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8/8/2019 A2 Chemistry Areas of Difficulty Misconceptions
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EDEXCEL CHEMISTRY
A2: areas of difficulty and
misconceptions
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Energetics• Definitions of lattice energy and enthalpy of atomisation.
• Factors which effect lattice energy (forget size match).
• Born Haber calculations .
• Solubility including Hess’s Law diagram
Group 2 hydroxide.Group 2 sulphates.
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Solubility of calcium bromideThis is a balance between lattice energy and the hydration energies
of the ions.
Ca2+(g) + 2Br-(g)
-∆Hlatt ∆Hhyd 2 x ∆Hhyd
∆Hsolution
CaBr2(s) Ca2+(aq) + 2Br-(aq)
∆Hsoln = -∆Hlatt + ∆Hhyd(Ca2+) + 2 x ∆Hhyd(Br-)
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Periodic Table• Know the equations.
• Explain reactions in terms of metallic character and
bonding.
• Understand the meaning of “amphoteric”.
• Hydrolysis of CCl4 and SiCl4 in terms of d orbitals (carbonhas no 2d orbitals) and steric factors.
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Equilibrium• Expressions for Kc and for Kp.
•
• Units of Kc and Kp.
• What to ignore.
• Calculations – do it in a table.
You must use equilibrium moles.
For Kc convert moles to concentrations.
For Kp convert moles to mole fraction to partialpressure.
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Question10 mol of SO2 and 10 mol of O2 were allowed to reach
equilibrium under certain conditions in a vessel of
pressure 2.0 atm. 80% of the SO2 reacted. Calculate thevalue of Kp under these conditions.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
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Answer
2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3
Initial moles 10 10 0
Equilibrium moles 10 - 8 = 2 10 - 4 = 6 8
Total moles 2 + 6 + 8 = 16
Mole fraction at
equilibrium
2/16 = 0.125 6/16 = 0.375 8/16 = 0.5
Partial pressure = mole fraction x total pressure (2 atm)
0.25atm 0.75atm 1.0atm
K p = p(SO3)
2
= 1.0
2
= 21 atm
-1
p(SO2)2 p(O2) 0.252 x 0.75
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Effect of conditions on the value of K
• K only equals fraction when at equilibrium.
• Increase in temperatureFor exothermic reactions K decreases.
For endothermic reactions K increases.
So fraction has to alter and so position moves.
• Increase in pressure
No effect on K, but fraction changed, so position shifts until
fraction again equals K.
• Catalyst
No effect on K nor on fraction.
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Acid - base equilibrium
• pH = - lg[H+]
• pOH = - lg[OH-
]
• pKa = - lg Ka
• [H+] = 1 x 10-14 / [OH-] or pH = 14 – pOH
• Ignore [H2O] in Ka expression.
• Base all calculations on this expression.
• If solution of acid [H+] = [A-]
• If buffer [HA] = [weak acid] and [A-] = [salt]
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Titration curves
• Read the question carefully & estimate the following
• The pH at the start (acid or base; strong or weak).
• Rule of 2.
• The pH at the equivalence point.• The pH range of the vertical part of the graph.
• The volume at the equivalence point.
• The final pH (strong or weak).• Choice of indicator.
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Organic chemistry
• Grignard reagents
• Made by reaction of halogenoalkanes withmagnesium in dry ether.
• React with carbonyl compounds to form alcohols.
• React with solid carbon dioxide to form carboxylic
acid.
• Hydrolysis with dilute acid necessary.
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Carbonyl compounds
• Aldehydes and ketones.
• Prepared by oxidation of alcohols.
• Test with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine.
• Both react with HCN and with LiAlH4.
• Aldehydes with Fehlings and Tollens.
• Iodoform reaction.
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Organic nitrogen compounds
• Amines
• Preparation from halogenoalkanes and from nitriles.• Reaction with H+.
• Reaction with acid chlorides.
• Be able to write repeat unit for polyamides (andpolyesters).
• Amino acids
• Formula.
• Reactions with acids and with bases.
• Zwitterion and physical properties.
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Reaction mechanisms
• Meaning of curly arrowsStart on atom or bond.
End between atoms forming a bond or on an atom
forming a negative ion.
• Smiley benzene ring.
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Redox equilibrium
• Overall equations always have both reactants on the
right.
• Half equations normally written as reductions (electrons
on left).
• Calculation of Ecell
• Feasibility of reaction; Ecell > 0
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Transition metals
• Origin of colour : light absorbed as electron promoted.
• Deprotonation reactions of aqua ions (including amphoteric
behaviour)
[Cu(H2O)6]2+
+ 2OH- →
[Cu(H2O)4(OH)2] + 2H2O
• Ligand exchange reactions
[Cu(H2O)4(OH)2] + 4NH3→ [Cu(NH3)4]2+ + 2OH- + 4H2O
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Kinetics
• Give reasons when calculating order from initial rate
data.
• Don’t forget the rate constant k in rate equations.
• Total order = sum of the powers to which the
concentrations are raised in the rate equation.
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Organic synthesis
• If the number of carbon atoms in the chain increases,use KCN or HCN or a Grignard.
• Halogenoalkanes react with KCN not HCN.
• Alcohols react with neither HCN nor KCN.
• If the number of carbon atoms decreases, try Hofmann
degradation (of amides), or oxidising an aromatic sidechain to COOH, or the iodoform reaction.
• If you cannot see how to start, work backwards.
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Spectra
• NMR gives peaks due to hydrogen atoms being in
different environments. The chemical shift depends
on the environment and the peak height on thenumber of H atoms in that environment.
• IR gives peaks due to the stretching of chemicalbonds. Look out for C=O (at around 1700 cm-1) and OH
(at around 3200 cm-1).
• Mass spectra. Look out for the peak due to the
molecular ion. This gives you the Mr. Also peak at
(Mr – 15) caused by loss of CH3.
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Resources
• Your teacher.
• Your notes.
• The specification (syllabus).
• Make the Grade (Nelson Advanced Science ISBN 0 7487
7281 2).
• Do Brilliantly A2 (Harper Collins ISBN 0 00 7124 21 X).