Aalborg Universitet

Land Administration

Facilitating Spatially Enabled Government and supporting the Global Agenda

Enemark, Stig

Published in:Beyond Spatial Enablement : Proceedings of 4th UN Sponsored PCGIAP Land Administration Forum, 5-7October 2011, melbourne, Australia

Publication date:2011

Document VersionEarly version, also known as pre-print

Link to publication from Aalborg University

Citation for published version (APA):Enemark, S. (2011). Land Administration: Facilitating Spatially Enabled Government and supporting the GlobalAgenda. In Beyond Spatial Enablement : Proceedings of 4th UN Sponsored PCGIAP Land AdministrationForum, 5-7 October 2011, melbourne, Australia

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4  

infrastructure and encourage integration of the processes related to land tenure (securing and transferring rights in land and natural resources); land value (valuation and taxation of land and properties); land use (planning and control of the use of land and natural resources); and, increasingly important, land development (implementing utilities, infrastructure and construction planning). Inevitably, all four functions are interrelated. The interrelations appear because the conceptual, economic, and physical uses of land and properties serve as an influence on land values. Land values are also influenced by the possible future use of land determined through zoning, land-use planning regulations, and permit-granting processes. And land-use planning and policies will, of course, determine and regulate future land development. The four functions interact to deliver overall policy objectives, and they are facilitated by appropriate land information infrastructures that include cadastral and topographic datasets linking the built environment (including legal and social land rights) with the natural environment (including topographical, environmental, and natural resource issues). Land information should, in this way, be organized through Spatial Data Infrastructures (SDI) at the national, regional, federal, and local level, based on relevant policies for data sharing, cost recovery, access to data, data models, and standards. Ultimately, the design of adequate systems of land tenure and land value should support efficient land markets capable of supporting trading in simple and complex commodities. The design of adequate systems to deliver land-use control and land development should lead to effective land-use management. The combination of efficient land markets and effective land-use management should support economic, social, and environmental sustainable development. 3. TEN LAND ADMINISTRATION PRINCIPLES Despite the uniqueness of local systems, the range of cognitive frameworks about land, and difficulties in transferring institutions, design of robust and successful LAS is possible. The ten land administration statements in figure 2 below set boundaries for designers, builders and managers of LAS to help them make decisions about their local system. Overall, the statements are written with the goal of making establishment and reform of LAS easier. The statements implement the modern philosophy in land administration to develop and manage assets and resources within the land management paradigm to deliver sustainable development. They are universally applicable. Countries at early stages of development will not be able to use the full array of technical options or specialist skills, but they can improve their land management through appropriately designed LAS. The statements reflect a holistic approach for any LAS, and focus on sustainable development as the overriding policy for any national system, irrespective of whether a country implements property institutions, communal land arrangements, or socializes its land. They highlight the importance of information and participation of people. They set the framework in which the historical development of familiar ingredients, like cadastres and land registries, can be meshed with recent innovations, particularly incorporation of social tenures, new complex commodities appearing in highly organised land markets, and the technical potential of spatial information. 

5  

1. LAS 

 

LAS provide the infrastructure for implementation of land polices and land 

management strategies in support of sustainable development. The infrastructure 

includes institutional arrangements, legal frameworks, processes, standards, land 

information, management and dissemination systems, and technologies required to 

support allocation, land markets, valuation and control of use and development of 

interests in land.  

2. Land management 

paradigm 

The land management paradigm provides a conceptual framework for understanding 

and innovation in land administration systems. The paradigm is the set of principles and 

practices that define land management as a discipline. The principles and practices relate 

to the four functions of LAS, namely land tenure, land value, land use and land 

development, and their interactions. These four functions underpin the operation of 

efficient land markets and effective land use management. “Land” encompasses natural 

and built environment including land and water resources. 

3. People and 

institutions 

LAS is all about engagement of people within the unique social and institutional fabric 

of each country. This encompasses good governance, capacity building, institutional 

development, social interaction and a focus on users, not providers. LAS should be re‐

engineered to better serve the needs of users, such as citizens, governments and 

businesses. Engagement with the society, and the ways people think about their land, are 

core. This should be achieved through good governance in decision making and 

implementation. This requires building the necessary capacity in individuals, 

organisations and wider society to perform functions effectively, efficiently and 

sustainably.  

4. Rights, restrictions 

and 

responsibilities 

LAS are the basis for conceptualising rights, restrictions and responsibilities (RRR) 

related to policies, places and people. Rights are normally concerned with ownership 

and tenure whereas restrictions usually control use and activities on land. Responsibilities 

relate more to a social, ethical commitment or attitude to environmental sustainability 

and good husbandry. RRR must be designed to suit individual needs of each country or 

jurisdiction, and must be balanced between different levels of government, from local to 

national. 

5. Cadastre  The cadastre is at the core of any LAS providing spatial integrity and unique 

identification of every land parcel. Cadastres are large scale representations of how the 

community breaks up its land into useable pieces, usually called parcels. Most cadastres 

provide security of tenure by recording land rights in a land registry. The spatial integrity 

within the cadastre is usually provided by a cadastral map that is updated by cadastral 

surveys. The unique parcel identification provides the link between the cadastral map 

and the land registry, and serves as the basis of any LAS and the land information it 

generates, especially when it is digital and geocoded. The cadastre should ideally include 

all land in a jurisdiction: public, private, communal, and open space.   

6  

6. LAS are dynamic  LAS are dynamic. Dynamism has four dimensions. The first involves changes to reflect 

the continual evolution of people to land relationships. This evolution can be caused by 

economic, social and environmental drivers. The second is caused by evolving ICT and 

globalisation, and their effects on the design and operation of LAS. The third dimension is 

caused by the dynamic nature of the information within LAS, such as changes in 

ownership, valuation, land use and the land parcel through subdivision. The fourth 

dimension involves changes in the use of land information. 

7. Processes  LAS include a set of processes that manage change. The key processes concern land 

transfer, mutation, creation and distribution of interests, valuation and land 

development. The processes, including their actors and their obligations, explain how 

LAS operate, as a basis for comparison and improvement. While individual institutions, 

laws, technologies or separate activities within LAS, such as property in land, a land 

registry, a specific piece of legislation or a technology for cadastral surveying are 

important in their own right, the processes are central to overall understanding of how 

LAS operate.  

8. Technology  Technology offers opportunities for improved efficiency of LAS and spatial enablement 

of land issues. The potential of technology is far ahead of the capacity of institutions to 

respond. Technology offers improvements in the collection, storage, management and 

dissemination of land information. At the same time developments in information and 

communications technology (ICT) offer the potential for the spatial enablement of land 

issues by using location or place as the key organiser for human activity. 

9. Spatial data 

infrastructure  

Efficient and effective land administration systems that support sustainable 

development require a spatial data infrastructure to operate. The spatial data 

infrastructure (SDI) is the enabling platform that links people to information. It supports 

the integration of natural (primarily topographic) and built (primarily land parcel or 

cadastral) environmental data as a pre‐requisite for sustainable development. The SDI 

also permits the aggregation of land information from local to national levels.  

10. Measure for 

success 

Successful LAS are measured by their ability to manage and administer land efficiently, 

effectively and at low cost. The success of LAS is not determined by complexity of legal 

frameworks or sophisticated technological solutions. Success lies in adopting appropriate 

laws, institutions, processes and technologies designed for the specific needs of the 

country or jurisdiction. 

 Figure 2. Ten land administration principles (Williamson, Enemark, Wallace, Rajabifard, 2010) 

 

 

 

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8  

The Land management paradigm allows everyone to understand the role of the land administration functions (land tenure, land value, land use, and land development) and how land administration institutions relate to the historical circumstances of a country and its policy decisions. Importantly, the paradigm provides a framework to facilitate the processes of integrating new needs into traditionally organised systems without disturbing the fundamental security these systems provide. While sustainability goals are fairly loose, the paradigm insists that all the core land administration functions are considered holistically, and not as separate, stand-alone, exercises. Land policy is simply the set of aims and objectives set by governments for dealing with land issues. Land policy is part of the national policy on promoting objectives such as economic development, social justice and equity, and political stability. Land policies vary, but in most countries they include poverty reduction, sustainable agriculture, sustainable settlement, economic development, and equity among various groups within the society. Land management activities reflect drivers of globalization and technology. These stimulate the establishment of multifunctional information systems, incorporating diverse land rights, land use regulations, and other useful data. A third driver, sustainable development, stimulates demands for comprehensive information about environmental, social, economic, and governance conditions in combination with other land related data. The operational component of the land management paradigm is the range of land administration functions (land tenure, value, use and development) that ensure proper management of rights, restrictions, responsibilities and risks in relation to property, land and natural resources. Sound land management requires operational processes to implement land policies in comprehensive and sustainable ways. Many countries, however, tend to separate land tenure rights from land use opportunities, undermining their capacity to link planning and land use controls with land values and the operation of the land market. These problems are often compounded by poor administrative and management procedures that fail to deliver required services. Investment in new technology will only go a small way towards solving a much deeper problem: the failure to treat land and its resources as a coherent whole. Good Governance Governance refers to the manner in which power is exercised by governments in managing a country’s social, economic, and spatial recourses. It simply means: the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented. This indicates that government is just one of the actors in governance. The concept of governance includes formal as well as informal actors involved in decision-making and implementation of decisions made, and the formal and informal structures that have been set in place to arrive at and implement the decision. Good governance is a qualitative term or an ideal which may be difficult to achieve. The term includes a number of characteristics (adapted from FAO, 2007):

 

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10  

Support for 

governance and rule 

of law 

The formalization of processes used for land management engage the public and business, and, 

in turn, this engagement leads to their support for the institutions of government. 

Alleviation of poverty  A primary means of alleviating poverty lies in recognizing the homes and workplaces of the poor, 

and their agricultural land as assets worthy of protection. 

Security of tenure  This is the method of protecting peoples’ associations with land. It is the fundamental benefit of 

formal land administration. Ensuring security throughout the range of tenures used in a country 

helps provide social stability and incentives for reasonable land use. Conversion of some of the 

rights into property is the core process of commoditization of land needed for effective markets. 

Supporting formal 

land markets 

Security and regularity in land arrangements are essential for successful, organized land 

markets.  LAS manage the transparent processes that assist land exchange and build capital out 

of land. 

Security for credit  International financing norms and banking practice require secure ownership of land and robust 

credit tenures (that is, tenures which support security interests in land) that can only exist in 

formal LAS. 

Support for land and 

property taxation 

Land taxation takes many forms, including tax on passive land holding, on land based activities, 

and on transactions.   However, all taxation systems, including personal and company taxation, 

benefit from a national LAS. 

Protection of state 

lands 

The coherence of a national LAS is dependent on its coverage of all land.  Thus management of 

public land is assisted by LAS. 

Management of land 

disputes 

Stability in access to land requires defined boundaries, titles and interests.  If a LAS provides 

simple, effective processes for achieving these outcomes, land disputes are reduced. The system 

also needs additional dispute management processes to cover breakdown caused by 

administrative failure, corruption, fraud, forgery, and transaction flaws. 

Improvement of land 

planning 

Land planning is the key to land management, whether the planning is institutionalized within 

government or achieved by some other means.  Impacts of modern rural and urban land uses 

affect adjoining land and beyond.  These impacts need to be understood and managed by 

effective land planning assisted by LAS.  

Development of 

infrastructure  

Construction of power grids, gas supply lines, sewerage systems, roads, and the many other 

infrastructures that contribute to successful land use, require LAS to balance private rights with 

these large scale infrastructure projects, whether provided by public or private agencies.   

Management of 

resources and 

environment 

Integration of land and resource uses is a difficult aspect of LAS design.  Land and resource titles 

require complicated and mutually compatible administrative and legal structures to ensure 

sustainability in short and long terms. 

Information and 

statistical data 

Each agency needs to appreciate the importance of information generated through its processes 

for the public, business and government generally. More importantly, everyone needs to 

understand the fundamental importance of integrated land information for sustainable 

development.   

 Figure 5. Traditional benefits of Land Administration Systems 

(Williamson, Enemark, Wallace, Rajabifard, 2010) 

 

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6. SPATIALLY ENABLED GOVERNMENT Place matters! Everything happens somewhere. If we can understand more about the nature of “place” where things happen, and the impact on the people and assets on that location, we can plan better, manage risk better, and use our resources better (Communities and Local Government, 2008). Spatially enabled government is achieved when governments use place as the key means of organising their activities in addition to information, and when location and spatial information are available to citizens and businesses to encourage creativity. New distribution concepts such as Google Earth provide user friendly information in a very accessible way. We should consider the option where spatial data from such concepts are merged with built and natural environment data. This unleashes the power of both technologies in relation to emergency response, taxation assessment, environmental monitoring and conservation, economic planning and assessment, social services planning, infrastructure planning, etc. This also include design and implementation of a suitable service oriented IT-architecture for organising spatial information that can improve the communication between administrative systems and also establish more reliable data based on the use of the original data instead of copies. A spatially enabled government organises its business and processes around “place” based technologies, as distinct from using maps, visuals, and web-enablement. This relates to institutional challenges with a range of stakeholder interests including Ministries, Local Authorities; Utilities; and also civil society interests such as businesses and citizens. Creating awareness of the benefits of developing a shared platform for Integrated Land Information Management takes time. The Mapping/Cadastral Agencies have a key role to play in this regard. The technical core of Spatially Enabling Government is the spatially enabled cadastre. 6.1 Significance of the Cadastre The land management paradigm makes a national cadastre the engine of the entire LAS, underpinning the country’s capacity to deliver sustainable development. The role of the cadastre as the engine of LAS is neutral in terms of the historical development of any national system, though systems based on the German and Torrens approaches, are much more easily focused on land management than systems based on the French/Latin approach. The cadastre as an engine of LAS is shown diagrammatically in figure 6.

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1. Multipurpose Cadastre(German style)

1. Multipurpose Cadastre(German style)

2. Title or deedstenure styleCadastres(Torrens/English style)

2. Title or deedstenure styleCadastres(Torrens/English style)

3. Taxation driven cadastre(French/Latin/USA style)

3. Taxation driven cadastre(French/Latin/USA style)

Tenure

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Figure 6. Significance of the Cadastre (Williamson, Enemark, Wallace, Rajabifard, 2010)   

The diagram highlights the usefulness of the large scale cadastral map as a tool by exposing its power as the representation of the human scale of land use and how people are connected to their land. The digital cadastral representation of the human scale of the built environment, and the cognitive understanding of land use patterns in peoples’ farms, businesses, homes, and other developments, then form the core information sets that enable a country to build an overall administrative framework to deliver sustainable development.

The diagram demonstrates that the cadastral information layer cannot be replaced by a different spatial information layer derived from geographic information systems (GIS). The unique cadastral capacity is to identify a parcel of land both on the ground and in the system in terms that all stakeholders can relate to, typically an address plus a systematically generated identifier (given addresses are often duplicated or are otherwise imprecise). The core cadastral information of parcels, properties and buildings, and in many cases legal roads, thus becomes the core of SDI information, feeding into utility infrastructure, hydrological, vegetation, topographical, images, and dozens of other datasets.

7. SUPPORTING THE GLOBAL AGENDA The key challenges of the new millennium are clearly listed already. They relate to climate change; food shortage; urban growth; environmental degradation; and natural disasters. These issues all relate to governance and management of land (Enemark, 2010). The challenges of food shortage, environmental degradation and natural disasters are to a large extent caused by the overarching challenge of climate change, while the rapid urbanisation is a

13  

general trend that in itself has a significant impact on climate change. Measures for adaptation to climate change must be integrated into strategies for poverty reduction to ensure sustainable development and for meeting the Millennium Development Goals (FIG/WB, 2010). 7.1 Climate change and natural disasters Adaptation to and mitigation of climate change, by their very nature, challenge governments and professionals in the fields of land use, land management, land reform, land tenure and land administration to incorporate climate change issues into their land policies, land policy instruments and facilitating land tools. More generally, sustainable land administration systems should serve as a basis for climate change adaptation and mitigation as well as prevention and management natural disasters. Climate change increases the risks of climate-related disasters, which cause the loss of lives and livelihoods, and weaken the resilience of vulnerable ecosystems and societies. Adaptation to climate change can be achieved to a large extent through building sustainable and spatially enabled land administration systems. This should enable control of access to land as well as control of the use of land. Such integrated land administration systems should include the perspective of possible future climate change and any consequent natural disasters. The systems should identify all prone areas subject to sea-level rise, drought, flooding, fires, etc. as well as measures and regulations to prevent the impact of predicted climate change. Key policy issues to be addressed should relate to protecting the citizens by avoiding concentration of population in vulnerable areas and improving resilience of existing ecosystems to cope with the impact of future climate change. Building codes may be essential in some areas to avoid damage e.g. in relation to flooding and earthquakes. Issues may also relate to plans for replacement existing settlements as an answer to climate change impacts. In disaster zones relevant measures should be taken to build the preparedness for managing any disaster events. Land issues are an important component in the emergency relief phase. Land is necessary for emergency shelter and protection of displaced persons, and the selection of sites for emergency shelter can lead to long term conflict or tenure insecurity. Land is also necessary for restoration of livelihoods, and land grabbing after a disaster is a key risk to effective protection and emergency shelter activity. Humanitarian actors are therefore confronted with land issues as they undertake emergency shelter and protection activity (UN-HABITAT/FAO, 2010). Vulnerable countries such as Bangladesh, and most small island states often claim to be the victim of climate change “crimes” caused by the richer part of the world. This issue of global responsibility is in the heart of the current climate change agenda. Loss of healthy life years as a result of global environmental change is predicted to be 500 times greater in poor African populations than in European populations. This global inequity is well presented in figure 7 showing at the top the world in terms of carbon emissions; and at the bottom the world in terms of increased mortality from climate change.

 

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Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education

Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women

Goal 4: Reduce child mortality

Goal 5: Improve maternal health

Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases

Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability

Goal 8: Develop a Global Partnership for Development

Figure 8. The Eight Millennium Development Goals 

Land professionals – such as surveyors and other geospatial professionals – have a key role to play driving land administration systems in support of efficient land markets and effective land-use management. These functions underpin development and innovation and form a kind of “backbone” in society that supports social justice, economic growth, and environmental sustainability. Simply, no development will take place without having a spatial dimension, and no development will happen without the footprint of the land professionals. The MDGs represent a wider concept or a vision for the future, where the contribution of the global surveying community is central and vital. This relates to the areas of providing the relevant geographic information in terms of mapping and databases of the built and natural environment, and also providing secure tenure systems, systems for land valuation, land use management and land development. These aspects are all key components within the MDGs. In a global perspective the areas of surveying and land administration are basically about people, politics, and places. It is about people in terms human rights, engagement and dignity; it is about politics in terms of land policies and good government; and it is about places in terms of shelter, land and natural resources (Enemark, 2006). 7.3 Rapid urbanisation Urbanisation is another major change that is taking place globally. The urban global tipping point was reached in 2007 when over half of the world’s population was living in urban areas: around 3.3 billion people. This incredibly rapid growth of megacities (with more than 10 million inhabitants) causes severe ecological, economic and social problems. It is increasingly difficult to manage this growth in a sustainable way. It is recognised that over 70% of the growth currently happens outside of the

 

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17  

spatial and urban planning, resolving issues such as the resulting climate change, insecurity, energy scarcity, environmental pollution, infrastructure chaos and extreme poverty. In conclusion, the linkage between urban growth, climate change adaptation, and sustainable development should be self-evident. Measures to manage urban growth and for adaptation to climate change will need to be integrated into strategies for poverty reduction to ensure sustainable development.

8. FINAL REMARKS

Land administration systems, in principle, reflect the social relationship between people and land recognized by any particular jurisdiction or state. However, land administration systems are not an end in itself but facilitate the implementation of the land policies within the context of a wider national land management framework. Land administration activities are not just about technical or administrative processes. The activities are basically political and reflect the accepted social concepts concerning people, rights, and land objects with regard to land tenure, land markets, land taxation, land-use control, land development, and environmental management. Sustainable land administration systems provide clear identification of the individual land parcels and land rights attached to these parcels. This information on the people to land relationship is crucial and plays a key role in adaptation to climate change, management of natural disasters, alleviation of poverty, and management of rapid urban growth, The land professionals must be able to take a lead and explain the relevance of land administration, land parcel mapping, SDI and spatial enabled society in relation to the global agenda. The land professionals should engage in “Building the capacity for facing the global agenda”. This is the way forward for achieving political recognition for developing and implementing the technical solutions. REFERENCES

Communities and Local Government (2008): Place matters: the Location Strategy for the United Kingdom. http://www.communities.gov.uk/publications/communities/locationstrategy

Dale, P. and McLaughlin, J. (1999): Land Administration. Oxford Press. London. Enemark, S. (2004): Building Land Information Policies, Proceedings of Special Forum on Building

Land Information Policies in the Americas, 26-27 October 2004, Aguascalientes, Mexico. http://www.fig.net/pub/mexico/papers_eng/ts2_enemark_eng.pdf

Enemark, S. (2005): Supporting Capacity Development for Sustainable Land Administration Infrastructures. The Eighth United Nations regional Cartographic Conference for the Americas (UNRCC-A), 27 June-1 July 2005, New York. http://www.fig.net/news/news_2005/unrcca_2005/enemark_new_york_2005.pdf

Enemark, S. (2010): Land Governance: Responding to Climate Change, Natural Disasters, and the Millennium Development Goals. Journal of Surveying and Land Information Science, Vol. 70, No. 4, 2010, pp. 197-209.

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FAO (2007), Good Governance in Land Tenure and Administration, FAO Land Tenure Series no 9. Rome. ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a1179e/a1179e00.pdf

FIG/WB (2010): Land Governance in Support of the Millennium Development Goals – A new agenda for land professionals. FIG publication no 45, FIG Office, Copenhagen, Denmark. http://www.fig.net/pub/figpub/pub45/figpub45.htm

UN (2000): United Nations Millennium Declaration. Millennium Summit, New York, 6-8 September 2000. UN, New York. http://www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares552e.pdf

UN-ECE (1996): Land Administration Guidelines. UN-ECE, New York and Geneva, 112p. http://www.unece.org/hlm/wpla/publications/laguidelines.html. Updated version in 2005: Land Administration in the UN-ECE Region. http://live.unece.org/index.php?id=10961

UN-HABITAT (2009): Planning Sustainable Cities. UN-HABITAT, Nairobi. UN-HABITAT/FAO (2010): Land and Natural Disasters Guidance for Practitioners. http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?publicationID=2973 UN-HABITAT/FIG (2010): Informal Urban development in Europe: Experiences from

Albania and Greece. UM-HABITAT, Nairobi. Williamson, Enemark, Wallace, Rajabifard (2010): Land Administration Systems for

Sustainable Development. ESRI Academic Press, Redlands, California, USA. http://esripress.esri.com/display/index.cfm?fuseaction=display&websiteID=165&moduleID=0 BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES Stig Enemark is Honorary President of the International Federation of Surveyors, FIG (President 2007-2010). He is Professor in Land Management and Problem Based Learning at Aalborg University, Denmark, where he was Head of School of Surveying and Planning for 15 years. He holds a M.Sc. in Surveying, Planning, and Land Management and before joining the University in 1980 he was a consultant surveyor in private practice for 12 years. He is Past President and Honorary Member of the Danish Association of Chartered Surveyors and he is a well-known international expert in the areas of land administration systems, land management and spatial planning, and related educational and capacity building issues. He has published widely in these areas and undertaken consultancies for the World Bank and the European Union especially in Eastern Europe, Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. For a full list of about 350 publications see: http://vbn.aau.dk/en/publications/searchall.html?searchall=Stig%20Enemark.

CONTACTS Prof. Stig Enemark Department of Development and Planning, Aalborg University, 11 Fibigerstrede 9220 Aalborg, DENMARK Email: enemark@land.aau.dk