascular Bundle- this is like the vein of the leaf where the xylem and phloem are.

EndospermEndosperm

Seed coat- protects the seed Embryo- the baby plant Cotyledons- the seed leaves.

These become the first leaves of the plant

Endosperm- food for the embryo

Cotyledonsor

CapsidCapsid

There are two life cycles for viruses: Lytic cycle- the virus injects its DNA into the cell. The cell starts making viruses inside of it. Soon the cell will burst open or lyse releasing new viruses.

Lysogenic cycle- in this cycle the virus DNA is inserted into the host DNA and then just waits. It could stay in the lysogenic cycle for a short or long time. Eventually this will turn into the lytic cycle when the cell starts to make new viruses.

HIV- this virus is different than any other. Normally our immune system can fight back and eventually get rid of the virus. But HIV actually attacks the immune system and destroys it. So then the body has no defense.

Immune System

Antigens- foreign invaders in the body. Bacteria, viruses, etc. Pathogen- an organism that can make you sick T cells- cells in our bodies that work to destroy bacteria or viruses B cells- these will release antibodies which will attach to a virus and disable it Memory B cells- your body remembers every virus you have ever had. When you

get the same virus again the memory cell will recognize it and order an attack before you can get sick.

Vaccine- this is when you are given a weakened or dead virus. This allows your body to “remember” a virus that never actually made you sick. It prevents you from ever getting truly sick.

Antibiotic- this is a medicine which will kill bacteria

Active immunity- this is immunity or resistance that a person has because they have actually had the disease. You can also get this from a vaccine.

Ex. You have had chicken pox so now you have active immunity against it or you get a vaccine against chicken pox.

Passive immunity- this is when you are immune from a virus that you never actually had. Mothers can pass this on to their children when they breastfeed them.

Animal Behavior

There are two types of behaviors: a. learned- behaviors we will not know until we learn them b. innate- behaviors that we are born with and know one has to teach us

There are several innate behaviors:

Instinct- this is a simple innate behavior such as a reflex Suckling instinct- this is when a baby automatically knows how to suckle or drink milk from the mother’s breastCourtship – this is mating behaviorTerritorial defense- protection of an animal’s behaviorEstivation- this is like hibernation in the summer time. Frogs do this in the desert to protect themselves from the summer heat of the desertHibernation- deep sleep in the winter time Migration- when birds or other animals leave the north and move to the south for the winter and then come back in the summerCircadian rhythm- an animal’s natural body clock or rhythm. This is an animal’s natural clock to eat and sleep.

Types of learned behavior:

Taxes (taxis)- this movement. Positive taxes is moving towards and negative taxes is moving away. Ex. Euglena have a positive phototaxis…meaning they move towards the light. Imprinting- this happens mainly in birds. The first animal or object that the new born bird sees, the bird forever sees as its mother. Habituation- becoming so used to something that you cease to be bothered by it or notice it. Ex. not noticing your ceiling fan anymore or a train that passes by your houseClassical conditioning- this is making unrelated things become associated. Pavlov rung a bell every time he fed his dogs. So then the dogs learned to associate bell ringing with food even if no food as around. Ex. can opener with your cat or dogTrial and error- trying something over and over again and learning from your mistakes.